aera Teable A aye be duc ll ursigll las Ayggilg ayy Glach paved dpasiats oy gall Ss JSyall cauSiN Cilbata y 2 pails asc} Cum jac Chall f ig hdl sp sant) Adal ad, ANAM ale Quil AS seal dane sual) fg fla gg BILAN wea / og lib OVEAKU -OOTATA - oVtTAYT Gaialt = , Spall Guuthalee pyst OWNERS uta See BA ayREFREGIRATION LOAD CALCULATION Based on the specified or survey data for the job, the total heat gain load of the refrigerated space will be the sum total of the: \ 4... Wall, floor and ceiling transmission load. 2. Air change toad. 3. Product load, 4, Miscellaneous. _ | A10 % safety factor would normally be added before selecting evaporator ant } compressor, | 1- WALL HEAT LOAD | The heat gain througit walls, floor and ceiling will vary with the following | factors:- -_ Type and thickness of insulation. - Type of construction, Outside wail area in square feat, -_ Temperature difference between refrigerated space and outside ambient adjusted to allow for solar heat load on any surface exposed to the sun. ‘The overall heat transfer factors based on the actual wall construction can be calculated, or the tabulated heat gain factors (Table 6) at intervals of overall temperature differences, can be used to simpli iy calculation with those factor: expressed in (Btu / square feet / 24 hours), it is only necessary to multiply by the outside surfaces of the box to obtain the heat load in (Btu / 24 hours). For smail walk-in coolers and freezers, when there are no unusual requirements, the wall load may be taken as the total outside surface times the appropriate wail heat gain factor based on the ambient air tomporature difference. For unusual application and larger coolers, and freezers, it may be necessary to treat each exposed surface separately. Some coolers for above freezing temperatures Have boon constructed with only fior slab (no floor insulation). The heat tos would be subject to toa many variables to accurately predict the factors shown in the wall heat gain 80(Table 6) are based on concrete floor slab and the TO betweon the focal ground temperature and the storaye room temperature For freezers it becomes necessary to provide heat in the base elab to avoic freezing of the ground water and heaving of the floor: Minimum slats temperature should be at lest 40°F, Normally 55°F should be used for freezer applications. 2- AIR CHANGE-LOAD Every time the door of a refrigerated space is opened some outside air will enter the room. This air mist be cooled to the storage room temperature and will therefore increase the load requirements of the room. {Tables 9 and 10) indicate the average number of air changes to be expected Per day for various size coplers and freezers. This information is based on experience, since it is impessible to accurately determine from cay to day, ancl from installation to installazion, just how many air changes will ocour. (For heavy usage the average infiltration may be doubled or more.) For ease of cafeulation the heat removed from a cubic foot of air (Btu / cubic foot) to cool it from outside conditions to storage area temporature has been tabulated (Table 11). The air change load in (Bts/ 24 hours) is arrived at by multiplying the room: volume in cubic feet by the number of air changes per 24 hours times the Btu to be removed per cubic foot of air. The following various means have been employed to reduce the infiltration {air change) load on refrigerated areas, particularly freozere where there is high temperature difforence between the outside and the refrigerated area: - Automatic closing refrigarator doors. ~__Vestibules with outer cold storage doors and inner two way auto - doors, - Refrigerated ante — rooms or vestibules, ~ Automatic closing refrigerator doors with air curtains. But improper adjustment can greatly increase the air exchange and the infiltration load. ~ Outside leading dock doors are fitted with inflated bumpers to seal agains! the body of the refrigerated truck. 3 B‘The initial infiltration rate through an opened door, assuming no wind oF difference in pressure, will be due to the difference in air temperature between the inside and outside air and canbe approximated by taking the resulting average velocity over Ys the height of door and multiplying by ¥ the area of the doorway, For estimating purposes CFM of air = 2.43 * H x Wx D Where H 8 W are door dimensions in feet and TD is the temperature difference in °F. then the instantaneous load will be the CFM times the Btu f cubic foot of air. EXAMPLE For a8” H ¥6" W door on a—10°F freezer with 90°F and 60°F% RH outside ambient: TD equals 90°F + 10°F = 400°F CFM =2.43 «Hx Wx = 2.43% 8x68 x 100" = 3293. CFM From Table 11 Cooling air from 90°F@ 60% RH to-10°F = 3.85 Btu/cubic ft Initial load 3.85%3293 = 12,678 Gtu/min, = 760,683 Btu/he. 760,683 = 63.4 tons 12,000 With a $0°F @ 70% RH ante room the CFM would be reduced to 2854 and the initial load based on 1.73 Btucubie foot of air (fram Table 11) would be reduced to 22.1 tons. This will serve to illustrate why itis so necessary to keep the door openings torminimum. A:10,000 cubic foot freezer at 4.9 air changes per 24 hours figures 49,000 cubic fost of air per 24 hours which would allow an 8 x 6 foot doorto he open a total of only 49,000/3293 CFM or 15 minutes during the day with 90°F outside ambient without exceeding the average air change rate.3. THE PRODUCT LOAD ¢ Products placed in a refrigerated room at a temperature higher than the storage temperature will require the extraction of head until reduced to ste rage: temperature. The calculation of the actual joad will require information on one ‘or more of the following:- * Product specific heat above freezing, * Product head of respiration. Product freezing point. Product latent heat of fusion. ‘s Product specific heat bglow freezing. Specific Heat ~ is the amount of heat removed to lower the temperature of one (1) pound of the product 1°F (specific heat above freezing and specific heat below freezing) Btu °F. Heat of Respiration ~is the aniount of heat given off by products, such as fruits and vegetables, during storage. Since the products are alive, they continually undergo a changein which eneray is released in the form of heat, which varies with the type and temperature of the product. Tabulated values are usually its Btuitb./24 hours, and are applied fo the total weight of product being storeg and not just the daily tum-over. Do not use the maximum values, as the heat ¢f respiration varies wit storage temperature and timo in storage. Use a value close to freezing (32°F) Latent Heat of Fusion :~ is the amount of heat removal at the freezing temperature to freeze one (1) pound of product. (Most praducts have a freezing point in the range of 25°F to 34°F, and if the exact temperature is unknown, it may be assumed to be 28°F. Product load calculations will depend on the type of operation and the amount Of product involved along with the entering product temperature, room temperature, otc.Storage Coolers:- Product Sensible Heat Load Btu/24 Hes, = Tumover Ibs./24 hrs. x TD x Sp. Ht Where: Tumover = Daily product turnover in Ibs /24 hrs. TD = Temperature reduction (figure at least 20°F) Sp. Ht. = Specific heat above freezing (0.8 to 0.9 BturEiIb Storage Holding Freezers (groduct already frozen) Product Sensible Heat Load Btu/24 hrs Turnover Ibs/24 hrs. x TD » Sp. Ht, Where: Turnover Ibs/24 hrs = Daily product turn over in Ibs/24 hrs. TD = Temperature reduction (Figure at least 15°F) Sp. Ht. = Specific heat below freezing ( 0,40 to 0.45 Btu/*Fill:} Any product freezing toad should be figured separately and added to the storage load. For any pull down requirement ess than 24 hours the Gatculated load should be divided by the hours pull- down and multiplied by 24 hours. This will put it on 4 24 hour basis and allow for the additional load rate. (Products to be frozen may be located in a special section of the roam and subjected to an air blast from auxiliary fans.) Freezers (Sharp, Blast and Tunnel) The sensible heat above freezing, the latent feat of freezing, and the seisible heat below freezing would be caléulated and totaled for the produict being frozen, the freezing tine for the product will eopend on: + The type of product. * The product shape, thickness weight and method of arranging on racks etc. * Product packaging, 844 ~ MISCELLANEOUS LOADS All electrical energy dissipated by tights, motors, etc., located in the refrigerated area must be inciuded in the heat toad. Lights — the light toad equals the total fighti ig wattage times the number of hours times 3.41 Btufvatt for incandescent or 4.2 for fluorescent lights. Coolers and freezer are generally figured at 1 to 114 watts per square faot of floor area. Aliow up to double this amount for work areas. A) Motors the heat input trom motors will vary with the motor size, BHP. output, efficiency and whether it is located within, of outside of the refrigerated spaca. The heat equivalent of 1 BHP js 2548 Btu/hr. totor efficiencies vary from 40% and [ess for small fan motors to 60% oF more for integral horsepower motors The motors output will be its BHP x 2545 Btulhr. * hours of operation If the motor is located in the refrigerated area, di offi ide its output by its ney. If the motor is locsted outside the refrigerated area, its inefficiency will be dissipated outside, than only its output will figure in the room load. If the motor is iocated in the room and load is outside, only the inefficiency will be added to the room load. Multiply the output by (4 — efficiency). For motors rated in watts output divide by 746 to obtain the heat equivalent HP rating, See Table 13 heat equivalent of electric motors. B) Material Handling Equipment: — if powered material handing pquipment is used, such as f rklift trucks, this must be included under Motor Heat Loads, Generally only battery operated iift trucks are used in refrigerated rooms, which represent a heat gain of 8,000 to 12,000 Btuwhr. or more over the period of operation. (Lift truck may be assumed as equivatent to 2 4 Hp motor at about 3100 BtultrJHP actual information 1s not available, C) Occupancy load: People working in a refrigerated storage area dissipate heat at a rate depending on the room temperature. The heat oad added to th BD ¢ room will be* > Air distribution and velocity (spacing of product for air distribution ) + Air temperature. Type of freezing operation, Batch freezing (room held below freezing or allowed to warm up.) Continuous freezin For continuous freezers or batch freezers, the 24 hours load would he the hourly freezing load * 24 hours or the total freezing load divided by the freezing time in hours and multiplied by 24 hours (to adjust the load to a 24 hour basis) Freezing times may be calculated (see ASHRAE application Data Book) or based on past experience or tests, In some applications the product goes from the blast freezer into the storago freezer where itis pulled down to final storage temperature. The load on the storage freezer may include not only removal of sensible heat below freezing, but part of the freezing load which was not completed in the blast freezer. This information should come from the customer or the engineer. Chill Coolers —in a meat carcass chill cooler itis essential that the pull down be as rapid as possible without actually freezing the surface of the product During product chilling there is a high rate of moisture transfer from meat products which results in a loss of product weight in addition to surface moisture. After pull down moat product would normally be moved to liolding room with reduced air motion and close control of temperature and hurnicity. Fruits and vegetables have a high of respiration, which will be reduced as the product is brought down to storage temperature. ice Cream Hardening Rooms: — the amount of heat to be removed in the hardening room depend on the % overrun of the Ice cream leaving the ice cream freezer, The ice cream may go direct to a storage freezer for hardening, or may be hardened in a freezing tunnel before going to the storage freezer. The cooling load intposed by packaging, boxing and palietizing plus the heat introduced by conveyors, est., must be included in the product load Niproductioads:equal to the number of peopie, the hours of cecupancy and heat equivalent per person. For multiple occupancies of short duration they will carry additional heat into the room. See Table 12 Heat Equivalent of Occupancy “thine 5 — SAFETY FACTOR Aminimum 10% safety factor is normally added to the total refrigeration load to allow for minor omission gnd inaccuracies, but it should not be assumed this is adequate to care of the evaporator fan load, (Additional safety or reserve capacity may be avaijable from the compressor running time and average loading,} The Total Basic Calculated 24 hour Refrigeration Load Including Satety Fa does not include the evaporator fan or defrost load, which must be evaluated and added to the Basic Load to arrive at the Total Load for the final selection of the Refrigerating Equipmonit. Tables and data required for calculating loads are tabulated for quick reference. SUMMARY OF LOAD CALCULATIONS 1. Wall losses ‘Btul24 Hrs 2. Infiltration Btu/24 Hrs 3, Product Loads Btul24 Hrs 4, Miscellaneous loads Btul24 Hrs «Lights Btul24 Hrs © Motors Btu/24 Hrs * Material Handling — Btu/24 Hrs * Occupaney Btu/2d Hrs 5. Basic Refrigeration Load (1 thru 4) Btu/24 Hrs 6.Safety Factor(10% of Refriggration toad) Biu/24 Hes 7.Basic Refrigeration Load with Safety Factor (5) Btu/24 Hrs 8.Hourly refrigeration load (BtwHr}- Basic daily refrigeration load (Btu/24 Hrs) divided by the compressor operating time in hours per day, 9.Daily and hourly loads must be adjusted for evaporator fan and defrost heat toadsIn the proper application of the evaporator it is most important to insure that there is a balance between the condensing unit and the Jow side, (The evaporators. should be selected to. match the capacity of the sclected compressor and not necessarily the inal calculated toad) the temperature difference between the air to be passed through the: evaporator and. the refrigerant temperature in the coil will determine the conditions which will be maintained a given cooler. FORCED AIR COOLING UNIT LOADS y «Fan Motor input Load in Btu/Hr, times'the Hours of operation The motors will nearly always be located i the refrigerated area, except for some freezing tunnel applications, so the total heat of the motor will apply + Coil Defrost Heat input A portion of defrost heat goes to melt the frost off the coil. Of the balanc: some is dissipated to the room air during defrost and the balance goes to Heating up the drain pan and coil, which are cooled back down when the Cooling unit goos back on refrigeration. For electric defrost coils, figure 60% of the defrost heat goes into the room ‘cad, the amount of heat input will depend on the coil wattage * 3.41 Btu watt, the number of defrosts per day and the length of defrost in fractions of an hour {if actual wattage evaporator rating is not evaporator rating 10°F 7D) For hot gas coils, figure 49% of the heat input of the corresponding electric detrost coil. Defrost heat load in Btul24 hrs = 0.5 or 0.4 x defrost watts x 2.41 Btulwatt « number of defrost per day x defrost time in hours. For 28°F to 35°F roome figure four (4) defrosts per day, and for freezors, at least six (6) defrosts 2 day. Total of 1 and 2 hours defrost time Per 24 hours. Fan motor and defrost loads will vary considerably with the type of evaporator and the application, with 6% to 28% or more of the coil basic rating being added to the heat load of tive room. The propeller fan type unit Goolers generally run less than 100 Blu fan heat per 1000 Blu/Hr rating at 10°F coil TD, but a heavy duty product cooler with deep colls can run 200 or more Btu fan heat per 1000 Btu/He. coil rating 10°TD which can represent up to 36%er moré of the room load 99SELECTION OF THE REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENT:- For quick estimate of total load, including evaporator fan and defrost heats refer to Base Load Method table (Table 4), or the following conventional method may used to select ¢ uipment, The calculated 24 hour total load with 10% safety factor does not include the evaporator fan motor (s) or defrost heat gain, these should be added to arrive at the load which must be balanced by the equipment selection. The additional capacity requirement will depend on the type of evaporator! the TD needod to meet storage requirements of the product, and the defrost requirement of the evaporator. ‘ AMBLENT OR OFF-CYCLE DEFROST: For rooms over 35°F with evaporator temperatures below 30°F, the evaporator fans operate all the time and the compressor selected for 16 hours operation out 24 hours, POSITIVE DEFROST SYSTEMS, ELECTRIC OR HOT GAS:- For medium temperature rooms 28°F to 34°F with moderate defrost requirements (4}- 15 minute defrosts a day (total of 1 hour defrost time) ara usually adequate. The compressor running time is usually fiqured at up to 20 hours and the fan operating time will be 24 hours less defrost arid the delay following defrost to pull the coil back down to room temperature and freeze the free water before the fans come on. Fan motor and defrost heat loads can add 10% or more to the 24 hour base load for a propeller fan unit at a 12°F TD and considerably higher for centrifugal fan units. For freezers, 0°F and below defrost requirements of (8) 20 minute defrosts, a day {total of 2 hour defrost time) would not be unusual, The compressor is usually selected on the basis of 18 hours running time and the fan operating time would be 24 hours less defrost and fan delay time following defrost, The evaporator TD is figured at 10°F or less to minimize frosting of the coil aad dehydration of the product. Evaporator fan motor and defrost hoat can aud 15% or more to the 24 hour base load for the propoller fan units and considerably higher for centrifugal fan type. WAS previously stated the evanorator Shoat be. Selecta ts, SaliaTCe he: COMMESSOL capatily at the TP required ta meet rgem conatians. Keter to table #31 for product classifications and Requirements and table #73 for Heat Equivalent of Electric Motors, To sefect the required evaporator (s) and condensing unit (s) it is necessary to determine: 4. Room temperature and required relative humidity. 2, Evaporator TD to meet product requirements. 3. Allowance for suction line pressure drop penalty in degrees F, table 49. 4. ° Compressor suction = room temperature ~ (Evap. TD + suction line joss) 5. Condensing temperature, 6. Compressor operating time in hours. 7. Fan operating time (24 hours less times off during defrost) Knowing that the operating load will have to include fan motor and defrost heat loads, 1. Select a condensing unit having some excess capacity over the 24 hour base load divided by the compressor running time in hours. 2. Select an evaporator to match the compressor capacity. Do not solect evaporator ut above the required operating TD (apply any capacity correction factors to evaporator ratings) Multiply the fan motor heat in Btu/hr. by the number of hours the fons operate, and add to the 24 hour hase load. 4. Multiply the evaporator total ‘defrost watts, in the case of an electric defrost unit, by 3.41 Btu/H;.!watt and by the hours of defrost time adding 50% of this figure to the 24 hour base load, (For hot gas defrost fiqure about 80% of the electric dafrost load). NOTE: 50% of the defrost heat is assumed assimilated in melting the ice which collects in the pan and goes to the drain. The other 50% is residual and is added to the room load. 5. Divide the adjusted 24 hou; load the compressor running time and check this ure against the capacity balance point of the equipment selected 926. I the capacity of the equipment selected is not equal to or greater than the adjusted hourly load then’itmay be necessary to select another TABLE @ | EVAPORATOR BASE LOAD MULTIPLIERS. ‘ (USE FOR WALIGIN COOLERS & FREEZERS, ae SS are 10°19 16 tary 36 (Total Creulatod Base Roivgor- | ay de fialuds 4 10% sary fector out Icke vaporator fan motor, or Go: stilcads. This ctdtioral capes re ulcerenttrirt be mot by tne condensing EUnltard the evepocator must be seoctee 10 balance “within the requised operating TO. Tllmits:A rough eatinnes con terwav off ant |. 9 |Birial end esror estimaces and revisions can be 50 Sirme“burpose-of-the Gasw-tood mutter | 70 Igvorraneit scl avprGsination te reralids hour oa icc trv ane detion F eat*loics, bY applying a'muttiter to she ‘6 * glotalCaleulated Boer Load, These tlh 3 z ae 2 plas febuleted for Various classes of — [- = eee fvaporatrs,ated'on a fan hea per S00 {Btu/Hr MBH) of evaporator capacity at 4G" TOf6r9 bes Volante ance ronge of | evaporsioe. U's, The base foal x ee aller comprestor renning time gies wie | | 100 Btuhnrslond for seecvon of coors s76 evacoratr(s (See Table Hof sei VEVAP. FAN HEAT IW eTUAIR. 1 MBHEVAPRATING AT IGF TD | [L. \nwre2EVAPFAN HEAT= 10 NO. FANE=NOTORHeEA x eru/PmR (Evap. Specifications) (Table 13) NO. FANSxWATTS(INPUT) x:.41 OTUMR, (evap, Specificaions) pation: dalcen Tate. oneieaeraocaos aes be Piette Delest 20 he tomerermrasaater aes oe ange GE [Eerie Drtont, eae amare Daltost 18 hn comareanor operTABLE & WALL HEAT GAIN TAULE (BTU/24 He iSq. Fr. oF C atid Surtsen) TREULATION J. _-VEMPERATONE DIFFERENCE INF [AHOIENT TEMPEWA TURES SORAGY FiuIpTEAPO NE) SES Thiek] T 1 ei Tol aeleg @ is Inehas|k Facter|| | 10 |20] 30] 40 | as fo | ss | oo os fro e590] 95 | 100/495] 110 435 | 120] 125 + j = =a ‘ aca | | {| 3 349, 3| zeal giz hall 1a) 211) Be) 2 |2c0 20 07 tea! teu] 209,18 selzee| 205| 2] 10} 8216/2049 als 180) 165] 140/195! 9101928] 240| 256 2 420] 155) $4a/rae| ealyao|z02| os ae) tee) 08|tae| ater! |e fe "Bs 15 ta et 723] Ta) va) oa 103) 17] 129) 1 fied 3 8] aa) “zeltog 138 &| 3] aaa tea 3 8) GL 2 20) 99) Toaltr7] vzah asl ieah 33}, | ‘0! 3a] toe 3120) 198 4 ‘ 83] o| 23) 18) aa ea] Belge £3] S8)..8| cay bal 921 $9] 2 | 45] 3] $2] 831 | aa] Ft 73) 79) 7| ea] tain} iig a] ae) 92) 5 fol 83] esl a % ‘ = = 7 2 FH . 3 i 8 : a 7 36] 10 | 3s foo | 6/12) 27} 30) hae fess [es] 14 20] 33) Be [ose [82145 3 3, v2 | pose ys aa Zz} 20| oss | 5] ia] 31 3) BT 38 lose Gus] 27 favo Hao] 30 |v009 aes [aso T | x petite cise || 14 [110 #20 sa] '<40| 209 [300 'c10] 0) 715 [oleae] aa9{zaeleon hoso|sion\r mn jaialiaze\v4c0 1475 eple Gif 17 [73 ido} st0| $50 | 320 | 39] ago] $36] ads dsalsoe| aa saefens | 9ea| 10s) Sao 3's ee, Le Ganeree Foor Sb] For 6.078 inc cance fier an the\raurd alte i hw TO beretn to marae sumer ground oe, or othe gaunt Sox tem hte Hot fr freters fr sont oparte sees cress Vode ose eee SNS Sar sed Were sit svehnes ae tO ea Foran ras 7 tia 5 | 60 120] 80 | 240 [29 fee les Pes] spe | oo se Be ee Frsfation "= 0.30 Coke, 16 Soraye! Uatie. Factor in Btu Hes, FufOeG Flack ASHFINE 1977 Fundarcenae - Rea 9.28 Fitweatene Styratenny, Papo SsTABLE @ ALCOWANCE FOR SUN EErzey {Fateaheit degreds to be added 10 the normal wihparitle difference for heat leakage ealeulations to commarnee TABLE > weneffect- nat to be used for air eendiuioning design MINIMUM INSULATION THICKNESS te 5 Ee] Sean [ave | Fa SoBe pet ies) at | ar AND Ak cao sions a ar ‘Cork oF saivalent alates “ ‘Slatarosting a Tarrocting * a : |_Etaa pats ze Meche ccleroT aac paras ! ‘Uneaned ena i Brice ee ite ig Ugh colored surtses, suchen | ‘eiriaion Wie rane i Lott ctarad cement & eet et nite sane | ASHAAE 1972 Fandsmanah > Reprinted by pormistion ASHRAE 1979 -Aeorieeatvy TABLE 9 AVERAGE AIK CHANGES PER 24 HOURS FOR STORAGE ROOMS ABOVE 22°F Bue t9 oor Opening and Infiteration ‘Ae Chanaee] Watarme | atrCuanpon Pe | ee aatee | oo] 200 35,000 | || rom | 702 Bee! |e ae | [ aoae aco | 138 case 4000 NOTE: Tor heavy wane sult the sbove valuss by O ASHAAE 1967 Fundomend '1- Reprinted by cermiuion < HOURS Fo} R STORAGE ROOMS RE LOW 32% Dus to Doct Opening an id Infiltration ‘Ai Shares] Volume Perattins | Cocke Re Gisrsea] Vans Per 26s | Cu Re Teese] NOTES, © 3t htowy saan oultaly sve shove valny yy eoOey 9 Long srvago mulealy Ne abana eee ee BsTABLE 11 HEAT REMOVED IN COOLING AIR TO REFRIGERATOR CoNDITIONS BTU pee eu. f Bf Daistdets rey er] Spe eon era TTS OU Ia AIS wes [io [oat Tan ae 50 | 60 am Zia | 25” Joa | cas [ors loa |aea 2.44220 {ose | 0.61 [0910.99 262 1s 6 [265 Pests (0.71 | 0.75 | 105] 1.12 [3.80. 212 |2aa|2a7 [2.05 | ¥10_ Joss} oes |1.ta{ tar aes Zit [ae | 267 5 ose | 1.02] 194] 142 [ac 2.85, 112 1.56 [3.28° [20 [01 | 2.05 ie ae 135 8 1s) € Guide and Data Book, 1901", ea ws far . 790 | 1.95 TABLE 12 HEAT EQUIVALENT OF OCCUPANCY Wont Saga stone far Pion, Buh When people ener a catigersted space for shor: euratons, they catty with than 4 consdorabie aroun of heat oes ‘end above ci usted In Table 12. Same olowsance must ‘age afte toad ot this type le heery. ASHIAE 1077 Fundimonite = Reprod by prmvevon TABLE 13 HEAT EQUIVALENT OF ELECTRIC MOTORS Tanna Tome Coneeer ‘toad tees tet ences in oie io eee Aetrivrtnd Soe} tls Space _| neti Sones ar Sunt Buiieie, | wulebit. TROHF B00 THe Wise $700 iene Hoo }__ine we _ TWso20 2505 aes ‘For mowors rea i Watts Gapeal multialy Wats by aT Bwiite ‘Aca gwen tan speed the tan wil a.given coils any ar faeasraty iver aparaxdmsney the sno aie “ies Joveae the st cemaeratufe the grearer the see of air honed bythe fan at & iver ta apne. The an horsoawe! wil Yay devetv wh drs een Tho inceassc heat wissioaton of ute mator at the Iqwtel ternsersturay ollHt ® For stitutes abave ai blow 3 tv, 0TABLE 1 FOR COOL USAGE HEAT GAIN DTU PER 24 HA. FOR ONE CU, FI siutire doronco jam us: RS ONLY INFERIOR capa’ af Sa wm ae 2 ae x ze | 250 [ast ee are | Sos 2 tos} isz Be | He |e 196 ee | 38 | aoa vss’ | a2 | 30 | See | 259, vo" | Go| 950. 3 | Se | Fa 7s | 33.0| 388 ‘Average 730 | a0 | ane Long storage 576 | 200 | Sea kong storage aos | teh | 202 | Long stora, 205 | 122 | te kona stornga, 20 | ‘Ba | de za00" | Lonastorage 37 Seicoe ree tora 28 75.008 Tong storege 76 | $0 yooooo | tenasterege | 173 | ase “Fotaverageand hay sanice, produ low Funrmentais = Reprinted bv neemasion TABLE 16 AVERAGE DAILY PAGDUGT LOADING IN LBS FOR STORAGE COOLERS AND Faceze as ARC oo Pees ‘sbasud on product entering a 10 dea above he whigom PER CU. FT, Dally Freda Gooding LeaJeu. FoF tate Ve [Cooter] Tor buiegisg vrecac ve hao dopo | 33 | ra qt cas 327 | oerTABLE 314 STORAGE RFOUIREMENTS ANO PROPERTIES OF ISHABLE PRODUCTS east Ptotese| “Seecitie | Specie] Cater Freni:) Het | Heake.| ‘as Rest Asproximew | water [Ting | Abore | dete} (bas Stora Content | Foi | Frotsing |Fecernc | ‘avo Soomaaey | PRE am |e | suiee [emebe | aoa | ] Roster | Aoricees i rocadon Staseerries | sos | Iiaeberres Bi Cherras 2 | | Comet io Eval 2 i 24 [iso-260|— Toa om 2a” | are 1 Gad Someta ws | as ea | 308 | Seas (Ghapiae 20) | | eee Is Tee Fs = mame jas | as 29 BE lsees A | songoes =F | sts Canatouve 0 [ws a0 Jonaytew and Honey Batt aba 49 | 83-90 5 weeks | wating Sane wat Tan Pe tata eineTABLE ain STORAGE HEOUIA EVENTS AND PROPERTIES OF FeRiSHABLE PRODUCTS (conTINUED) T ‘ake [Spastic | Spastic Cala |"Beo | Ste! | Heat | Mae Ser, | Sane | atiiy| r@wninne | racy | Th” | ate’ ene | Maa AER | Tape | Pee) Sere | enn | sed | ciety | ea, | a Commity eee _Lawanre [aeenure | Blah hota aver iGo 8e [Sees piney Jem tGren orarass | 12. $2 20 ‘Gina $0830 ewes 40-560 | “sonen Topped | rset eet, | creer bans istwoome pe, teh ‘ab Ppers | S0er3 hi ey) sect potatoes | Peter 8 | Je Ponkine ildieapring, prepacianad|} FABLE Sic STORAGE HEQUINENENS AN PROPERTIES OF PERISHABLE PROQUCTS conrineD) i 2 Specilic Taghatent af heat || som | mine |apponinan | We ais | . pr | Mila “ie | cee, | obit) Atom dow tae | eee | TP Maglay “TS ee | Persea | eres ee be MEATS Fa —GHETERGH [= —_ : oe | 37 22s RRB en: ae i Bess solos] Cores, | tn Sit ovat | 34 [aa a aoe | see 34 ate eee 3 Pract I | ae | ss tab? | 1 suns ares =H [otras ia | [799 pe ae lee eZ mone 8-8 months Ponta mer Soni | SoBe r5% Chame, Shot Shuched we 2 saiteia tied [ago apie leasing 0120 C058 x % warer Hee TARA sieve eS He METE74 and 1972 Funeoniriats a looFABLE 31D STORAGE REQUIREMENTS AND PROPERTIES OF PEHISHABLE PRODUCTS (continuen) ‘Specilic | Latent Ersering | tnvea) [seem | oe “one Tira ‘Sutter Coney Cater (Tb) (ke Asean ‘ed Spray Alearne stars, vt (ane tabin J “sMlooiene | retosheck = 8.20 rODGH x % waiee in 059 1 HaI TABLE 42 MEATS OF RESPiATION (APPROK) fr Fonavaa neo | = sTona eto eee ATURE | VEGETABLE Ce Bab hee | aae-08s ae BT at Beane, Urea Bena Fn Een Senior 0 aoe oer ie Honseragicts . Koning Eerke [Potstses, maar eotatoes Mators oes, Swat Mewes, xed Gaver, Tab Note A fuM EQUIPMENT EFFICIENCIES: EpnWensing units, packaged chillers endl au condany une Ail etlicincues are eweasured by the Energy Ouse Eneray Input Ravi ol En Output to Energy Input 8. COP, Coefficient of Performance b. EER, Energy Efficiency Ratio Density of water Specific Hest of Wacer Latent Heat of Vaperization 624 Lbsicu 1 Bulb PE 1054.5 Bu/la, at, 70°¢ ere et eas clutbire tatent Hitt it Len 1a Btu Lsaton fA ry Water Bite 1 Pound! at Water F000 Graing REFRIGERATION TERMINOLOGY (CONTINU lincudie compressord PROPERTIES OF WATER AT 39. 810. Btu. at 2199 8) ¥ Asem ED) N. FORMULAS FOR HEAT ThaNsreR eQuIpA ae Based on Standard Avr et sea tevel Provartio. of Stonelurd ©. my phete Pressure (29,82" Hg) Aue al 20°F and $ Specific Volume = Density Specifi 0.281 Boul A Ove CFM Standard Air 45 Lhaihie “Standard Air for any Altitude is at 70°F 2 NOMENCLATURE @ = Hear Flow in Brostts T Temperature in "F {AT = temp. Diferopaa G = specitie Hent Bru/tb, A = Arsain Sa. Fe U > Goel. of Heat Transter in. tui. ha AO HF Total Hat af AicatWies Bulb Teme Bull {AH = Enthatpy difference enwean unten ing ana leaving ai.) D1 oenstyin Losey, Fe SH = Specific humidiey in ga Waissure/ia. ary aie (GSH = Specitie: Kumicivy. sitter ing leaving air} iain nc fa in CONVERSION FACTORS (co USED IN, (ust bs Con Water 500 = 9.93 Ibs. dgal. x 60 min 1 Air 5 = -_ 80min “? USTaaben hile 108 = 4.650261 ature dog = 45210543 Btuny, 700 gr, Water Heating, Coating & Heat Reclaim NSTANTS) STANDARD CALCULATIONS rected for Other than Standard Properties} + (Converts GPM te ius.tney (Gorverts trom CPM to lbs.che.) (Pounds pir Hour x 8p, He. of Air) (2.5 combined wich heat of vapocieg ton of mater at 70°F anu grains ner Pound of water) Coils, Water Chillers, Condensers, Exe } © S00» GPa ar Buuren ! as Ol * Say era ! For brines, 500 x GPM x AT» (Sp, Hex Sp. Gr, of Brine) = Baur ; Air Coils QSensible = 1.08x Cex AT = Beastie Qlatent’ = o68« CEMxASH © Bluse OTent = 45x CEMK AH «Brome LAN, Condensate SHE Sensi Hose Ravie « Teanamission QToul = UxAS Product Sensibie Heat it Btu ser stent Haat in Btw fh Tear ot Meapiratins in Baud free ayFANS This chapter presents information to guide the engincer in the pi application of fans used to produce ractical used in air conditioning systems. A fan is a device 2 flow of air. Use of the term is limited by definition to devices producing pressure differentials of less than 28 in.wg, at sea level. 1- TYPES OF FANS Fans are identified by two groups: 1 Centrifugal.in which the air lows radially thru the impeller. Centrifugal fans are classified according to wheel blading; forward-curved, backward-curved and radiat (straight). 2 Axial flow, in which the air flows axially thru the impellér. Axial flow fans are classified as propejler (disc), tubeavial and vaneaxial, Figures 1, 2a, 2b and 2c show the various types of commonly appited fans. shuece Coates nes Fur Fie Crviiieuesn, Fa1-1 - APPLICATION When a duct system is needed in an air conditioning application a tubeaxial, vaneaxial or centrifugal fan may be used. Where there is no duct system and little resistance to air flow, a propelier fan can be applied. However, self-contained equipment often utilizes centrifugal fans for applications without ductwork, The centrifugat fan is used in’ most comfort applications because of its wide range of quiét, efficient operation-at coniparatively pressures. in addition, the centrifugal fan’inlet can be readily attached to an apparatus of large cross-section while’ the discharge’ is easily Connected to relatively small duets. Air flow Gan be varied to match aie distribution system requirements by simple adjustments to the fan drive or control devices. Axial ‘flow faris are excellent for large air volume applications where higher noise levels are of secondary concern. They are, therefore, often used for industrial air conditioning ‘and ventilation. These high velocity ins require guide vanes to obtain the best efficiencies when operating against pressures considered normal for’ centrifugal fans. However, these fans may be applied without guide vanes, igure (3) illustrates the approximate sound power level of a tyoical centrifugal fa rand an axial flow fan. The frequencies detectable by the human car ( 309 to 10,000 cycies per s nd ) are the least favorable for the axial flow fan. Therefore, to obtain acceptable sound levels with the axial flow fan, sound attenuation may be required. ie ae | seThe Concept of specific: speed is useful in describing the applications of various fan types. Specific speed is a fan performance index based on the fan speed, capacity and static pressure. Figure (4) shows the ranges of specific speed in which six types of centrifugal and axial flow fans operate at high static efficiencies. This figure indicates that forward-curved blade centrifugal fans attain their peak efficiencies at low speeds, low capacities and at high static pressures, However, propeller fans roach high efficiency at high speeds a na capacities and at tow stati pressures, The horsepower characteristics of the various fans are such that a ty may be overloading or nyn overloading. The backward-curved blade centrifugal fan is a non overloading type. The forward-curved and radial blade centrifugal fans may overload. Axial flow fans may be either non overloading or yverloading. All fan types may be utilized for exhaust service. Wall tans Operate against litle or no resistance and therefore are usually of the propeller type. Propeller fans are sometimes incorporated into. factory-built Penthouses or roof caps, Hooded exhaust fans and central station exhaust fans are typically of the centrifugal type. Axial fans may Suitable for exhaust applications, particularly in factory installations. OTE: spevize speed Bie.4 ~ SmeiiaSrers Ranoes log1-2. CENTRIFUGAL FANS Centrifugal fans are identified by the curvature of the blade tip. The forward-curved blade in the direction of rota ion ( fig. $a ). The radial blade has no curvature ( fig. 5b). The backward-curved blade tip inclines backward, curving from the direction of rotation ( fig. 6c ). The curvature of the blade tip defines the shape of the horsepower and Static pressure curves, The characteristics of the three main types sentrifugal fans are listed in Table (4). A) FORWARD-CURVED BLADE FAN A typical performanca of a forward-curved blade fan fs shown in (fig. 6 }. The pressure rises from 100% free delivery toward no delivery with a characteristic dip at low capacities, Horsepower incre. ses continuously with increasiag air quantity. B) BACKWARD-CU :D BLADE FAN A Ypical performance of a backward-curved blade fan is shown ia (fig. 7 }, The pressure rises constantly from 100% free delivery to nearly no delivery. There is no dip in the curve, The horsepower curve Peaks at high capacities. Therefore, a motor celected to satisfy the maximum power demand at a given fan speed does not overload at any Point on the curve, providing this speed is maintained Tow modification of the backward-curved blade fan are the airfoil backward-inclined blade fans. and Fre. 5 — Faw BeanesTABLE 1-CHARACTERISTICS OF CENTRIFUGAL FANS FAN TYPE ADVANTAGES notre “_ Forward-curved““1- uns at felatively low speed tompared Ta atlaiyped Torii Sune capacity. 2: smuller fan fora given duty, excellent for tan-coil unit self-cleaning. 2+ can he designed for high structural strength to achieve high speeds and pressures Backward-ctirved Mors efficient. # Horsepower curve has a flat peak $0 thet the motor may be sized to Cover the complete range of operation trom zero t6 100% air floy fora single Nonovertoading. ++ Pressure curve is generally steoper than that of the forward curved fan, This results ina smaiter change in air volume for any variation in system pressure for selections of comparable percenta fee delivery, ges oF fency is to the right of the pressure peak allowing efficient fan selection with a built-in pressure reso 5- Quieter than other types. These are illus types. rated in ( fig. Sd and Se ) Both are nonoverioading The airfoil blade fan is a high officioncy fan because. its aerodynamicaily shaped blades permit smoother air flow thru the Wheel. Itis normally used for high capacity, high pressure applications where power savings. may outweigh its higher first cost. Since the efficiency characteristic of an airfoil blade fan usually peaks more Sharply than those of other typos, greater care is required in its Selection and application to a particular duty. The backward-inctined blade fan must be selected closer to free delivery; therefore, it dose not have as great a range of high efficiency operation as does the backward-curved blade fan, Manufacture of an inclined. blade is understandably a simpler operation. 103Fis. 6 — Fokwaen Graven Beane Fan Paavonscance Fig. 7 Baekeweaits Cuive Buaivs Porpoxe user C) RADIAL BLADE FAN Typical performance of a radial (straight ) blade fanis shown in (NG. 8). The pressure characteristic is continuous at all capacities, Horsepower rises with increasing air quantity in an almost directly Proportional relation. Thus, with this type of fan the motor may be overloaded as free air delivery is approached. The radial blade fan has efficiency, speed and capacity characteristics that are midway between the forward-curved and backward-curved blade fans. It is seldom used in air conditioning applications because it lacks an optimum characteristic. FIG, 8 — RADIAL BLabe BAS Pruronesiaver WwFig. 11 — Axta1 Flow Fan Penronveaxce D) AXIAL FLOW FANS, (Fig. 9.) shows 2 performance characteristic typical of a propelter fan. The tubeaxial fan is common axial flow fan in a tubular housing but without inlet or outlet guide vanes. The blade shapo maybe flat or curved. Of single or double thickness. The axial flow fan has become Particularly associated with the vaneaxial type which has guide vanes before oF after the fan wheel. To make moré effective use of the quicie vanes, the fan wheel usually has curved blades of single or double thickness. ( Fig. 10 )is a sectional view of the Vaneaxial fan, The curved Stationary diffuser vanes are the type most frequently used when higher efficiency vaneaxial fans are desired. The purpose of these vanes is to recover a portion of the: energy of the tangentially accelerated air. Typical performance of an axial flow fan is shown in ( fig. 11 ). ELE ee © Bre.) Peatesiine Faw Pu oascanes iyo3. FAN DESIGNATION CLASS OF CONSTRUCTION The AMCA has developed standards of centrifiugal fan construction based on the pressure the fans are required to develop. The four classes of fans appear in ( Table 2 ). Each of the various fan manufacturers has defined his own maximum wheel tip speed for each class. The required fan class can be determined from { chart 1 ) if outlet velocity and static pressure are known. Calculation of velocity Pressure and total pressure is thus eliminated: This chart is based on standard air { 29.92 in. Hg, barometric pressure and 70° F temperature). if nonstandard conditions of temperature and ailtitude are encountered in an application, the calculated static pressure should be corrected before entering { chart 4). This procedure is described in the section entitled fan selection. See Example 3, Minimum first costs can often be achieved by using a larger size fan of a given class than by choosing a smaller fan size of a higher class. if a selo jon lies on the border tine, both alternatives should be considered ASSES OF COSTRUCTION) Centrifugal fans Z cass MARTI a PRESSURE 7 in.w9 standard I © in. mg — standerd \ 124in.wa ~standard v More then 127, in.wo- tern mended Some manufacturers offer packaged fans and motors which are not defined in terms of classes. These packages are made of class | or ti Parts, modified slightly to frold the motor within the fan base, The fan package is less expensive than the equivalent Class | or il fan and is satisfactory for most applications, Packaged fans aro also offered in construction lighter than Class 1. Manufacturers‘s specifications. usually distingui h between light and heavy construction. A pressure class standard pertaining to centrifugal fans mounted in Cabinets has also been published by AMCA. Cabinet fans are 407 ; OE RNER NGcommonly used with central station fan-coil equipment. The three Classes of such fans are defined in { Table 3 |. CHART T-CONSTRUCTION CLASS PRESSURE LiniTs al ee Boos ‘ TABLE 3-CLASSES OF CONSTRUCTION Cabinet fans Tes A ig 8 ' Shin. we c Move than Sin. veg Fan class nomonelature does not apply fans used in fan-coil terminal where the manufacturer limits such fans to a particular maximiim speed and Static pre: Hz4- FAN ARRANGEMENTS Centrifugal fan drive arrangement, standardized by AMCA, refers to the of the fan wheel to the bearinas and the number of fan inlets. ( Fig. 12 | indicates the various arrangements. The fan drive may be direct or by belt. With the exception of packaged fans and motoys, direct drive is seldom omployed in air conditioning applications pecause of the greater flexibility afforded by the beltdrive. Arrangements 1, 2 and 3 are commonly used for air conditioning. The remaining choices are modified versions of arrangements 1 and 3. Double inlet fans for belt drive are available in arrangement 3 and 7. in selecting a suitable fan arrangement first cost and space requirements are considered. Single inlet fans are usually less expensive in the smaller sizes while double inlet fans are lower in cost in the larger sizes. For the same capacity a single inlet fanis about 30% taller than double inlet type; but only about 70% as wide. Arrangement 3 is the most widely used because the bearing location eliminates the neces: ty for a bearing platform. Cost and required space is therefore minimized. For single inlet applications arrangements 1 and 2 are used where the fan wheel is less than 27 inches in diameter. Arrangement 3 is not used since the bearing on the inlet side is large enougt;, relative to the inlet area, to atfect fan performance. Fans of large; sizes and double inlet fans are not limited in this way. Arrangement 1 is usually more costly than arrangement 2 because it has two bearings anda base. Where Class 141 construction is required, Arrangement 1 is preferred over Arrangement 2. If Arrangement 3 is to be uséd at air temperatures exceeding 200 F or Arrangement 1 or 2 at temperatures exceeding 300 F, the tan manufacturer should be consulted so that the proper bearing or heat slinger can be specified. Table 4 compares the costs of fan and drive for several single inlet arrangements. Selections are based on a constant air quantity and static pressure.TABLE 4-ARRANGEMENT COST COMPARISON ARRANGEMENTS, |” MATERIAL COSTS “tints ofvaiie eck ig firs | "7 117 as | 100 100 | 424 won (Fig. 13 ) shows the mator positions possible for a beit-driven fan Use of positions W and Z results in the simplest construction of fan base and belt guard. | Fig. 14.) shows the standard rotation and discharge combinations available, HG. 11~ Rorsniox sy Dactarer 5Axial flow fans are available for belt drive or direct connections Therefore, two. arrangements have been stancardized throughout the industry. Arrangement 4 is riven directly. Since the motor is in the air Stream, the application of this arrangement is limited to the handling of air which will not damage the motor. Arrangement 9 is belt-driven, with the motor located outsidg of the air stream and the drive protected, FAN PERFORMANCE Fan performance curves: show the relation of pressure, power input and fan efficiency for a desired range of air volumes. This relation based on constant speed and air density. Static rather than total Prescure and efficiency are usually ‘inferred. Static pressure best represents the pressure useful in overcoming resistance. However, static pressur ess applicable where the fan outlet velocity is high. Further, if the fan operates against no resistance, static Pressure is meaningless. In these cases total mechanical efficiency is used, Fan Performance may be expressed as percentages of rated quantities or in ferms of absolute quantities. The former method is illustrated in fig. 6,7,8,9 and 14, LAWS OF FAN PERFORMANCE Fan faws are used to predict fan performance under changing Operating conditions or fan size. They are applicable to all types of fans, The fan laws are stated in Table 6. the symbols used in the formulas represent the following quantities Q-Volume rate of flow thrui the fan. N-_ Rotational speed of the impeller, P— Pressure developed by the fan, either static or total, Hp — Horsepower input to tho fan. D~ Fan whee! diameter. The fan size number may be us itis Proportional to the wheel diamotor, W- Air density, varying directly as the barometric pressure and inversely as the absolute temperature Mdin addition to the rest tions noted in ( Table 5 ), application of these laws Is limited to eases where fans are geometrically similar and where there is no change in the point of rating on the performance curves Because of the’ latter qualification, fan efficiencies are agsumed constant, ; Geometrically similar fans are those in which all dimensions. are Proportional to fan wheel diameter. The samo point of rating for tow fans of different size means that for each fan the pressure and air volume at the point of rating are the same fraction of shutoft pressure and volume at tree delivery, provided the rotational spaed ie the same in either case. For example, an operating point on fig.7 will not change with the application of laws 7 thru 9, even though specific values will change, Example 1 - Use of laws 4 thru 3 Given: Air quantity — -33,120 cfm Static pressure -1.5in. wa Fan speed —-362 rpm Brake horsepower -10.5 Find: Capacity, static pressure and horsepower if the speed is in creased to 440 rpm, Solution: Capacity =33,120%(440/382)=38,150 cfm Static pressure =1.5%(440/382)=2.0 in.wg Horsepower — =10.5%(440/382)°=16.1 bhp iFVaRIAgLE SPEED Fan size CONSTANT Aie density tan | size gistabution systein Air density tip speed Air density speed | distribution system distribution sysiem o the speed | Pressure vanes as the square ofthe speed Horsepower varies as the cubs of the | seed “| Capacity and > | hersepower vary as | the square of the S| Speed varies | inversely ac tho | | fan size | fa : constant, Capacity varies as | the cube of the size. ressure varies as | | the square of the eases 2 Presse fan size ag Capacity fav Size | 47 Bressiire and Horsepower va as ith power of the ‘Speed, capacity | ~ and horsepower | vary inversely as the square root of density, horsepower vary as) | the density \wire 14, 44" Inez: Anta = 24a FAN CURVE CONSTRUCTION Fan performance is usually’ presented in tabular form (Table 6} However, for a graphic analysis performance curves are’ more convenient to use. If no curves are available, tabular values of pressure and horsepower may be plotted’ at constant speeds over the given range of capacities. The resulting curves may then be used as described under fan performance in a System. TABLE 6-—TYPICAL FAN TASLE curvea FAN PERFORMANCE IN A SYSTEM SYSTEM BALANCE Any air handling system consists of a particular combination of ductwork, heaters, filters, dehumidifiers and othor components. Each system therefore has an individual! pressure-volume characteristic which is independent of the fan applied to the system. This relation may be expressed graphically on a coordinate system identical to that of a fan performance curve. A typical system characteristic is shown in fig.15. System curves are based on the law which states that the resistance to ait flow (static pressure) of a system varies as the square of the air volume flowing thru the system. In practice a static pressure is calculated as carefully as possible for a given system at the required air quantity. This establishes one of the system curve. The remaining points are obtained by calculation from the above law, rather than by further static pressure calculations at other air quaritities. 7When a fan performance curve for a given fan size and speed is Superimposed upon a system characteristic ag in fig. 15, there is only one Point of intersection. This point is:the only possible operating point uncer the conditions, if the fan speed is in creased, the Point of operation moves upward toward the right, If the speed is decreased, the operating point Moves down and to the left. (Fig. 15 ) illustrates the effect on system performance of operation at other than design conditions. Such a situation could be caused by dirty filters, wet coil versus. dry coll operation ‘of. the dehumidifier; or the modulation of a damper. Lines of constant brake horsepower have bean included for ease of analysis, Example 2 describes the anaiysis, Point O is the design point: Point A and B are new operating points resulting respectively from an increase or decrease in system resistance, Points A and B are single points each of two new system characteristics Example 2- Operation Abovy Design Static pressure Given: Air quantity ~ 3300 cfm Static pressure 4.5in.wg Fan Speed + 1000 rpm Fan performance fig.15 x oFind Air quantity, static pressure and brake. horsepower if the resistance of the filters is 0.15 in.wg. greater than estimated for design Solution: 1+" from design point O(fig.76)rise vertically to pointy at a static prassure of 1.85 in.wg. (4.5 + 0.15 ) and 3300 cfm. 2. Since the fan operates at 1000 rpm, proceed to the 1000 rom fan curve along a line parallel to tke system characteristic. At the new operating Point A the fan delivers (0 the system, 3175 cfm at a static pressure of 1.5 in.wg. The required power input at the new conditions ie 4.4 bhp PRESSURE CONSIDERATIONS An analysis simitar to that of Example 2 indicates that overestimating the Static pressure increases the required horcepawer. Operation in this case is at point B of ( fig.15 ), rather than at point O. therefore, the addition of a safety factor to the calculated static Pressure tends to increase fan horsepower requirements unrjecessarily. The static Pressure used to select @ fan should be that pressure calculated for the system at the design air quantity. If the static pressure is overestimated, the amount of increase’ in horsepower and air volume depends upon the steepness of the fan curves in the area of selection,{ Fig:18 ) show that voluine deviations may be large if the fan curve is relatively flat With a steep sressure characteristic, pressure differences may have little effect on air vlume and horsepower. For this reason a fan with a steep performance curve is well suited to a system req) ring an air volume relatively independent of changes in system resistance. An example of such a system is an induction unit primary air systom, Conversely, a variable volume system requires a pressure nearly constant with changes in air volume. Yhus, a fan with a cornparatively flat pressure Characteristic is more appropriate, STABILITY Fan operation if it remains unchanged after a slight temporary disturbance or if a slight permanent disturbance produces only # simatl shift in the operating point, Instability is’ surging or pulsation which may occur when the system Characteristic curve intersects the fan curve at two or mote points. This is @ fare occurrence in a single fan. When two or more forward curved fans are connected in parallel, it ig possible that the composite curve have an unstable area such as shown in Fig 47. If the operating point falls in this area, either adding or ‘Subtracting resistance allows operation at a stable Point on either side of this area. When operation occurs stich that only one sharp intersection of fan curve and system curve is possible, there is no Condition of instability. : System resonance is a rare thing but may occur in systems utilizing high Pressure fans with a duct system tuned to a particular frequency ike an organ pipe. With operation te the left of the pressure peak, a pressu increase is accompanied by a capacity increase, in turn tending to further increase pressure, This condition may be overcome by altering the system characteristic curve so that thy operating point falls between the pressure peak and the free delivery point wFAN SELECTION The system requirements which influence the lection of a fan ere air quanti, ‘static: pressure, ait density if other than standard, prevailing Sound level or the use of the space served, available space, and the nature of the load. When these requirements are known, the selection of a fan for alr “conditioning usually tivolves choosing the . most inexpensive Combination of size and class of coristruction with an acceptable sound level and efficiency. Outlet velocity cannot be ised as a criterion “of selection from the standpoint of sound generation, The best sound characteristics are obtained at maximum fan efficiency, Fans operating at higher static pressures have greater allowable outlet velocities since maximum efficiency oceurs at higher air quantities Thus, any limits imposed on outlet velocity in relation to sound level depend upon the static pressure in addition to ambient sound levels and the use of the atea served. In regard to sound generatlon’a fan'should be selected as near to maximum efficiency is possible and adjacent ductwork should bo properly designed, as described in Part 2, The best balance of first cost and fan efficiency usually results with a fan Selection slightly smalier than that representing the maximum efficiency available. However, selection larger, more efficient fan may be justified in the case of long operating hours, Also, a larger fan may be economically preferable if a smaller selection necessitates a targer motor, drive and starter, or heavier construction, The selection of a fan and drive can affect peychromettic conditions in the area served. If the combination produces an air quantity below that required at design conditions, she resulting room dry-bulb temperature is higher. When the air quantity is controls prevent a fall in temperature. Fre. 17 —Sysiru Users nrcreyATMOSPHERIC CORRECTIONS Fan sound level does not vary sufficientiy with altitude to warrant using Sound ratings at conditions other than sea tevel Fan tables and curves are based on air at standard atmospheric Conditions of 70° F and 29.92 in.Hg. barometric pressure’ if a fan to operat ie at nonstandard conditions, the selection Procedure must include a Correction. With a given capacity and static Pressure ai operating Conditions the adjustments are made as follows: 1. Obtain the air density ratio from ( Chart 2), 2 Calculate the equivalent static pressure by dividin ig the given static Pressure by the air density ratio. 8. Entor the fan tables at the given capacity and the equivatent static Pressure to obtain speed and brake horse; as determined, 4. Multiply power. This speed is correct the tabular brake horsepower by the air density ratio to find the brake horsepower at the operating condi tions, CHART 2- ATMOSPHERIC CORRECTIONS ed and ait capacity may be too small, and the brake horsepower somewhat high, Example 3 illustrates a fan selection at high altitude.Example 3-fan Selection at High Altitude Given: Air quantity = 37,380 cfm Static pressure - 1.45 inawg. Altitude ~ 5000 ft Airtemperature — - 70° F Fan ratings - Table 6 Find: Fan speed, brake horsepower and class. Solution: 1. From chart 2 the air density ratio is 0.83. 2... The equivalent static pressure is equal to 1.45/0.83 of 1.76 in.wa, 3. Select from Table 6 a sizé 7 double inlet fan, operating at 520 rpm and requiring 13.45 rpm. 4, The design speed at S00 ft is 520 rpm 5. The brake trorsepower for the loss dense air at 5000 ftis 0.8 » 19.45 or 11.2 bhp 6. At the fan outlet velocity of 1800 fpm and the equivalent static iter Chart 1. The selection is well within the pressure cf 1.75 in.wg, range of a class | fan. This is the proper selection. Ataltitudes above 3300 feet, fan motor temperature guarantees may not apply. High altitude applications should therefore be brought to the manufacturer's attention. ACCESSORIES Fan accessories are available to fulfill specific needs. Where applicable, the following accessories can aid in assuring a_ satis factory ait conditioning system. ACCESS DOORS Access doors on the fan scroil sheet should be provided whenever there: is a possibility of dirt collecting inside the fan, DrainsA drain should be specified whenever condensation or water carry-over may occur VARIABEL INIET VANES Figure 18 shows a set of variable inlet vanes. These vanes are a volume control device and may be automatically or manually actuated. They are recommended for applications with long periods of reduced capacity operation and for use with static pressure regulators. Use of variable inlet vanes is further discussed under Control. Yi TS = Vatuasae Tuy Vanes QUTLET DAMPERS Outlet dampers are a volume control device and may be automatically or manually actuated. They may be used for applications requiring extreme capacity reduction for short periods of time or for small adjustments. Those dampers are illustrated in Fig.19. Their use is further discussed under Cantrot. He 18 Dorie Dyseeis| | In order of decreasing vibration isolation efficiency, steel spring isolators, double rubber-in-shear isolators, and single rubber-in-shear isolators are all used for fan installation. These isolators are normally used in conjunction with steel chanjel bases so that the fan and the motor may ‘oe mounted on an integral suntace, BEARINGS Ball bearings are the most common type of bearing used on fans. The Sleeve oil bearing can be provided at an extra cost and is initially a quieter bearing. However, its quietness has been overemphasized since the boaring noise does not materially add to the fan air noise. CONTROL Variation of the air volume delivered by a fan may be accomplished by several methods: 1. Variable speed motor contro! Outlet damper control Variable inlet vane control Scroli yoiume control se eS Fan drive change Use of a variable speed motor to control fan capacity is the most efficient means of control and the bes: ftom the standpoint of sound level, However, itis the most expensive method, Use of outlet dampers with ¢ constant speed motor is the least expensive method but the least officient of the first three mentioned above. Variable inlet vanes may be jised to adjust the fan delivery efficiently over awide range. This method cantrols the amount of air spin at the fan inlet, thus controlling the static pressure and horsepower requirement at a given fan speed. { Fig. 20) compares variable inlet vane control, outlet damper control and Speed control as each affects fan performance. The horsepower curves indicate the power required at vat us vane settings damper positi fan speesls respectively.The horsepower curve for variable inlet vane control{Fig.20) is based on a fan designed with supplementary fixed air inlet vanes, such that there is no loss in efficiency when variable vans are used instead. A loss of static efficiency as 10% results from the use of variable inlet vanes ona tan designed with an open inlet. { Tubeaxial and vaneaxial fans are often equipped with adjustable blades for matching the fan to system requirements. Propeller fans may he speed-controlled or blade adjustable. | / to too eo io to. PERCENT armaret cancers Fic. 20 — Costranssos o¢ Fax Coy tRot Memons MULTIPLE INSTALLATIONS Fans may be arranged in serias or in parallel to provide for operating con ions not mot by the use fa single fan. Possible series applications include: 1. Recirculating fan 2. Booster fan 3. Return air fan A recirculating fan increases the supply air to a space without increasing the primary air (Fig.21). The purpose is to obtain greater air motion, usually in a relatively lightly loaded area, or to decrease the temperature $23difference between supply air and room air, An industrial application Prompted by the tormer purpose is tho recirculation of air in an Inspection room served by the same system as a neighboring production are: A booster fan is used to step up the static pressure in a distiibution system in order to serve a remote area, loaded intermittently; when this area is loaded, it requires a small air quantity relative to the total primary air ( Fig. 22). A conference room space A could be conditioned in this manner. OTS | a Fyfostegen ! Fit, 22 — eerste Pas Fie 91 — Recess viase Fa The most common series application is the return air fan, usually used on extensive duct system to facilitate the controtiing of the n ture of return air and outdoor air and to avoid the excessive room static Pressures fequired ( Fig. 23 ). Use of a return air fan also provides a convenient method for exhausting air from a tightly constructed building. 'n air conditioning, fans are seldom directly staged with the outlet of the first being the inlet of the second. The fan efficiency and the operating economy suffers if this method is used for merely obtaining a higher static pressure. ee : es e Hise Fig. 23 Ravan Ate Pan f NeeFans may be applied in parailel if- dictated by space limitation is to be made for a future addition. Centrifugal fans are available {actory-mounted in cabinets for the formar reastn. Parallel fans provide greater capacity at a common static pressure. However, a parallel design is seldom chosen just to increase capacity since no improvement in fan efficiency occurs and economy is not warranted by the greater first cost of the parallel installCENTRIFUGAL PUMPS This chapter sets forth a review of the selection and application of centrifugal pumps used with air conditioning and refrigeration system. There are two major categories of oumps:- 1. Positive displacement — reciprocating, rotary and screw. 2. Centrifugal - with a variety of impelfer designs classified as plain (radial) flow, mixed flow and axial flow, each within a volute casing: also turbine (diffuser) type pumps. ( Figure 4 ) illustrates the two.types of.centriftigal pumps as well as the four basic types of impeliers. The plain’ impeller has single curvature vanes always curved backwards. Wider impellers. have vanes of doubie curvature with the suction ends twisted. These vanes are called mixed flow (minimum of radial element) and axial flow impellers have propeller type vanes. While having axial flow, this class of pumps represents hydraulically an extreme in continuous series of centrifugal pumps. itis the plain flow impeller centrifugal pump that is used most frequently in air con; itioning and refrigeration, They are used to move chilled, warm, hot and refrigerant condensing water, steam condensate, brine, lu oil or refrigerant, A centrifugal pump is distinguished by continuous steady flow and characteristic performance curves with a smooth rising head and falling Power from maximum capacity to shutoff ( Fig. 2 |. The pump presents an easy load for a driver. The stating torque is small and operating load ic constant. As a rule a constant speed squirrel-cage induction electric motor ( NEMA Design B ) with normal stating torque is applicable to drive the pump although steam turbines, gasoline or steam engine, and belt and motor drives may also be used. The centrifugal pump is rated on the basis of capacity, i.0. volume of liquid per unit time or gallons per minute, gpm (1 cu ftimin = 7.48 gpm ), against a head, ie. feet of water required by the fluid transmission system, and the energy required at given speed. There are two types of fiquid circuits, open and closed. In the open system the pimp moves a liquid from a source located above or below althe pump but open to atmospheric pressure ( Fig. 3a and 3b), A closed system is one in which the liquid circuit is not open to the atmosphere (Fig. 3c and 3d ). The most commort applicztion in air conditioning and refrigeration system is the closed water circuit. This is the major subject of the following text. j eee prise Nae nag uf ranaisvines propeller vanee aera # asan-teose somgctcoe mee oA Tinpetlss Fig, ( = Crsmmurueal, Poste Casinos ano [xtrruens (32Ftc. § ~Ligem Fuow Syste Fus,2 — ‘Trtseat Praromstance, Pans Fiaw Van: Crscucirewan Pour CENTRIFUGAL PUMP The centrifugal pump has a unique distinction of simplicity in construction, yet critical in application, There are two major elements in a centrifugal pump assembly-an impeller rotating on a shaft supported in a packed or mechanical seal and bearings. And a casing that is the impeller chamber (volute). Tho Impeller imparts the principal force to the liquid, and the volute guides the liquid from inlet to the outlet, at the same time converting the kinetic (velocity) energy into pressure. * * Ina turbine type centrifugal pump the diffusers perform the major part of the energy conversion task. ADVANTAGES The centrifugal pump is favored because of the following characteristics: 4. Simplicity of construction. Absence of valves and reciprocating parts. Fewer moving parts. a PRN Absence of close clearances. . Minimum of power transmission losses. 6 Steady, nonsurging flow.7 Operation at shutoff condition without excessive build-up in pressure. Absence of contact between liquid pumped and lubricant 9. Compactness; light in weigh. 40. Adaptability for direct connection to standard motors (major types of drive). 4 Long fife. 12, Ease of.mainterance and minimum repair. 13. Reasonable cost. There are two shortcomings in a centrifugal pump: 41. Itis not seif-priming unless specially equipped with a priming device {or a foot valve). 2. itis inefficient for capaciies smaller than 10 gpm at heads higher than 30 fect. a CLASSIFICATION AND DESIGNATION The manner of liquid flow within the impeller and the casing of centrifugal. pumps has already been outlined. The plain radial flow a volute casing centrifugal pump is the one usually applied in air conditioning and refrigeration application. impeller impel The impellers are constructed in three arrangements: 1. Enclosed (vanes within an impeller shroud or side walls), 2. Semi-enclosed (vanes assembled with one side wall}, 3. Open (no side walls, casing serving as sice wall), Singlesvetion Abittsveten Fig 4 Inneirss BeyeSuction The liquid approach into the pump may be either 4, Thrwa single inlet with end suction to impeller. 2. Thru a single inlet with double suction, liguid flowing into the impeller along the shaft on two sides (Fig.4). Casing The volute casing (Fig.5) may be split axially (horizontally, usually with double suction pumps), or radially (vertically, usually with single suction end inlet pumps). Stages The single stage pump is one with a single impeller; it may have a single or double suction. If the required head is too high for a single impeller to develop, two or more single stage pumps may be used in series, ora set of impellers in series may be put into a'single casing, The latter assembly is designated a multi-stage pump. Assembly With reference to the axis of rotation of the shaft, centrifugal pumps and drive arrangements are either horizontal or vertical (at times Inclined) Horizontal pumps are arranged either with end or side suction inlets; top and bottom suction are also available. Double suction pumps are usually built with side discharge nozzles (Fig.5). The single suction pumps are usually made with the end suction inlet {also available in other arrangements ) and a variety of discharge nozzle positions (Fig. 6 ). The discharge nozzle is a or two smaller than the Suction. Centrifugal pumps are often identified by a number corresponding to the size of its discharge; however this does not define its capacity which must be stated concurrently. FG 5 Siseta, aye Cesnarunas, \BSNOTE: oration elmereed from drive end Fig. 6 = Discnands Nowr Awaynchssests * srxune Sterigg Cermaurveal. Powe Rotation Pump rotation is determined when looking from the drive toward the Pump. Thus straddling the d/ive of a horizontal pump or looking down at the motor end of a vertical pump, if the liquid is entering the suction on the right side (double suction) and moves clockwise within the casing towards the discharge, such a pump is designated as having clockwise rotation. With the suction on the left side and the liquid moving within tho casing in counterclockwise direction, the pump is designated as having counterclockwise rotation ( Fig, 7 ) Drive Motors are the major drivers used to supply energy to centrifugal pumps. Of the single-phase motors the capacitor type are used for small Pumps, Of the multi-phase motors the standard squirrel-case induction typo ( NEMA Design B ) are the most popular. Occasionally for reasons Peculiar either to power distribution regulations or to the customer's economic situation a pump may be driven either by a part-winding, wound rotor or synchronous motor. ‘The smaller sizes of motor-driven pumps often come in close-coupled assemblies; the impeller is mounted on the projection of the motor shat. The pump volute and the motor enclosures comprise one unit. Large pumps connect to drivers by a coupling. The availability of steam may suggest a turbine drive. A situation should not be overlooked where both the chilled and refrigerant condensing Iewater pumps may he driven by a single thru-shaft turbine since both Pumps are in operation simultaneously, High speed ( 360 rpm and above ) pumps are particularly adaptable for direct connection to turbines. OSation: pap chadnierstaion Fre 7 ~ Rotatiox Destexs 3s, Cevinisto at Powe See Serica primp SUPPLEMENTARY COMPONENTS Several components supplementing the impeller shaft and casing are Fequired to complete the centritugal pump assembly and to provide various protections and accommodations in order to: 1. Avoid destructive wear to either the total unit of the impeller or the Casing; at the same time, provide close-running clearance between the lower pressure inlet and the higher pressure discharge region in the casing ( wearing rings }, 2. Prevent leakage outward or in ward betwoon the inside of the Pump and the ambient outside ( seal ). The direction of leakage depends on whether the pressure within the pump casing is highor Or lower than the ambient atmospheric pressure. 3. Support and align the rotating impeller shaft with the casing stationary ( bearings ).Connect the pump shaft to the driver shaft (coupling) unless the pump impeller is mounted on thé extension of the driver shaft ag in the end inlet, single suction pump. 5. Support the total pump-drive assembly (bed-plate}, Wearing Rings f To achieve the first protective Provision the impoller hub outer ‘surface at the impeller eye and the adjacent casing surface are variously equipped with wearing rings ( Fig. 8 ). They are respectively the impeller ring and cesing ring. When necessary, only the rings are replaced, rather than total impeller or total casing. A variety of designs and combinations of wearing Tings and labyrinth arrangements are available. sunrise se leogrink Fig.8 — Weanisé Rawes Shaft The shaft, a separate carefully designed entity, is treated in this text together with the impelier as a single rotating element, The standard shaft is protected from wear; corrosion and erosion within a sta! nary support by a sleeve designed and fitted in many forms. This sieeve covers tho shaft thru a stuffing box or a mechanical seal. Very small pumps are frequently built with special wear-resisting shafis to avoid the disadvantages of the diameter enlargement of tho fitted! shaft, Stuffing box The second protective provision (against leakage between the inside of the pump casing and tho ambient atmosphere) is achieved either bya logstuffing box (Fig.9) or by mechanical seal. With the stuffing box the sealing between the rotating shaft sleeve and the stationary support is achieved by rings of specially lubricated materials such as asbestos or motal packing, held tight by a gland, When the leakage becomes more apparent, the gland is tighjened (within limits). The sealing, tubricating and cooling liquid is suppliad cither from the high pressure region of the casing or from external sousces Mechanical S When handling expensive volatile or high temporature liquids at varying pressures or when attempting to provide a truly positive seal, a single or double mechanical seal is provided. The mechanical seal differs from tho stuffing box with its packing by the orientation of the sealing. The stuffing box packing seals axially along the shaft (Fig.9); the mechanical seal is formed by contact of two highly polished surfaces of dissimilar materials set perpendicular to the shzft. One spring-held inner surface is attached to the shail, rotating with it; the outer surface is attached to the stationary part of the pump. itis very important that there is a liquid film between the surfaces to provide lubrication and cooling. Mechanical seals are available in numerous designs that are constantly improved and reduced in cost. They require practically no maintenance. The zero4eakage wet.winding or "canned" moter-pumps do not need a stuffing box or mechai al Seals, They are leakless and sealiess closo- coupled motor-pump assemblies. “ sci bedintie i ste he oie Fi, = Suny, STORENG Bos, PACKING AND GLAND: be7Bearings Bearings are points of shaft support serving to align the shaft. One double suction pumps the bearings are located on either side of the pump casing; the outer bearing is called the outboard, and the bearing between the pump and the driver is called the inboard. One single suction pumps both bearings are between the pump and driver; tho one nearest to the pump is called the inboard, and the one nearest the coupling or driver is called the outboard, The bearings are either the sleeve type (minor usage) or the frictionless’ ball or roller type. The Ball bearings aro used most frequently. Bearings are often designed to take up thrust resulting from various unbalanced forces exerted within the pump. Couplings Except for close-coupled assemblies, pumps are usually connected to the drive thru a coupling. There are two basic classes of couplings, rigid and flexible. The i @ solldl connection providing a continucus shaft. The rigid coupling is fd coupling does not permit axial or radial motion, it ig used for vertical pumps. While transterring power from driver to pumps, the flexible coupling allows a transverse adjustment for a very minor misalignment, However the pump alignment must not be misused: it must be rigidly enforced Misalignment causes a whipping of the shaft: it adds to pump and driver bearing thrust and may result in excessive maintenance. Misalignment Must not be tolerated. Flexible coupling are effective in providing also lateral adjustments {atong the length of the shaft) for either or all of the followiag: thermal changes, hydraulic float, or shifting of the magnetic conter of the motor. A variety of flexible couplings as well as adaptation combinations are available to resolve any particular requirement to accommodate either tive behavior peculiarity or ease of maintenance, Bedplate ‘The pump and drive assembly must have perfect alignment Close Coupled pumps are naturally assembled into balanced and aligned units. 40However pumps that are combinations of drive-coupling-pump units must be assembled either in the field or ‘at the factory. Many pumps come preassembled and pre-aligned on a cast iron badplate or structural sicet support. These pump-on-bedplate assemblies are ready for bolting and dowling for level installation on a foundation: This does not mean that 2 factory-assembled pump-coupling-drive unit is inviolably perfect: accidents may happen in transit. Therefore, during installation the pump must be rochocked for alignment and level position. Cast iron bedplatos aré often quipped with a ini for containing and draining the pump leakages. Otherwise, soparato provisions must be made for collecting end disposing of leakage. MATERIALS Centrifugal pumps used in air congitioning and refrigeration are usually made of standard materials except in special instances of pumping sea water or corrosive or highly electrolytic brines. The pumps are built of Special materials for the case of strenuous hydraulic circumstances or for handing extremely low temperature liquids; in the latter Instance the strength and brittleness of sfandard materials should be examined. For Pumps used with high temperatures water (HTW) up to 300-350 F, a Standard cast iron casing is applicable. With either high tomperatures (above 250 F) or low temperatures (below 50 F), the choice of materials for the impelier-shaft-supplementary components assembly becomes critical, The materials must be chosen such that the thermal expansion and centraction of these parts are equal. According to Hydraulic institute terminotogy for a standard fitted pump the standard materials used are: cast iron casing, steel shaft. Bronze impeller as well as wearing rings and shaft sleeve (when used). A pump 80 Constructed is termed bronze fitted. When all parts (casing, impeller, various tings, shaft) of the punsp that come in contact with the liquid to be Pumper are made of bronze, such a pump is termed all iron. There are many varioties of material deviations to fit the specific needs. Figure 10 Shows the major parts of a bronze-fitted pump. HHThere are two basic approaches in the selection of pump materials: 1. If the engineer is thoroughly experienced for the giver application, he dictates the specifications. 2. If the manufacturer has’ wide experience in selecting the appropriate materials, then the engineer furnishes the manufacturer comprehensive data on the liquid pumped, including the operating temperature, the physical characteristics at this temperature. and any peculiarities of the operation, “Bearings, bearing housings and other parts of the puinp external to the liquie Passage are not in contact with the liquid pumped, and are made ‘ef appropriate industry standard materials, : paella oN, Pe J Fis Sao teve x oe if Fig, 10~ Mayon Pasay or 9 fCENTRIFUGAL PUMP FUNDAMENTALS Having covered the mechanical aspects of the centrifugal pump and before considering it as part of the liquid circulating system, a discussion of pump behavior is presented. BASIC THEORY The rotating impeller imparis to a fluid a centrifugal force, kinetic energy in the form of velocity. The volute converts about 50 percent of the kinetic energy into the pressure head, potential energy measured in feet of fluid handled. As the fluid flows thru the impeller vanes, a reduced pressure zone is created at the inlet to the vanes. The atmospheric or system pressure and the static head of the fiuid as available act on the pump suction inlet and force the liquid into the pump. This pressure at the pump suction plus the pressure developed by the rotating impeller in the volute produces the flow of the liqiid. This is fundamental te the application of the centrifugal pump. NET POSTIVE SUCTION HEAD 1 the pumping is limiteg only to that normally applied in the air conditioning cold water clesed circuit system, there is no need to be concerned with sufficiency of the suction pressure to force the liquid into the pump suction. However, the various liquids at any given temperature have a definite saturation pressure at which they turn to vapor. In the field of air conditioning and reirigeration situations exist to handle water, brines and refrigerants at any temperature and pressure level. It is the problem of the process and pump application engineer to be sure that under any set of circumstances there is str jent pressure on the liquid fed to the pump to prevent the liquid from flashing into vapor. Between the pump suction nozzle and the minimum pressure point within the pump impelicr, there exists in addition to the suction velocity head a pressure drop. This pressure drop is due velocity acceleration, friction and turbulence losses. The suction head (feet of liquid absolute) determined at the suction nozzle and referred to a datum line less the vapor pressure of the liquid (feet absolute} is called the net positive suction head or NPSH basThe suction head necessary to keep liquid flowing into the pump and to ‘overcome the pump internat pressure losses is the required NPSH of the pump, The required NPSH of a pump is part of the standard design performance data furnished by the manufacturer or of a Gesign specific to a given process pump The not positive suction head (pressure in feet of liquid) of the process liquid system as it, exists within the system complex at the entering (suction) side of the pump is called the available NPSH, It must be at least equal to or greater than the sequired NPSH in order to produce a flow thru a pump. A safety factor should be considered to cover a possible excess of required NPSH. The available NPSH is the algebraic sum determined by the formula Available NPSH = 2.31 Where: NPSH = net positive suction head (absolute pressure, ft) 2.31 = Conversion factor to change one pound pressure at a specific gravity of 1.0 to pressure head in feet of water. (1 inch Hg =1,134 ft of water). Pa = atmospheric pressure ( absolute pressure, psia ) in an open system; or pressure ( absolute, psia ) within in a totally closed system. P tp = vapor pressure (psia) of the fluid at pumping temperature: ia a totally closed system part of the total pressure Pa, H8_ = elevation head, static head ( ft ) above or below the pump centerline. If apove static head; if below, negative static head, sometimes termed suction lift.* HI = friction head (ft) on the suction side of the system including piping, fittings, valves, heat exchangers at the design velocity (Vs in ft per sec) within suction system, Fs ‘Sp gr = specific gravity of liquid handled at operating tempera(Fig.14) Figures 11 and 12 illustrate the application of the calculation of available NPSH to the variety of open and closed circuits.Fie. 18 = Erazey or Aarne os Aros Three additional terms are introduced in these figures: Hyp = vapor pressure (ft) of the fluid at pumping temperature He = entrance head (fi), suction pipe entrance loss in open systems. = pump suction eye velocity head (ft), (Vse) 2g. This term is usually very small as shown in the following tabulation: Neciy fie | 8 ] a | fe Yewsuytead ay | ae | as] | os Veudiy (ice) Venudty head ti vfs [aw fn eo | tac fase | sen A pressure selocted to be maintained above atmospheric pressure in the top circuit of a closed piping system determines the desion H ( expansion tanks ) pressure ( Fig. 12), brsOn examining ( Fig.11 and 12 }, itis evident that the available NPSH may vary, especially with critical fluids. The variables that may be either fixed or adjusted are: 1+ Altitude of the system location above or below sea level; Fig.13 shows the change of atmospheric pressure (feat of cole water) with the altitude. The greater the altitude, the lower is the available atmospheric pressure (Pa in psia or Ha in tt) which influences an open system. The totally closed system pressure Pa. may be regulated, 2, Vapor pressure of the liquid (Fig.44) pumped at operating temperature Pvp (psia) or Hvp (ft); Figure 14 shows the vapor Pressure of water at various temperatures, This pressure may or may not be adjusted, 3. Friction tosses of the Pump-suction piping system; the larger the pipe, the less are the friction losses Hr (ff) for a given fluid flow. 4. Elevation of the source of liquid static head H8 ( ft, positive or Negative j; pump location may be altered to increase or reduce Static head. There are limitations to the negative head (suction tft. “I must be remembered that a pump does not lift the fi quid it moves: @ pump must have pressure to produce the flow. werFro. MA Provenmrs or Warex nz Vanuous TraeSUCTION LIFT The suction lift of open system is not too frequent a factor in the design 9f air conditioning and refrigeration systems. Basically a pump does not lift; to operate, it must have pressure atiits suction. Thus the maximum tift is determined by the required NPSH and limited by the available NPSH pressure, ‘The atmospheric pressure at Sea level is 33.9 feet of water. For cold water at normal temperatures Hyp. equals approximately one foot: therafore the gross ‘suction pressure may be considered as 33 feet. Based on an Operating rule that available NPSH should at feast equal the required NPSH, normal suction lift shoutd be limited. The limitation is the amount of available NPSH remaining afte; deducting from the gross suction pressure the Hv. Hf. and the required NPSH ( Fig. 11b } of the pump plus a safety factor, to allow for possible vagaries and to prevent appearance of cavitation and consequent vibration of the pump. There must be pressure at the suction for the pump to do normal work. To quote from paragraph £44 of the Hydraulic institute Standards, “Among the more important factors affecting the operation of a centrifugal Pump are the suction conditior:s, Abnormally high suetion lifts (low NPSH) beyond the suction rating of the pump usually cause serious reductions in Capacity and efficiency, often teading to serious trouble from vibration and €avitation.” SPECIFIC SPEED Paragraph 8-45 of the Hydraulic institute Standards states: “The effect of Suetion lift on a centrifugal pump is related to its head, capacity and Speed. The relation of these factors for design purposes is expressed by an index number known as the specific speed.” This "number is used by pump designers to artive at an optimum efficiency, expressed as follow: Specific speed NS = DEM” * xin Hee Where: H =head (ft) based on the maximum diameter impoller at the design capacity, ht?i i gpm = capacity at best efficiency. pm = mechanical speed at which the gpm and head are obtained “Incase of a multi-stage pump, head of each stage. The specific speed may be defined as the rpm at which a pump of a Particular design would have to operate to deliver one gpm against a head 9f one foot. Specific speed is an index to the type of impeller (Fig.1). The lower the specific speed, the more the blades of the impeiler are of an arrangement to deliver a strictly radial flow; the higher the delivery head, the smaller the required NPSH. Excessive reduction in required NPSH may ead to cavitation. The radial flow impeliers afford more regulated flow thru the impeller vanes. CAVITATION The lack of available NPSH shows up particulatly in pump cavitation. 1f {he pressure at any point inside the pump falls below the operating vapor Pressure of tho fluid, the fluid flashes into a vapor and forms bubbles. These bubbles aro cartied along in the fluid stream until they reach a region of higher pressure, W.thin this region the bubbles Collapse or implode with a tremendous shock on the adjacent surfaces. Cavitation accompanied by low rumbling. or sharp rattling noise and even vibration causes mechanical destruction in the form pitting or erosion. Remedies to climinate cavitetion are apparent from the tabul n of variable elements in an evaluation of available NPSH. The first two factors are fixed; the system is installed at a definite altitude and the temperature Of the fluid is fixed by the process. Therefore, only the tow remaining adjustments can be made; decrease the friction loss and for change the elevation of the pump to increasé thé static head, Do not tamper with the jpump suction inet: do not request the pump manufacturer to enlarge’ the pump suction in order to decroase the required NPSH. The Pump efficiency the impeller is upset. falis of and the whofe performance of 122VORTEX A whirling fluid forming an area of low pressure at the center of a circle is called a vortex. This is caused by a pipe suction placed too close te the surface of the fluid. Such a vortex impairs the performance of a pump and may catise a loss of prime. i the casé of pump suction in a shallow water sump such a vortex may be prevented by placing a plate close to the intake at a distance of one-third diameter from the suction inlet. The plate should extend 2% diameters jn all directions from the center of the inlet PERFORMANCE When a pump designer has established the specific speed of a pump, its capacity-head curve is then defined. The pump operates on this curve ( Fig. 2 and 22 ) unloss some physical change is effected. Head-capacity curves should not droop at shutoff conditions; this leads to a surging operation when the flow is throttled into this range, Nether should the curves be too flat. The steepness in the pump head-capacity curve ( Fig. 15 ) most desirable for an air conditioning and refrigeration application is shown by the solid line. The performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump as expressed by a head-capacity curve are influenced in several ways 4. Vari n in speed-proportionally raises or lowers the head and capacity. The whole head-capacity curve shifts up or down. Varying impeller ciameter-varies the capacity and head proportionally, as in tem 4. 3. Varying impeller width-proportionally varies the capacity. 4. Varying the pitch and number of vanes within the impeller changes the shape of the head-capacity curve. Spoke like vanes or more vanes usually produce a flat curve. 5. Varying impeller and vane designs produce variations in head- capacity relationships. Narrow impellers with larger impeller-to- eye diameter ratios develop larger heads. The wide impeliers with low diameter ratios are used for large flow heads. The changes in speed and impeller diameters are refiected in pump performance as follows: 151impelier di 1 gpm (head 41/2 or ~ = rpm4 impeller dim. 2 gpm2 Or Capacity varies directly, Head varies as the square, ! (bhp 1913 (head 2)1/2,.. (bhp 4 1/3 Bhp varies as the cube of speed or impeller diameter change. The performance of a centrifugal pump is affected when handling viscous fluids, The effects are a marked increase in brake horsepower and decrease in head, capacity and efficiency { Fig, 16 }. g sone c0—\ ; e Tres Desatre HkamCaracrey Conve Fie. 16 — IWeLubser oF Viscosity ow Pune Perronseanice a N- PARALLEL OPERTION The operation of pumps in parallel results in multiple capacity against a common head (Fig.19). This type of application is for a system requiring high capacity with a relatively tow head or for variable systems where a number of smail pump handle the load with one or more pumps shutting down as required. The pumps should have matched characteristics. Drives should have ample power to avoid overloading wien operated singly 4- SERIES OPERATION The operation of pumps in sesies results in multiple head with a common capacity (Fig.20). This type of application is for system requiring a high head relatively low capacity. Gareful consideration of fluid flow must be made to safeguard the boostes pump. Normally a series flow is provided 1 for by a multi-stage pump. 5 ~ HIGH BUILDINGS The operation of pumps at the base of high buildings requires an j analysis of pressures on the discharge and suction sides of the pump. The } static head of the fluid in the piping system plus the head developed in the \ pump may necessitate the usz of 250 Ib pipe and fittings and even a reinforced pump casing. sao; donen? =e ‘| ‘ Woo BOSAL Gangeary Punts, Paratiee Orendriox xy we2- OPERATION IN A SYSTEM A given centrifugal pump cperates along its own head-capacity curve. At {ull capacity tlow the opersting point falls at the crossing of the pump head-capacity curve and the system head curve (Point 4, Fi 47), If the Pump is throttled, the operating point moves up the head-capacity curve (point 2}; iit is desired to obtain greater flow to operate down the head- capacity curve ( point 3), the path of flow in the system must be eased to reduce the friction losses. Ctherwise the pump must be either speeded up or the Impeller increased in diameter. Then a new head-capacity curve is established ( point 4 }. The eagineer must carefully analyze the system and select the pump from the manufacturer's Performance head-capacity curves. if the system head is overestimated and the Pump is selected with a high head-capacity curve, unforiunate results may foliow. The pump will operate on its head-capacity curve to Produce an increased flow at “ectoased head and increased horeepower demand ( Fig.18 }. The system head should always be calculated without undue safety factor-extention or as close as practical to the true vaiues to eliminate possible waste of horsepower or possible overioad of Pump motor with an unvalved system. ‘The true evaluation of system head is specially important when designing a system with pump in parallel or in series. Fe. 17— Grossoven Pont of Pong ano Sysrene FG 18 — Evvect or Ovrmrstustirwa Py Cunves van Hat |POWER AND EFFICIENCY Pump operation two power requirements may be evaluated, liquid Power and actual power (brake horsepower that takes into account the “Pump efficiency). Liquid power is the product of the weight of the liquid Pumped (gpm), pump head (ft), and the conversion factors, Brake horsepower is the actual power output of the driver, pump input, or liquid power divided by pump efficiency. Pump efficiency is the relation between the liquid (theoretical) power and the actual mechanical power input (a greater amount due to machine losses). The efficiency is expressed as a decimal. This should not be confused with driver efficiency since the latter is the relation between the output of the driver and the energy input to produce the power to driver the pump and compensate for losses within the driver. Bhe WS geet Pury MEY) x Sp. BUbe h Farce yey af Where: 3960 = 33,000 (ft 1b)/8.33 (Ib/gal water at 1.0 sp gr), used to convert to horsepower. Sp gt = specific gravity of tiquid. ‘. Viscosity of the liquid pumped affects the friction losses and therefore the pump horsepower requirements. * CENTRIFUGAL PUMP AND SYSTEM 1- SYSTEM HEAD A flow of liquid within any system of piping including fittings, valves and heat exchangers requires a system head consisting of a velocity head (usually insignificant) and friction head, and must overcome a static head. Thus in any piping system the system head is the algebraic sum of the Static head on the pump suction plus the friction losses thru the entire system of fluid flow, With an increase in flow the friction losses increase approximately as the square of the parabolic head curve is formed ( Fig.17 ).WORKING PRESSURE Pump casing working pressure is the total head developed by the pump to overcome friction losses of the system plus the suction head minus the friction losses in the pump suction fine, from the junction of the expansion tank line to the pump sucton. The problem outlined in Fic. solution serve as an example. ate Given: 600 gpm of water 6 in. steel pipe, standard weight Ells, long radius, ID= 4.5 Find: Total pump head (ft) Pump casing working pressure (psia) Suction pressure (psig) Discharge pressure (psig) FIG.21- PUMP SYSTEM TOTAL HEAD AND PUMP. CASING EORKING PRESSURE IPSExample 1- Calculation of total head and working pressure Solution: (based on data in part 3, chapter 2,water piping ) Friction head Hi, suction line (from expansion tank pump } Straight pipe = 94 ft Five ells = 50 ft One gate valve =" 7 ft i Suction head total = 94ft + SOft + 7ft = 151 ft-= I F 184% x 2.35 HLHF/100F = 3.84 ft Friction head Hf, discharge line ( From pump to expansion tani } Straight pipe = 190 ft One 7/Z enlargement = 9 ft Six ells = 60ft Four gate valves == 28 fi One glohe valve = 170 ft Discharge head total = 190 ft + Qft + BOE + 28% + 170 = 457 ft 457 ft x 2.35 ftHE/ 100 ft = 10.75 ft Pump system total friction losses HF Suction piping = 3.54 ft Discharge piping 10.75 ft Heat exchanger = 20.00 ft Coll = 12,00 ft Pump head total = 3.64 ft + 10,75 ft + 20.0 ft +120 ft = 46.29 Pumps casing working pressure Static head = 80,00 tt Less suctionlinoHf = 3.844t Subtotal = 80.0 -35aht = 7646 Plus system Hf = 46.29%t Working pressure = 76.66 ft + 46.29 ft = 122.75 ft 122.76 ft * 2.31 ft per psi = 93.1 psi Suction pressure gaga reading Static head = 80-4 =76.00ft Less Hf of straight pipe=86 ft distance between expansion tank and gage 167Bells = 30ft Igate valve = 7 ft 86 +30 +7 = 123 ft less suction head = 4123 ft x 2.35 TtHf/ 100 ft =-2.89 ft Not = 76.00f 2.89% = 73.41 ft Suction pressure = 73.14 ft/ 2.31 ft per psi = 31.7 psi Discharge pressure gage reading Suction pressure gage plus pump system total Hf = 73.11 + 46.29 = 119.40 ft Less Hf of straight pipe = 16 ft Distance between gages. 4 enlargement = 9ft Sells = 20ft 16+9+30 = 55 ft Less discharge head = 58 itx 236 RHF/ 400 ft = - 1.29 ft Net = 119.40 ft -4.29 Ft = 148.11 1t Discharge pressure = 118.11 ft/2.31(ftpsi) = 54.2psi The centrifugal pump is inherently a relatively quiet machine. However, in the case of a motor driven pump there are possible motor disturbances Such as motor fan, bearings and magnetic noise (Chapter 2),in addition to the normal hydraulic and mechanical disturbances originating in the pump. A fixed frequency vibration (rom times the number of blades divided by 80) may be set up by a pump using too large an impeller. Sometimes, to Produce quiet operation a recommendation is made to use an impetier diameter 10-15% smaller than the largest size that will fit in a given pump casing. ; Operation of the pump. under conditions of insufficient NPSH must be avolded to preciude formation or aggravation of cavitation noise. However @small, amount of cavitation. in a condensate pump operation is permissible. Well designed pumps operating at either 1750 or 3600 rpm rotative speed may be used, aA pump frequency may coincide with a corresponding frequency in the piping system or building structure: such telegraphing noise must be avoided. PUMP SELECTION { Pumps are selected from manufacturer's performance curves (Fig.22). Most standard pumps are designed to operate at maximum efficiency about ‘midway on the head-capacity curve. Selecting a pump at the maximum efficiency point or slightly to the left, materially assists in minimizing problems of noise and vibration. A solection too far to the right of the efficiency point may lead to cavitation due to an increase in required NPSH. Pump efficiency is not the only selection criterion; quict operation, lowest first and operating cosis and close conformance to actual needs are parallel objectives. SPR ttt Hl t ‘arate Fie, 22 — Tyrigan Pome SExecrion Criivs & MOTOR SELECTION ‘The horsepower of the motor selected to drive a given pump must be equal to or greater than the brake horsepower called for at the Operating Point of the head-capacity curve. There is always tho danger of a pump ‘enning away from the selected operating point and overloading the motor. In case of a nonoverloading pump-motor combination the selected motor horsepower is always larger than the required brake horsepower; a 127safety margin is provided, {f the pump is fitted with a nonoverloading impetler, it may be possible to select a motor of smaller horsepower, In either case the brake horsepower is the same. CENTRIFUGAL PUMP INSTALLATION INSTALLATION There are several aspects in the application of a centrifugal pump that are external to pump itself, yet important in the installation. The suction piping at the centrifugal pump must be designed with care to avoid possible malfunctioning. The precautions to be taken (Parts) are summarized: 1. The suction line approach to the purnp should be as straight as, possible and all elbows should have large radii. 2. A straight soction of pipe should be attached to the suction inlet to allow the fluid to straighten out before entering the pump; this is especially true of double suction pumps. 3. The suction line should be one or two sizes larger than the pump inlet. 4, With an oversized suction line an eccentric reducer must be used, keeping the pipe flat on top. 5. Suction line should bo airtight, with no high spots where air or gases may separate out of the fluid. 6. A check valve and a gate valve should be installed at the pump discharges of a multi-pump system. These should be installed in the order named to enable the check valve to be serviced without draining the discharge line. 7. Both the suction and discharge pipe connections must be supported separately and in such a way as to impose no strain on the pump, 8. The suction line for the pump operating with a negative static head (suction lift) should have no valves other than a foot valve. The suction line should be large and as direct as possible. oo §| | tis advisable not to insulate the pumps intended for chilled water (brine) service or hot water service. The refrigerant condensing water pumps need not be insulated. If a pump is insulated, the insulation should be applied in a form which pennits disassembling of the pump for servicing without wrecking the insulation. ISOLATION Cork is not an effective isolation material for rotative speeds below 2000 tpm. Rubber-in-shear or corrugated rubber is useful on the ground floor installations. In more critical installations, on floors above occupied areas (especially those of executive offices board rooms, libraries, hospital areas) steel spring isolation is recommended for isolation effectiveness approaching 100%. The coricrete foundation of one to two times the machinery weigh serves as @ dampening mass and must be of reinforced construction. FOUNDATION Where requirements for isolation of a centrifugal pump are at a minimum (basements, outdoors, any remote location), a foundation is desirable to keep the pump off the floor or ground level. STARTING Unless the pump is self-priming, it must bo primed before starting. When starting the pump, the discharge valve is usually closed, then gradually opened so as not to run the risk of overloading the drive motor. For more information there is a vast experience of pump manufacturors recorded in their catalog and handbook data and in. innumerable authoritative articles written by engineers from these manufacturing Concerns. A classical book on pump design and application Is Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps, 2nd edition, by A.J. Stopanoff, 1957, hos}Fis 2— Revanse Rencs: Heavess WH new aon of FEI Ravini isha ORG sun Dugeer Tarun Rist ~ (Water Piping Design ) sls soul gs FSi arecti BS 18 Se lig ual ally shea cu ica) aay egal Joba OU ws ce GR Ole Bae le AHN Tin Aas ahah dana stead) JAN sled Gls poe yy oy stl sal ht 7 wee B0H oud gl Ga Ligds gy f AB By hes gal lyst ate Sis stu olvall Sa) Ce wait bisa Ha aay Shoe gles HS Aas cha 3 Stal Vs ot at gall Biel fa das tesa, Js Sh GL de, 1 algal Ge ool Lag PAOD se A alg) U8 say 8 ay ss ey el gall Jl CSO Biss cal Lela dal eAls Cathal slut at Ble Sy at Abid 8 alga weg PRES LNCS at otal) sub dots 143be CUE OAT all gh agate 42 elt ul gs cA ba ay Gal soul gs hi wel gal dSM Lud deat steal Gua cites oe hal gall Sal Jslall Ga aah yee Js) ban eb MN ABEAM Gs Cu SM culatal ans gee WOST ila Lal gal} OH Onli] ci Abas Wide 8 oll Gh we ey UN eae Jl eats dye laa gy tot GAR SSS Las PR A SU sea uel gd A ie te Ag (VT) elgtat cod) epee alia wel ga Ua Jas OF SSE A AY) ans ola) Send puaual alc 5 AM AB AAs uu tits (yo: weelsgall 8 555 idsuapilg ak saa eanliaigs stu Aha ad SASSY RGD Sasa eae ditt shal ca 3 gt, Esra EEN I Giny Las Legal 18) 5 Gutited oy Mal Sahl Ge By IAN, ideale ae Qe ol abu, au oy tye OB GG plies i Ld des e28N AaiS yall hse ast Qala eta ceil gal TBA ce artall Ra Mike U8 F655 GY soy gael JS 25 cot A Jone Jat ut gall ABI 5 I) fd Lay Ce dH ee ots gly day Fags! 388 Ga Ute! gsty Es At asin Aten) 2 $B iS S45. KEgsdal Fetsig) dale gb 5 yas Bayete Li wala ht as MEH ee 8 Fay call cal glo aa (Si el pe hb LA) ek, Proll Ssh! gh Ulex En at aa seal gall Rout te 8 pel gel Joh all lan oS uy ey O14 By dytaat,Hye Dalen Cle SIS chy aN ylh AeSS tse y oy alt Bt ohlN SS ey ges doy My GM tases gf PHS LO ee 2.4 al Jo ook WUby pat IS lied Gots oll bye ae ade = ¢ (2.4 GPM TON EU hy Latte pall ed Ub alll gly hi Le bas he gr ly — WE ahs eet Jos Ll oUt ep het] aes «¢ DLACK SEAMLESS STEEL ) cP MLM Dr Saal all gol Shalt bts suey RSL | gcd 0 BAN f gab Tons Clg \ SANG ARDN ales dylll ab yt So aL Ze eat Sb Ge SN ge ght Ga AAA AI tae Sake hob teks sly gyal EU Sahl go ead 45 JS algal got stall Aad 256 IOAN pel BU Qe RL nytt eure geil At ght > Uh b poy dell July Te ital Beqge as gem 3o yen aS geeTABLE 14—Maximuts waren vecocity Renee Hae TABLE 13—-RECOMMGNDES Wares YeLoeiTY pilin ae ee Fe po teat Gime aie ee rea eae Tene] eatet [eons eae paeeere an, ibe8) Taste }AHTEING LOSSES IN EOUIVALENT FEET OF PIPE Scrtwnd, Welded, Hongee, Flore, ee Srazed Convection: EEN IPANOTETCY Tebered [tedgod somna |S we “ae :CUART FRICTION LOSS FOR CLOSED FIRING systems ‘Schade 40 Pipe aeCHART 4—FRICTION LOSS FOR OPEN PIDING SYSTEMS Soir AO Pine |EUR) ale catty alll Gay is QIN Maa ie USL ae ais U5 cob aaa Ne Gas I G55 yal Bas ag Ge Slay LS AEN Jase Sd A sea Fs Ng he! 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