Accepted Manuscript

Regional development and sequence stratigraphy of the Middle to Late Triassic

Snadd Formation, Norwegian Barents Sea
Tore Grane Klausen, Alf Eivind Ryseth, William Helland-Hansen, Robert Gawthorpe,
Inger Laursen
PII:

S0264-8172(15)00029-X

DOI:

10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015.02.004

Reference:

JMPG 2129

To appear in:

Marine and Petroleum Geology

Received Date: 7 July 2014

Revised Date:

9 November 2014

Accepted Date: 2 February 2015

Please cite this article as: Klausen, T.G., Ryseth, A.E., Helland-Hansen, W., Gawthorpe, R., Laursen,
I., Regional development and sequence stratigraphy of the Middle to Late Triassic Snadd Formation,
Norwegian Barents Sea, Marine and Petroleum Geology (2015), doi: 10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2015.02.004.
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Regional development and sequence stratigraphy of the Middle to

Late Triassic Snadd Formation, Norwegian Barents Sea

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TORE GRANE KLAUSENa*, ALF EIVIND RYSETHb, WILLIAM HELLAND-HANSENa, ROBERT

GAWTHORPEa, INGER LAURSENb,

University of Bergen, Department of Earth Science, Allgaten 41, 5020 Bergen, Norway

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Statoil ASA, E&P Northern Norway, 9414 Medkila, Norway

Now: Lundin Norway AS, Rikard Kaarbesgate 2, 9405 Harstad, Norway

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*Corresponding author. Tel: +4741220799. E-mail address: tore.klausen@geo.uib.no.

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Abstract

The Middle to Late Triassic Snadd Formation represents one of the later stages of Early
Mesozoic infilling of the Barents Sea Basin, expressed by a silicilastic wedge prograding from

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the southeast, where sediments were shed from the Uralide Orogeny. The formation was
deposited in a shallow (100 to 500 m) basin facing the Boreal part of the Panthalassa Ocean, and

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the progradation reached its peak at the Svalbard Archipelago which has since been uplifted and
where outcrops are exposed as the time-equivalent Botneheia and De Geerdalen formations. The
Snadd Formation includes depositional environments ranging from offshore shale through
shallow marine to fluvial, arranged in discrete stratigraphic sequences.
Here we present a refined sequence stratigraphic framework for the Snadd Formation. Two
second order sequences have been interpreted within the limits of the study area, divided into six

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third order sequences. The two second order sequences are split along an Intra Carnian maximum
flooding surface. Depositional elements inherent to the sequence stratigraphic framework are also
interpreted and extrapolated so as to describe the regional distribution of potential reservoir

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sandstones and the control exerted on the development of third order sequences.

Different depositional environments from various datasets and scales of observation show the
progressive development of a prograding delta across more than 700 km from a proximal position

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on the Finnmark Platform to a distal position on Edgeya. Regional correlation of well logs and

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2D seismic coupled with detailed depositional environment interpretation from 3D seismic and
core has resulted in basin-wide paleogeographic reconstruction of the formation throughout the
Norwegian part of the Barents Sea, with implications for understanding the distribution and
evolution of depositional systems during this large-scale basin infill.

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1.

Introduction

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Keywords: Barents Sea, Arctic exploration, Triassic, sequence stratigraphy, large-scale basin

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The siliciclastic Triassic succession in the Barents Sea has been the focus of numerous studies

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(Bugge et al., 2002; Bullimore et al., 2004; Dalland et al., 1988; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011;
Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Henriksen et al., 2011a; Henriksen et al., 2011b; Johansen et al.,
1993; Mrk and Elvebakk, 1999; Riis et al., 2008; Skjold et al., 1998; van Veen et al., 1993), and
the succession is considered a potential hydrocarbon play across the basin, particularly in the
newly opened southeastern part of the Barents Sea. Studies of shelf edge clinoforms has been
used as a predictor for paleogeography and distribution of sandstones with reservoir potential in
what is described as a prograding delta system (Bullimore et al., 2004; Glrstad-Clark et al.,

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2011; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Henriksen et al., 2011b; Riis et al., 2008; van Veen et al.,
1993). Despite some publications on the Mesozoic succession, the Middle to Late Triassic Snadd
Formation (Dalland et al., 1988; Mrk et al., 1999; Klausen et al., 2014) is less than adequately

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addressed. In part this is due to difficulties in tracing the formation as it can be both downfaulted
and blanketed by Cenozoic sediments or eroded during the Late Cretaceous and the Neogene
(Faleide et al., 1996; Faleide et al., 1993b; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Henriksen et al., 2011a).

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Other sources have treated the Snadd Formation in a wider context, focusing on the Triassic
succession on a whole (e.g. Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; van Veen et al., 1993). Time-equivalent

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deposits exposed in outcrops at Svalbard (De Geerdalen and Tschermakfjellet formations) have
also received attention as an analogue to the subsurface Snadd Formation (Mrk et al., 1999; Hy
and Lundschien, 2011; Klausen and Mrk, 2014).

This paper describes the regional extent and variability of the sedimentary deposits within the

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Snadd Formation, and provides a new sequence stratigraphic framework building on the
established framework of Glrstad-Clark et al. (2011). Using the information gathered from a
series of diverse, yet scattered, datasets including 2D and 3D seismic, well logs and cores we aim

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to further develop the understanding of the Snadd Formation and provide a basis on which to

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predict the depositional environment for areas in the region where data-coverage is less dense.
Regionally traceable maximum flooding surfaces with distinct variations in depositional
environment and their seismic expression warrant a sixfold third order sequence stratigraphic
subdivision of the Snadd Formation as well as a re-evaluation of the second order sequence
boundaries presented in previous studies. Changes in depositional environments are elaborated
and exemplified with the different datasets, finally this information is summarized in
paleogeographic maps. Although earlier studies have offered similar information, here we

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describe how the sedimentary deposits inherent to the advancing delta vary both temporally and
spatially, with implications for evaluating and predicting reservoir potential and basin evolution.
Geological setting

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2.

The study area stretches from the northern coast of Norway to the southern part of Svalbard
across the Norwegian part of the Barents Sea, an area covering more than 700 by 400 km (Figure

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1A). Its modern bathymetry is dominated by its western margin towards the Atlantic which
followed Eocene rifting (Faleide et al., 1993b; Worsley, 2008) and the platform bathymetry left

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after Cenozoic uplift and erosion (Faleide et al., 1993a; Faleide et al., 2010; Henriksen et al.,
2011a). The Bjarmeland and Finnmark platforms with the regional highs Sentralbanken,
Gardarbanken, Hopen and Stappen (Figure 1B) comprise important structural elements, along
with a number of smaller basin and highs (Gabrielsen et al., 1990). Despite some minor highs,

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such as the Norsel, Norvarg, Samson and Svalis, which show some thinning of Triassic strata,
most of the Barents Sea accommodated for sediment deposition during the Middle to Late
Triassic (Mrk and Elvebakk, 1999; Vigran et al., 1998). The largest sedimentary basins included

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the Nordkapp, Srkapp, Maud and Bjrnya basins and the Hoop Fault Complex together with
the Loppa High (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010).

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Thorough reviews of the tectonic history of the area are provided by (Breivik et al., 1995; Faleide
et al., 1984; Faleide et al., 1993b; Gabrielsen et al., 1990; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010). The Loppa
High area became a prominent sedimentary basin in the Middle Triassic that affected sediment
dispersal patterns (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010). Here, the sedimentary succession thickens
relative to the underlying strata and marine sedimentary deposits dominate the succession,
signifying a relative increase in accommodation and subsidence rates. Local accommodation was

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also being created in the Nordkapp Basin (Nilsen et al. (1995); this study). Syn-depositional
faulting occurred in the prodeltaic part of the time-equivalent De Geerdalen Formation in
Edgeya, Svalbard (Edwards, 1976). In the hinterland, the Uralide Orogeny experienced a

al., 2004; Ritzmann and Faleide, 2009; Stoupakova et al., 2011).

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northward extension through the Novaya Zemlya phase of thrusting in the Triassic (OLeary et

During the Late Ladinian to Early Norian, when the Snadd Formation (Dalland et al., 1988; Mrk

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et al., 1999) was deposited, the Barents Sea was the site of a shallow (up to 500 m), intra-cratonic

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sea bordered by the Boreal part of the Panthalassa Ocean to the north and northwest, and an
epicontinental seaway to the west. Encroaching hinterland massifs include the Urals to the
southeast, the Norwegian Caledonides and the Baltic craton to the south and the North American
Craton to the west. The epicontinental seaway was connected to the present day Halten Terrace
area with open marine waters extending from the Boreal Sea (Mller et al., 2005; Riis et al.,

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2008; Ryseth, 2014). From the active Uralides, and the evolving Novaya Zemlya thrust belt,
sediments were shed basinwards to the northwest and into the Barents Sea Basin (Glrstad-Clark
et al., 2010; Miller et al., 2012; Mrk, 1999; Riis et al., 2008). Continuous sediment supply

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gradually filled the basin from the south, and deltaic deposits ultimately dominate the succession

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at the later stages of the overall regressive siliciclastic Triassic first order sequence (Henriksen et
al., 2011b).

The Snadd Formation overlies the Anisian to Early Ladinian Kobbe Formation and is
characteristic in its relatively thick and widespread non-marine sedimentary package which
comprises conspicuous river deposits with a significant reservoir potential. These depositional
elements change both spatially and temporally relative to the sediment source area and the
position of the shoreline (Klausen et al., 2014). Its marine counterpart is characterized by shallow

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marine beach ridge sets, shelf edge clinoforms, and distal marine mudstone with source rock
potential (Bugge et al., 2002; Bullimore et al., 2004; Henriksen et al., 2011b; Johansen et al.,
1993; Ohm et al., 2008). When the formation was deposited, paleolatitudes were 50

to 55

for

thus located at about 44

to 49

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the Svalbard archipelago (Golonka, 2007; Worsley, 2008; Ziegler, 1988), with the Barents Sea
accordingly. The study area experienced a change from arid to

humid climate in the Carnian (Hochuli and Vigran, 2010).

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A regional flooding caps the Snadd Formation and marks the onset of the overlying Late Norian

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to Rhaetian Fruholmen Formation. Subsequently, the post-depositional history of the Snadd

Formation include Late Jurassic to Cretaceous rifting in the southwest and (Bjrnya and
Hammerfest basins) Late Cretaceous to Paleogene uplift and Neogene glacial erosion primarily to
the north and west (Gabrielsen et al., 1990; Faleide et al., 1993a; Faleide et al., 1993b; Henriksen
et al., 2011a). West of the Loppa High, the Mesozoic succession become progressively more

3.

Methodology

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downfaulted and blanketed by Cenozoic sediments (Faleide et al., 1996).

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A number of different, but complimentary, datasets are available from the southwestern part of
the Barents Sea, and, although scattered, they collectively form the basis for the interpretation of

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depositional elements and regional correlation. The combined datasets include 3D- and 2Dseismic data, well logs and cored well intervals (Fig. 1). In addition, outcrop studies of the timeequivalent De Geerdalen Formation on Svalbard compliment the interpretation of the most distal
parts of the Snadd Formation. Interpretations in the northern part, where data is more widely
spaced, has been conditioned to and compared with previous studies (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010;
Hy and Lundschien, 2011; Riis et al., 2008). 3D-seismic and core are used for a detailed

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classification of depositional environments, these environments are in turn used as backdrop for
extrapolating to 2D-seismic data and for interpretation of well logs. Following the stratigraphic
framework of Glrstad-Clark et al. (2010), based on sequence stratigraphic principles of Nystuen

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(1998), the present study uses regionally traceable maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) to trace the
Snadd Formation between the different datasets, and as basis for the subdivision of genetic
sequences sensu Galloway (1989). These surfaces represent significant non-erosive landward

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shifts of the shoreline, and are identified based on well log responses of marine shale with
corresponding low-amplitude seismic reflectors of regional extent, in places followed

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stratigraphically by stratal downlap terminations.

The flatlying nature of the strata on the Finnmark and Bjarmeland platforms is ideal for the study
of plan-view geomorphologies in seismic attribute maps extracted from 3D surveys. Other parts
of the study area, such as the Nordkapp Basin which is dominated by syn- and post-depositional

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halokinesis (Gabrielsen et al., 1990; Nilsen et al., 1995), are described mainly based on well logs
and core. Well correlation panels summarize the information gathered from well logs. These
capture both the depositional dip and strike trends of the formation and its stratigraphic

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framework. For the regional mapping of the formation, 2D seismic data has served as the main

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database. Two regional seismic transects are presented as geoseismic profiles that capture the
southeast to northwest depositional dip trend and the extent of the Snadd Formation basinward
(yellow lines in Fig. 1). In the fluvially dominated part of the succession, the regionally traceable
MFS that form the basis for the stratigraphic framework are traced as correlative conformities
that are corroborated by proprietary palynological data. The stratigraphic intervals defined by
palynological data correspond with the regionally traceable MFS, and their non-marine

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correlative conformity. A corresponding palynological database is available in Vigran et al.,

2014.

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Spacing of 2D seismic lines varies between 2 km in the south and up to 52 km in the north. 3D
seismic bin sizes vary between 6.25 x 6.25 m up to 12.5 x 25 m, most commonly 12.5 x 12.5 m.
Vertical resolution varies from between 10 - 15 m up to 40 m. Thicknesses are measured in
seconds as two way travel time off seismic data. Conversion to meters must be approximated in

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areas away from any well-control, here 10 milliseconds range between approximately 10-20

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meters, depending on depth, based on seismic velocities of 2-4 m/ms. This is consistent with the
Triassic velocity model in Clark et al. (2013) from the same area. Well logs are spaced between
29 and 117 km and situated in the southern part of the study area (cf. Fig. 1).
4.

Depositional environments

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Discrete depositional environments have been traced out within the Snadd Formation based on
well logs, core and seismic. Characteristic seismic expressions are discernible within these
different depositional environments and can, when aided by well logs, be interpreted in terms of

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seismic facies associations. The depositional environments range conformably from offshore
through shelf and shallow marine to paralic and fluvial. Periods of marine inundation are marked

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by flooding surfaces where offshore marine deposits unconformably overlay shallow- and nonmarine. These surfaces are used to divide the formation into stratigraphic levels and subsequently
into a sequence stratigraphic hierarchy, which will be returned to after introducing the different
facies. Figure 2 summarize the different facies associations and where they are located relative to
the basin.
4.1 Facies Association 1: Slope and basin

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Description: Basinward dipping seismic reflectors with clinoform configuration (Steel and Olsen,
2002), characterize this gross depositional environment. The clinoforms range in height from 100
to 500 m and often have a complex sigmoidal to oblique form with tangential bottomsets.

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Individual successions of clinoforms can be separated from the marginal marine and paralic
realms by the shelf facies (FA2) for several kilometres (Figure 2). Towards the upper part of
individual sequence stratigraphic intervals, the clinoforms offlap discontinuous and chaotic

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reflectors belonging to a different seismic facies associated with the shallow-marine and nonmarine (FA3, 4 and 5). The basinward extent of discrete clinoform successions range from

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around 50 km (Fig. 3A) up to hundreds of kilometres, and they can be extrapolated along strike
across most of the study area. The best examples of clinoforms exists in the Ladinian and Carnian
intervals to the southwest, but younger, Late Carnian clinoforms have also been documented
close to Svalbard (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Hy and Lundschien, 2011; Riis et al., 2008). The

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clinothems of the Snadd Formation appear relatively mud-dominated on well-logs based on a

low, homogeneous to heterogeneous gamma ray motif with individual coarsening-upwards trends
ranging from about 50 to hundreds of meters (Fig. 3B). This facies association has not been

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cored.

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Interpretation: Despite the lack of a direct observation through cored intervals, the facies
association is interpreted to be offshore marine. This is based on the nature of its well log motif
and the seismic expression of the facies association. The clinoforms are interpreted to represent
the offshore shelf edge and slope separating offshore deep marine from the platform and shelf
shallow marine environments (Helland-Hansen et al., 2012). The clinoform height represents the
water depth from the shelf platform to the prodeltaic basin, disregarding compaction. Several
workers have recognized and mapped these depositional elements in the Barents Sea (Bullimore

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et al., 2004; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Hy and Lundschien, 2011;
van Veen et al., 1993). Where clinoforms show preserved topsets and a sigmoid geometry, the
shoreline with associated non-marine deltaic deposits might be offset by several tens to hundreds

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of kilometres (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010), or displaced laterally in discrete delta lobes (GlrstadClark et al., 2011). Where the clinoforms offlap directly from the discontinuous to sub-parallel
reflectors of the nonmarine (e.g., the upper clinoform succession to the far left in Fig. 3A), the

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delta is interpreted to coincide with the shelf edge. At this stage, clinoforms are associated with
the maximum regressive stage of the sequence where the delta has prograded across the shelf.

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Neither well logs nor planform seismic attribute mapping have revealed any pronounced
sandstone bodies in this facies association (Fig. 3B) and a muddy prodelta and shelf is hence
inferred. Although only constituting minor and lower parts of the formation, this facies is
recognized in outcrops of the Tschermakfjellet Formation on Svalbard, whereas the underlying

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Botneheia Formation represents the distal, sediment-starved, anoxic equivalent to the bottomset
of the prograding clinoforms.

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4.2 Facies Association 2: Shelf

Description: In a more landward position and/or higher up in the stratigraphy relative to the

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clinoforms, parallel, continuous, high-amplitude seismic reflectors dominate (Fig. 3A). These
reflectors commonly overlie marine flooding surfaces, and they show a gradational and
conformable transition upward into the marginal marine facies. The thicknesses of discrete sets of
parallel reflectors typically range from 20 to 100 ms (e.g. Fig. 3A), and their lateral extent can be
traced for several kilometers. The facies is most prominent to the west, northwest and north,
along the periphery of the Bjarmeland Platform. Well-log motifs are characterized by
homogeneous to heterogeneous, low to irregular gamma-ray signals in upwards-shallowing

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trends of about 50 to hundreds of meters (Fig. 3B). This facies has not been cored. In outcrops on
eastern Svalbard, this facies consists of bioturbated, grey mudstone interlayered by minor (0,1 to

stratigraphically close to the De Geerdalen Formation (Fig. 4).

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1,5 m) sandstone deposits with wave ripple lamination and hummocky cross stratification

Interpretation: The seismic facies and log pattern together with its relative position between the
offshore clinoforms and more shallow-marine facies in a more proximal position suggests a

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relatively conformable offshore marine platform setting dominated by mudstone. This facies has

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thus been interpreted to represent an open marine, shelf or prodeltaic, depositional environment.
The seismic resolution does not preclude sub-seismic depositional features such as platform
deltas, but the relatively continuous and homogeneous reflectors suggest a conformable marine
shelf depositional setting. As in the previous offshore depositional environment, there are no
indications of seismically resolvable sandstone bodies, nor any signs of submarine canyons,

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despite the heterolithic well log responses suggesting a presence of sand. Consequently, the shelf
and prodelta is interpreted to be silt- and mud-dominated. The facies corresponds with the marine
part of the platform defined in Glrstad-Clark et al. (2010), and it is also found within the

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Tschermakfjellet Formation in outcrops on eastern Svalbard (Fig. 4; Knarud, 1980; Mrk et al.,

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1982), where it is interpreted to be offshore marine. Dalland et al. (1988) recorded multiple
meter-thick calcareous beds within this facies in the lower part of the formation, such deposits
can also be seen in outcrop and might indicate periodically less input of siliciclastic material.
4.3 Facies Association 3: Marginal marine and shoreface
Description: Alternating high- and low-amplitude parallel seismic reflectors with low to moderate
basinward continuity characterise this seismic facies (Figs. 3C and D, and 5A and C). The

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seismic facies range from 20-40 ms down to the limits of seismic resolution, with a lateral extent
from 1-10 km normal to the depositional strike and hundreds of kilometres parallel to the
depositional strike direction. In plan-view seismic, the high amplitude portions of the reflectors

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are elongate and straight, and are arranged in sets up to 10 km in width (Fig. 3C and 5A). Areas
of high amplitude reflectors are also arranged in a cuspate pattern oriented oblique to the
neighbouring elongate high amplitude pattern as seen in planview in Figure 3A. The facies is

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characterised in well logs as discrete upwards coarsening and shallowing trends, about 10 to 40 m
thick (Fig 3B), defined by gradual decrease in gamma ray values, with a conformable relation to

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the shelf and prodeltaic below. Cored section from the facies show very fine to fine sand with
wave ripples (Fig. 5B).

Interpretation: This seismic facies is interpreted to represent a marginal marine depositional

environment, and they are found at the interface between parallel reflectors of the marine shelf

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depositional environment and the discontinuous seismic expression of the more proximal coastal
plain, with a conformable and gradational relation to both in a lateral as well as vertical sense.
Due to its relation to neighbouring facies, its planform expression, and orientation relative to

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paleocurrent directions, parts of this facies is suggested to consist of shoreface sandstone

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arranged in successive beach ridge sets. This interpretation is substantiated by interpretations of

cored intervals and upward-coarsening well-log motifs. Upwards-coarsening trends seen in welllogs (e.g. Fig. 3B) might alternatively correspond to mouth bar complexes. The shifting
orientation and relative heterogeneity of the most landward beach ridges in Figure 3C can be
explained by relative proximity to the mouth of a delta and the potential asymmetric nature of
prograding shorelines (Bhattacharya and Giosan, 2003). Other parts of the marginal marine
depositional setting does not show clearly defined beach ridges, one variant can be interpreted as

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barrier beach deposits (Figure 5A and B) which are best developed in the Caurus survey. These
deposits are narrower and thicker than the prograding beach ridge sets and are found
stratigraphically higher (Fig. 5C). This might be related to transgression, or alternatively

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represent the formation of a spit down depositional strike from a delta front. Also within the
Caurus survey is a type of deposit not directly related to marginal marine depositional processes,
but found in its immediate proximity. These deposits are interpreted as aeolian deposits due to

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their cuspate shape, with a transport direction obliquely landward (Fig. 5A). The dune
interpretation is based on their arrangement in discrete and distinctly separated sets consisting of

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successive series of high amplitude reflectors that do not show any signs of erosion. The deposits
are located next to a sand prone beach with presumably strong onshore winds capable of
transporting sand from the beach and deposit dunes on top of the upper shoreface. Alternatively,
these shapes could be attributed point bars, but their shape does not conform to the channel belt

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pattern diagnostic of fluvial sandstone. Slightly overlying both the shoreface and aeolian deposits
are high amplitude reflectors interpreted as barrier beach deposits (bright line in Fig. 5A). In
outcrop, the marginal marine facies is normally encountered as tidal flats or as swaley and wave

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rippled deposits of the De Geerdalen Formation (Fig. 4; Klausen and Mrk, 2014), it is

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gradational to interdistributary bay fill deposits.

4.4 Facies Association 4: Coastal plain
Description: The facies is characterised by irregular, discontinuous and often weak seismic
reflectors. From well logs, this facies is measured to range in thickness from about 30 to 450
meters. It is laterally widespread and at the maximum regressive stage it covers most of the study
area.

It is found in a conformable, gradational relation to the marginal marine facies

stratigraphically below, but bounded above by sharp and unconformable relation to shelf facies

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(Figs. 3A, 8, 9 and 10). Laterally, the facies is separated from the offshore by the marginal
marine facies association, and it is encasing discontinuous high amplitude reflectors of FA5. In
well logs (e.g. Fig. 6B), the facies is typically serrated. Core intervals contain fine-grained

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sandstone with current-ripple cross lamination sedimentary structures and plant fragments, and
laminated carbonaceous shale with soft-sediment deformation, rootlets and little to no
bioturbation (Fig. 7B). In outcrop of the time-equivalent De Geerdalen Formation on Hopen (Fig.

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6C), the facies show a heterolithic succession comprising multiple paleosols and gleysols with
thin coal seams and roots. Klausen and Mrk (2014) observed nodular, carbonate cemented beds

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in outcrop on Hopen that belongs to this facies association.

Interpretation: This facies is interpreted to represent a silt- and mud-dominated coastal plain
depositional environment, gradational to paralic and interdistributary environments of a lower
delta plain. The discontinuous and irregular nature of the seismic reflectors is explained by

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heterolithic deposits of highly variable shape and lateral extent (Figs. 6C). Channel sandstone
bodies, for example, that are not seismically resolvable contribute to this seismic expression, as
do coal layers and crevasse splays (e.g. red shaded sandstone bodies in Fig. 6D). A coastal plain

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interpretation is supported further by well-log and core data that indicate coal layers and

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observations from cored sections are all suggestive of nonmarine, fluvial environments (Figs. 6B
and 7C). The predominantly mudstone dominated succession makes the contrasting channel
sandstone bodies stand out in planform as well as in cross sections.
4.5 Facies Association 5: Channel sandstone bodies
Description: This seismic facies is characterized by strong, discontinuous, low and high
amplitude seismic expressions that in planform view have a ribbon-like shoestring geometry that

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extend for several kilometers along their length and vary in width from tens of metres to tens of
kilometers (Fig. 7). Typically they are low-sinuosity to straight ribbons in plan-view, but can also
show well-developed accretion surfaces, irrespective of scale, showing both expansion and

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downstream translation. This seismic facies is found encased in the coastal plain facies.
Thicknesses range from the limits of seismic tuning (c. 15 ms TWT, up to 58 ms). Well logs tend
to show upwards fining gamma ray motifs (e.g. Fig. 6B), but can also often be blocky (Fig. 7D),

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with maximum thicknesses ranging from approximately 3,5 to 58 metres. The basal contact is
sharp (Fig. 7C). In core, grain sizes range from medium to fine sand, often in discrete upwards-

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fining trends, and sedimentary structures include through cross stratification and current ripple
lamination, mud clasts lags, siderite nodules and plant fragments (Fig. 7C). In the upper and
distal part of the formation, the facies can be observed in outcrop as large, discontinuous
sandstone bodies with erosive base and internal lateral accretion surfaces or as amalgamated,

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scour and fill, sandstone bodies (yellow shading in Fig. 6C).

Interpretation: This seismic facies is interpreted to be the deposits of a channel sandstone facies.
Figures 7 and 6 are representative examples of how the seismic facies varies from the proximal to

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the more distal parts of the coastal plain. Although present throughout the study area, and at

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every stratigraphic level, the most well-developed lateral accretion packages are found in the
Early Carnian interval (Fig. 7). Internal scouring within these packages that show expansion and
downstream translation are interpreted to be the result of meandering rivers forming channel belt
deposits. The largest dimensions are found in the proximal part of the study area, and become
progressively smaller down the coastal plain. In the distal part, ribbon-shaped sandstones
interpreted to be channel fill deposits are most abundant. Examples of channel fill deposits can be
seen together with a meandering channel belt in Figure 7B and in 6A. These deposits show no

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lateral accretion in planview or cross section and are interpreted to form by scour and fill within a
single channel. In figure 6A, individual channel fill deposits also show discrete splitting and
branching with a subsequent reattachment. These geomorphological expressions are interpreted

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to represent anastomosing channels. Alternatively, the splitting and reattachment result from
erosion and scouring or because the channel segments were not contemporaneous and thus a
result of avulsion rather than anabranching, information might also be missing below seismic

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resolution. Cored sections suggest that the channels are predominantly fluvial, due to their
relatively poor sorting and grain size differences. Sparse mud drapes are attributed to deposition

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during slack-water periods and are relatively more abundant in core from western parts of the
study area. Mud clasts are interpreted as locally sourced bank-erosion products. Finer-grained
channel bodies located close to the marginal marine facies belt are interpreted to be of lower delta
plain affinity and are likely to have been tidally influenced due to their proximity to the shoreline.

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Tidal channels and estuaries can also be assumed to have existed as such depositional elements
are reported from time-equivalent deposits on Hopen, Svalbard (Klausen and Mrk, 2014). These
channel sandstones are markedly different from the fluvial channels in their degree of sorting,

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argillaceous content and sedimentary structures such as tidal bundles and reactivation surfaces.

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4.6 Stratigraphic framework and correlation

Three regionally traceable maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) have been identified and traced
throughout the study area. These are: the Early Ladinian MFS, the Intra Carnian MFS, and the
Early Norian MFS. The MFSs effectively divide the Snadd Formation into an upper and a lower
part. Within these two parts, the succession has been subdivided further by interpreting MFS of
semi-regional extent: the top Ladinian MFS, the intra Early Carnian MFS and the top Late

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Carnian MFS. Correlation panels (Fig. 8) show these MFSs along with interpreted facies
associations in well logs trending westward from the Finnmark Platform to the Loppa High.

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The base and top of the Snadd Formation are both defined by regional marine flooding surfaces
marked by thin anoxic mudstone above shallow-marine and non-marine deposits. These anoxic
beds are followed by thick offshore to shelf mudstone and eventually terrigenous strata in the
Snadd and the overlying Fruholmen formations (Mrk et al., 1999; Henriksen et al. 2011b). The

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internal Intra Carnian MFS is not associated by the characteristic anoxic mudstone but can be

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distinguished by a landward shift of the shoreline with a corresponding change in palynological

intervals in the non-marine correlative conformity (the Early to Late Carnian transition).
The semi-regional MFSs that have been interpreted, namely the top Ladinian, intra Early Carnian
and the Late Carnian, are most easily distinguished in the west. They have been interpreted based

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on a marked change in facies associations, typically from shallow- and non-marine into shelf
deposits. This transition can be seen both in well logs (Figs. 3B, 6B and 8) and in seismic (Figs.
5B, 6 and 10).In the east, the predominance of non-marine deposits make sequence stratigraphic

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subdivisions harder to delineate in well logs and seismic. Palynological zones are used as a guide
for the non-marine correlative conformities, and can be tied to the top Ladinian, top Early and

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Late Carnian and the top Early Norian MFSs. Surfaces and extrapolations are shown in the
correlation panel in Figure 8. These surfaces have been used to subdivide the Snadd Formation
into discrete stratigraphic intervals.
The present study defines one Ladinian (L1), two Early Carnian (C1 and C2), one Late Carnian
(C3), and one Early Norian (N1) stratigraphic sequences. The lower part of the Snadd Formation
(base Ladinian to Intra Carnian MFS) comprises the L1, C1 and C2 sequences (Fig. 8). The L1

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sequence is characterized by a gamma ray expression reflecting upwards cleaning and shallowing
from FA1 at the base followed by FA2 heterolithics and culminating in a thin, but widespread
succession of FA3 to FA4 that ranges in thickness from 15 to 100 m with a maximum at the

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Loppa High and Bjarmeland Platform (wells 7223/5-1 and 7226/2-1, Fig. 8). The top Ladinian
flooding surface mark the end of this L1 sequence and this boundary is overlain by Early Carnian
marine mudstone, FA2, marked by prominent and regionally extensive low amplitude seismic

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reflectors and on well logs by high gamma ray values (about 200-350 API). This Early Carnian
interval is subdivided in two discrete sequences along an intra-Early Carnian flooding surface.

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The first sequence, C1, shows a succession of upward thickening and cleaning from the FA2
through 10 to 80 meters of FA3 deposits into a thick and widespread succession of FA4 (Fig. 8)
which is associated with large-scale fluvial channels of FA5. These non-marine deposits are
capped by a marked, but relatively restricted MFS (Fig. 8).The overlying C2 sequence has

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conformable upwards coarsening from FA2 into FA3 (Figs. 3C and 5A). The Intra Carnian MFS
cap this sequence and is a major, regionally traceable marine inundation in the west that passes ESE into a correlative conformity in the non-marine deposits of the eastern parts of the Bjarmeland

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Platform and on the Finnmark Platform (Fig. 8).

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The upper part of the Snadd Formation, comprises two discrete sequences: a Late Carnian C3
sequence, and an overlying Early Norian N1 sequence (Fig. 8). The C3 sequence consists of FA2
in its lower part, gradually coarsening and shallowing upwards through FA3 into FA4 (Fig. 6B)
which dominates the sequence within the study area. Towards the top of the Snadd Formation,
and at the end of the Late Carnian interval, there is a marked low amplitude reflector that can be
traced regionally, where post-depositional erosion has not removed it. This boundary is the top
Late Carnian MFS, which separate FA4 and 5 in the C3 sequence below from FA2 and 3 above.

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The overlying Early Norian N1 sequence shows repeated upwards shallowing and coarsening
from FA2 into FA3, with very restricted, 5 to 20 metres, FA4 counterparts in the most proximal
part of the study area. Capping the N1 sequence is the regional MFS that terminated the Snadd

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Formation and separates it from the overlying Fruholmen Formation in the Barents Sea and its
time-equivalent Flatsalen Formation in Svalbard (Dalland et al., 1988; Mrk et al., 1999).

Figure 9 shows how the interpreted facies and sequence boundaries are distributed in a seismic

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section trending in an east-west depositional dip direction through the study area. Interpretations

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from regional seismic lines match the well log interpretations above and serves to substantiate the
correlation panels: The western part records thicker intervals of FA1 and 2 which show upwards
shallowing trends that culminate in either FA3 or 4. The eastern part of the study area is more
condensed and comprise dominantly FA4 and 5. The Intra Carnian MFS can be most easily
traced in the western part, but also for a relatively long distance towards the east. In the Nordkapp

Carnian (Fig. 9).

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Basin there is a marked thickening of the succession, particularly for the lowermost Early

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Figure 10 shows how gross depositional environments are distributed in a SE-NW oblique to
depositional dip direction. This depositional dip direction is well established in the literature (Riis

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et al., 2008; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010) and can be corroborated by both northwest dipping
clinoforms and the development of FA5 towards the NW. The size of individual channel deposits
generally decreases down the coastal plain relative to the more proximal, southeastern part of the
study area. A progressively basinward decrease in size of these depositional elements is
interpreted to be the result of channel splitting and avulsion as the delta plain broadens and its
gradient decreases. Also, the northern part records thicker intervals of FA1 and 2, whereas the

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southern part, like the eastern part of the previous figure, is more condensed and comprises
predominantly FA4 and 5.

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From the correlation panels (Fig. 8) and the geo-seismic sections presented above (Figs. 9 and
10), a basinward thickening of the Snadd Formation towards the west is apparent; however, postdepositional erosion (e.g. red line in Fig. 9) has complicated the picture in that the succession has
been eroded to the west by Pleistocene glaciations. Generally, the eastern and more proximal

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parts of the formation are more condensed, interpreted to reflect more restricted accommodation

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and sediment bypass. Thin areas to the west and northwest coincide with areas of postdepositional erosion (cf. Figs. 9 and 10). Because of this erosion, only the base Snadd Formation
could be correlated in the northwest, consequently this part is not covered by the isopach
(diagonal shading in Fig. 11). To the east of the first clinoform belt, a local high stands out, this is
the salt-cored Svalis Dome where the Snadd Formation is subcropping and is in parts entirely

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eroded (Mrk and Elvebakk, 1999; Vigran et al., 1998). Apart from this, the formation is found to
thicken in a NE-SW-trending belt to the west, northwest and north of the Bjarmeland Platform
(Fig. 11). There is also an intermittent area of local thickening in the Nordkapp Basin where salt

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domes are present (as seen in cross sections, Figs. 9 and 10), this is interpreted to indicate that

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halokinesis was active during deposition. Distinct clinoform successions have developed in front
of the underlying Kobbe Formation shelf, but the best developed successions (Fig. 11) closely
coincide with the thickest parts of the formation which roughly corresponds to the NE-SWoriented, strike-elongate Late Palaeozoic basins mapped by Gudlaugsson et al. (1998), as also
pointed out by Glrstad-Clark et al. (2010). There is a basin wide trend with thickening in and in
front of the prograding clinoform successions, except for a small area on the eastern Loppa High.
Here, local syn-depositional subsidence is evident as a relative thickening to the east of the first

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clinoform belt, signalling added accommodation in shelfal waters and shallow-marine

environments. The eastward limit of this localized thickening corresponds directly to the mapped

seismic. Their outline is marked with a white polygon in Figure 11.

5.

Palaeogeography

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shoreface sands, and the only examples of which that can be clearly resolved in 3D and 2D

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Variations in depositional environments can be summarized by a series of palaeogeographic

reconstructions (Fig. 13). Earlier studies (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010;

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Lundschien et al., In press; Riis et al., 2008; Skjold et al., 1998; Smelror et al., 2009; van Veen et
al., 1993; Worsley, 2008) have provided palaeogeographic reconstructions for the Triassic
succession. Since these studies have considered the Triassic as a whole, or other parts of the
stratigraphy, none have described the interval covered by the Snadd Formation at resolution of

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third order sequences. The data presented in this study and previous detailed studies (Klausen and
Mrk, 2014; Klausen et al., 2014) allows a high resolution palaeogeographic reconstruction to be
attempted. Further, individual sequences, as they are defined by the stratigraphic framework

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above, are presented in terms of both their interpreted maximum and minimum regressive stage.
An earlier proposed western source on Spitsbergen has been omitted from the reconstructions

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below, but returned to in the Discussion.

L1 sequence

The lower, L1 sequence is characterized by a regressive wedge of sediments with a thick

succession of FA1 to 2, comprising distinct shelf edge clinoforms (Figs. 2, 3A, 8, 9, 11 and 12).
These clinoforms developed in front of, and as a continuation of underlying Anisian clinoforms,
the Snadd Formation can thus be considered to have developed a sedimentary shelf cf. Helland-

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Hansen et al. (2012). Basinward of the shelf edge clinoforms, the L1 sequence comprise offshore
marine organic rich mudstone in the most distal parts (Bugge et al., 2002; Ohm et al., 2008; van
Veen et al., 1993) and in the time-equivalent Botneheia Formation on Svalbard (Mrk et al.,

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1999). Clinoforms range in height from 100 to 500 meter and reflect the depth of the basin,
neglecting post-depositional compaction. Except for meter-thick prodeltaic sandstones observed
in FA2 on well logs, no clear evidence exists for widespread offshore/basinal marine sandstones

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such as turbidites and submarine fan deposits. This absence might be explained by them being
below seismic resolution or, alternatively, that sediments were primarily sequestered on the delta

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plain or proximal parts of the shelf. The upper, FA4 part of this third order sequence is
comparably thin, but widespread. FA5 also exists within this part of the succession. FA3
interpreted in well-logs (e.g. Fig. 8) marks the presence of discrete upwards coarsening and
shallowing sequences identified in cores but below seismic resolution. These might include

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mouth bar complexes as well as shoreface sand and tidal sandflats.

The development of the L1 sequence suggests a rapidly prograding shoreline across an inherited
shelf into the western epicontinental seaway with water depths of about 100-500 meters. Earlier

This conflicts with well-preserved clinoform topsets and a flat, but slightly rising,

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tract.

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studies (Skjold et al., 1998; van Veen et al., 1993) suggested a Late Ladinian lowstand systems

clinoform trajectory of about 0.002 (Fig. 12). The trajectory value given here is considered a
conservative estimate since the seismic data has neither been decompacted nor rotated, hence the
trajectory does not reflect the true path of the shelf edge. A qualitative back-rotation of 10
reveals a potential for an overall flat to rising trajectory (Fig. 12C). There is also a progressive
evolution from offshore shale, through inner shelf shale and silt conformably overlain by fluvial,
paralic deposits with no pronounced paleovalleys or basin floor fans (Figs. 3B and 8). The deltaic

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outbuilding is limited to the Loppa High in the west and the Bjarmeland Platform in the north at
the maximum regressive stage of this sequence. A westward protrusion of the L1 delta plain is
interpreted from well logs. The interpreted delta outline resembles what has been interpreted for

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the stratigrphically lower Anisian and Olenekian deltas (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011). Nonaccretionary landward shoreline translation up to 140 km towards the SE followed the deposition
of paralic sediments in L1. This rapid shoreline translation is interpreted to be facilitated the low-

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gradient delta plain established at the maximum regressive stage of L1 (Fig. 13).

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An issue that surrounds the paleogeographic reconstruction of the Ladinian L1 sequence is the
potential for a western source for the time-equivalent Skuld Formation (Mrk et al., 1990; Vigran
et al., 2014) at Bjrnya (Riis et al., 2008; Glrstad-Clark et al., 2014). Although there is a
conspicuous amphibian fossil in the Ladinian part of the Skuld Formation (Vigran et al., 2014)
that suggests a nearshore depositional environment, the overall succession in which it is found

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can be linked to a prodeltaic environment. The available data show that there are northwestdipping clinoforms as far north as there is seismic data, and there is no available evidence for the
opposite (Fig. 14). Considering the rate of delta progradation from the SW, the most plausible

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explanation seems to be that the Bjrnya deposits are also part of this prograding system. This

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issue can easily be resolved with zircon analysis, and it is highly recommended as a future
research project.
C1 sequence

The marine succession directly overlying the L1 sequence makes up the basal part of the C1 third
order sequence (e.g. Fig. 2). It is comparably thin relative to the L1 marine succession, but the
fluvial succession of the C1 sequence is thicker than that of the preceding sequence. An increase

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in sediment input, considering a maximum thickness of up to 600 meter in C1 vs 350 m in L1

within approximately the same time span of 5 million years (Fig. 8), in combination with
subsidence accommodated for a thick fluvial succession deposited while progradation shifted the

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shoreline basinwards. This enabled a rapid cross-shelf migration of the delta (Fig. 13). In much
the same manner as the low gradient delta plain established at the end of L1 facilitated for rapid
landward shoreline translation, the shallow platform this marine inundation left behind was

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relatively rapidly reoccupied by the C1 delta. Absence of pronounced fluvial incision suggests
that this renewed progradation occurred without a fall in relative sea-level. The channel

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complexes of FA5, as mapped both in 2D and 3D seismic, reveal that the large river system fed
sediment from the E/SE and that there is a west and north-westward decrease in channel belt size,
reflecting the river system splitting and branching into distributary river systems down the delta
plain (Fig. 2). From the proximal Finnmark Platform in the southeast to the Bjarmeland Platform

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in the west, the width of channel belts decrease by 10 km (cf. Fig. 7A and B), and in the more
distal parts on the Loppa High, channels can be down to only a few hundred meters in width.
Degree of channel sandstone amalgamation also tends to decrease down depositional dip. Tidal

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influence and the possibility for estuarine deposits increase down the delta plain. Although also
typical following sea level fall with incision, the latter is here associated with the transgression

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and destructive phase of one part of the delta following trunk river avulsion. Tidal influence can
be seen in cores, but estuarine deposits have not proven distinguishable. The cores from the
Nordkapp Basin show shell lags indicating that there was marine influence on the fluvial
deposits. The Nordkapp Basin is interpreted to be the site of local high subsidence (Figs. 9 and
11) due to remobilization of underlying evaporite deposits (Nilsen et al., 1995), and this
accommodated for estuarine deposits in this basin. Also, tidal effects are thought to have affected
the vast and gently graded delta plain trough far-reaching backwater effects as demonstrated in

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modern fluvial systems by (Blum et al., 2013). Although the climate is reported to be more arid
in the Early Carnian (Hochuli and Vigran, 2010), coal fragments are common in most of the
channel deposits from this period and core from well 7131/4-1 also indicate vegetated and water

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logged soil profiles at the base of Early Carnian channel sands. Local to regional climate
variations might have existed along the coastal areas during the overall arid Early Carnian, and
monsoonal are reported on southern latitudes (Mutti and Weissert, 1995).

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The maximum regressive stage of the C1 sequence has been interpreted as a low gradient delta

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plain reaching as far west as the western Loppa High and as far north as the Fingerdjupet SubBasin and the Hoop Fault complex (Fig. 13). The offshore marine to prodeltaic Skuld Formation
(Mrk et al., 1999) on Bjrnya, is time-equivalent to the Snadd and the De Geerdalen
formations and is considered the distal part of the prograding C1 delta (Riis et al., 2008). The
prodeltaic setting can be substantiated by a SW extrapolation of the clinoform succession marked

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by a black polygon in Figure 10. On Svalbard, this progradation marks the transition from
sediment starved and organic rich offshore shale in the Ladinian Botneheia Formation to the
prodeltaic Carnian Tschermakfjellet Formation. Overlying the fluvial part of the C1 sequence on

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the Loppa High is a non-accretionary MFS of about 150 km extent in the southwest. To the north

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however, sedimentation continued unabated with no sign of flooding.

C2 sequence

The C2 sequence is defined as a relatively thin interval that is most pronounced in the west,
where comprise a back-stepping unit atop the C1 sequence (Fig. 8). It contains the only
prominent shoreface sandstone deposits observed in 3D seismic from the study area (Figs. 3C and
5A), recording a significant succession of FA3 below the Intra-Carnian MFS. The facies

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association has been traced out in a discrete NNE-SSW band that coincide with the eastward limit
of the relative thickening over the paleo-Loppa High, as indicated by the white polygon in Figure
10. This position also represents the maximum westward regression of the C2 shoreline (Fig. 13).

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The shoreface sandstones lie conformably above FA2 deposits on top of the C1 flooding surface.
Notably, the shoreface sandstones are prograding, and the shoreface sandstones together with
their more basinward FA2 and their aeolian deposits (Fig. 5A) are attributed to a back-stepping,

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prograding trend. In the seismic correlation running SE-NW (Fig. 10), the fluvial part of this
sequence is hard to differentiate from the underlying C1 sequence. Transgression followed by

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shoreface progradation in the south was accompanied by uninterrupted progradation to the north.
This has been interpreted to be caused by trunk river avulsion following the stabilization of the
Nordkapp Basin with a shift in deposition northward. Avulsion thus explain the widespread
shoreface deposits on the eastern Loppa High (Figs. 3C and 5A), with a corresponding fluvial

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delta to the north, in the area north of the Hoop Fault Complex.

The most proximal channel sandstone body span almost the entire palynological zone of the
Early Carnian interval (well 7131/4-1 in Fig. 8), and this longevity is interpreted to reflect the

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channels proximity to a long lived palaeovalley system (Klausen et al., 2014). These channel

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deposits have formed with restricted accommodation over long time-spans with multiple cut and
fill cycles, where only the latest depositional cycles are preserved.
Capping the C2 third order sequence, ending the Early Carnian period of deposition and the first
second order sequence in the Snadd Formation, is the regionally traceable Intra Carnian MFS.
C3 and C4 sequences

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Above the Intra Carnian MFS, FA2 are followed by FA3 deposits and a thick succession of FA4.
This facies association dominates the Late Carnian succession in the study area, and is termed the
third order sequence C3. As it prograded further west and northward than the preceding units

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(Fig. 12), a central issue in mapping this sequence is the extensive post-depositional erosion in
the west which has removed most of the succession. To the north, clinoforms have been
documented by the present study (Fig. 11) and Hy and Lundschien (2011), and paralic fluvial

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sandstones are well documented in outcrops of the time-equivalent De Geerdalen Formation (Fig.
4; Klausen and Mrk, 2014). The fluvial facies is not pronounced in eastern Spitsbergen, which

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comprises mostly marginal marine facies (Fig. 4), and consequently the non-marine to marginal
marine transition is inferred at and between Edgeya and eastern Spitsbergen, with the potential
for contemporaneous delta lobes along the paleocoastline.

Hy and Lundschien (2011) and Lundschien et al. (In press) show the potential for a further

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subdivision of the Late Carnian, which is consistent with field observations in Klausen and Mrk
(2014), and a C4 sequence is thus proposed to incorporate this interval. However, it is not
discernible in the non-marine dominated intervals in the southern Barents Sea. The Snadd

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Formation reached its most regressive stage in the C3 and C4 sequences, as it prograded

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northwards towards Hopen, Edgeya and eastern and central Spitsbergen on Svalbard. The
westward extent cannot be constrained in the same manner since the sequence is either eroded or
too deeply buried, but all well logs record thick successions of FA4 in this interval (Fig. 8) and
the facies association could thus be inferred to extend beyond the study area. Previous studies
have restricted the upper part of the Triassic succession to the area just west of the Loppa High
(Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Riis et al., 2008). Based on clinoform packages and non-marine well
log responses, there is however reason to assume that the seaway was entirely closed for some

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periods during the Late Carnian, and by inference that the Snadd Formation at some point
connected with the paleolandmass of present day Greenland (Lundschien et al., In press).

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The C3 sequence is characterised by a profound change in fluvial depositional style to thinner

and narrower, more homogenous fluvial channel sandstones than the stratigraphically lower C1
and C2 sequences (Klausen et al., 2014). Despite this change, fluvial channel bodies of seismic
scale (Figure 6D) are found as far north as Svalbard. Channel sizes are comparable to those seen

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in seismic from the same stratigraphic interval in the southern part of the study area (Fig. 5C).

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Further, seismic attribute maps show planform channel sandstone with more anastomosing
geomorphologies (e.g. Fig. 6A) in this sequence, interpreted to signal increased accommodation
relative to the lower sequences in combination with an even gentler gradient on the delta plain.
Ultimately, the gentle gradient and aerially extensive delta plain is affected by backwater
reaching far inland, leaving the delta more prone to channel avulsion with splitting and branching

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of relatively homogenous channel bodies (Fig. 13). In the uppermost part of the C4 sequence, the
thin coal beds and carbonaceous shale and silt are abundant in these sequence, both in outcrop
and in well logs, reflecting the reported change in climatic conditions (Hochuli and Vigran,

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2010). Interestingly, nodular carbonate beds are reported from outcrop in central Spitsbergen and

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on Hopen. These deposits have been interpreted as caliche horizons (Knutsen, 2013) but also as a
condensed carbonate beds and shell lag horizons, often associated with carbonate cemented
layers and sometimes with pressure-dissolution fibrous veins such as cone-in-cone and beef
structures (Fig. 4; Klausen and Mrk, 2014). Caliche horizons imply that the climate remained
variable also in the Late Carnian, however the alternative explanation might also form under a
humid climate and is therefore preferred.

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The C4 sequence incorporates the lower part of the Hopen Member (Paterson and Mangerud,
Submitted; Lord et al., In press) and signals a rise in relative sea-level. Pollen along with marine
fauna becomes more dominant as opposed to spores that dominate in the De Geerdalen

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Formation which might indicate transport as opposed to in-situ vegetation (Paterson, personal
communication). This rise in relative sea-level is also reflected in the increasingly more marine
deposits in the upper parts of the C4 sequence (Fig. 4) and has been recorded on Hopen (Klausen

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and Mrk, 2014).

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N1 sequence

In the uppermost part of the Snadd Formation there is a thin, transgressive N1 sequence (Norian
interval in Fig. 8). No clear geomorphologies indicative of any particular sedimentary
environments have been observed in 3D seismic, but 2D seismic, well logs and core are

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interpreted as marine and marginal marine. Tracing the sequence is problematic since it is eroded
in the west and north (Figs. 9, 10 and 11) by the base Cretaceous unconformity and the upper
regional unconformity (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010), and dominated by a depositional hiatus in

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the east. It is nevertheless important as a transgressive and final stage of the Snadd Formation. By
this time, the epicontinental basin has been almost completely filled in by the prograding clastic

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wedge, and the transgression occurred over a low gradient delta topography (Fig. 13). The N1
sequence is equivalent to the upper parts of the transgressive Hopen Member of the De Geerdalen
Formation and the overlying condensed Slottet Bed on Svalbard (Lord et al., In press). This
transgression, initiated in the latest Carnian C4 sequence at Svalbard, is characterized by a gentle,
but marked, rise in relative sea-level that resulted in widespread shallow marine deposits and
possibly estuarine, tidal to interdistributary and lagoon deposits in the paralic domain. The
sequence is capped by the Early Norian MFS which marks the end of the Snadd Formation.

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Overlying this is the Late Norian to Rhaetian Fruholmen Formation. On Svalbard, this
transgression culminates with the transgressive lag of the Slottet Bed as defined by Mrk et al.
(1999). It is overlying the De Geerdalen Formation but time-equivalent to the continued marine

6.

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N1 transgression in the Barents Sea.

Discussion

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This section discusses the significance of the stratigraphic framework and sequences presented in
this paper. The Snadd Formation is explained in relation to earlier studies and put in context with

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the larger-scale Triassic sedimentary infill of the Barents Sea basin. Similarities to the Canadian
Sverdrup basin are also addressed. The differences recorded within the Snadd Formation also
warrant a discussion of what controlled the sediment supply and depositional styles. Beyond this,
the dataset also allows for some comments about large-scale basin infilling in general.

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6.1 Sequences

Mesozoic sequence stratigraphy in the Barents Sea has been the subject of multiple studies, and
different interpretations have followed different methodologies (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011;

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Glrstad-Clark et al., 2010; Mrk and Smelror, 2001; Riis et al., 2008; Skjold et al., 1998; van

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Veen et al., 1993). Differences and similarities between the present study and earlier publications
is summarized in Figure 15, along with the palynological subdivision of Vigran et al. (2014). The
sequence stratigraphic terminology used in the present study builds on the stratigraphic
framework established in more recent work by (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011; Glrstad-Clark et al.,
2010). The Middle to Upper Triassic is subdivided into second order sequences termed S4 and S5
(Glarstad-Clark et al., 2010), and are further divided into subunits of the third order for the
Lower to Middle Triassic (Glrstad-Clark et al., 2011) and the Middle to Upper Triassic (Skjold

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et al., 1998; van Veen et al., 1993). In this study, also the Snadd Formation has been divided into
third order sequences according to the abovementioned hierarchical classification (Figure 15).
The base Ladinian MFS defines the first second order sequence within the Snadd Formation, a

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sequence which is bounded on top by the Intra Carnian MFS, seen as the most prominent MFS
within the Snadd Formation. This second order boundary is thus placed stratigraphically higher in
the present study than that of Glrstad-Clark et al. (2010), where the top Ladinian MFS is the

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upper boundary for the second order sequence S4. The upper second order sequence S5 is here

base of the Fruholmen Formation.

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restricted to the top Snadd Formation due to the prominent top Early Norian MFS that mark the

The base Ladinian MFS that marks the onset of the Snadd Formation is a regional flooding
surface that separates the Anisian to Early Ladinian Kobbe Formation below from the Snadd
Formation above. At Svalbard, this boundary sits within the organic and phosphate rich, sediment

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starved, Botneheia Formation that is separated from the overlying Tschermakfjellet and De
Geerdalen formations which are defined as lithostratigraphic units that are time-equivalent to the
Carnian part of the Snadd Formation. Lithologically defined formation boundaries such as some

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of those found in outcrop on Svalbard are diachronous at basin scale. Capping the Snadd

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Formation is the Fruholmen Formation in the Barents Sea, and the Flatsalen Formation at
Svalbard.

This study considers two second order sequences (S4 and S5) for the Snadd Formation, with a
possibility of a third, S6, outside the scope of the present study covering the Fruholmen
Formation (Fig. 15). Ultimately this yields three second order sequences in place of two, and a
total of six for the Triassic when added to the framework established by Glrstad-Clark (2010).
Six third order sequences have been interpreted within the two second order sequences of the

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Snadd Formation. These third order sequences correspond to those suggested by van Veen et al.
(1993), with the exception of their third order sequence T3-4 and some reordering of sequences

Clark (2011) in the Lower to Middle Triassic.

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and boundaries. Their third order sequences also show some correlation to those of Glrstad-

Above the Intra Carnian MFS, the Late Carnian C3 sequence comprises a relatively thick
succession of fluvial deposits overlying a comparable thin marine shale section. Discrete changes

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in fluvial geomorphologies within this sequence, in addition to the thickness of the sequence

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compared the preceding, suggests that there is potentially another relative sea-level rise hidden as
a correlative conformity within the fluvial part of this sequence, assuming cyclicity. However, in
the southern part of the study area, the marine part of this succession has either been eroded or is
buried to too great a depth in the west to make any accurate interpretations and extrapolate
correlative conformities. To the north, towards and on Svalbard similar variability exists both

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within the subsurface Snadd Formation as discrete and successive clinoform packages described
in Hy and Lundschien (2011), and within the De Geerdalen Formation in outcrop where
Klausen and Mrk (2014) documented periods of base-level rise associated with a pronounced

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estuarine and tidally dominated interval within the predominantly fluvial succession. A fourth

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Carnian third order sequence, C4, is introduced to accommodate for this, and, although there are
no indications of such within the study area, there exists a potential for even more sequences
further basinward which could potentially be added to the stratigraphic framework.
The final third order sequence that can be defined within the Snadd Formation is the Early Norian
N1-sequence, following the base Early Norian flooding surface (pink line in Fig. 15). It
represents the transgressive stage of the upper Snadd Formation, interpreted to contain shallow
marine deposits in the western part of the study area. The unit is generally thin, and not present or

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eroded in the east. An additional third order sequence can be defined to cap the Snadd Formation,
this is the proposed Norian N2-sequence (Fig. 15). However, this has not been part of the present
study and merely included here to suggest a natural continuation of the stratigraphic terminology.

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Following this would be the Rhaetian R1 third order sequence (Fig. 15) and so on. These
sequences would represent the Upper Triassic Fruholmen Formation.

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6.2 Controls on sequence stratigraphic development

Second order sequence stratigraphic boundaries (MFS) of the Triassic succession in the Barents

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Sea occur with frequencies of 3-10 my, and are discussed by Glrstad-Clark et al. (2010). Based
on Nttvedt et al. (2008), these boundaries were interpreted to have been caused by global sealevel changes in response to changes in the configuration of lithospheric plates. For the Snadd
Formation, the maximum flooding surfaces that bound the second order sequences S4 and S5,

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together with the top Ladinian flooding surface, correspond directly to global sea-level curves in
Haq et al. (1988). Considering the Circum-Arctic correlation of stratigraphic sequences between
different basins by Mrk and Smelror (2001), the boundaries in the present study can be linked to

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some of those mapped at the Late Ladinian and Late Carnian boundaries for Svalbard and the
Barents Sea and to the boundaries mapped in the Canadian Sverdrup Basin. In this basin, the

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flooding surfaces of the present study match those interpreted for the Late Ladinian, Intra
Carnian, Late Carnian and Early Norian, albeit the Intra Carnian and Early Norian is treated as
third order sequence boundaries in the Sverdrup Basin. The Triassic stratigraphy for the Sverdrup
Basin presented in Embry and Beauchamp (2008) and Embry (2011), show a closer match to the
Snadd Formation. Here, the base Ladinian MFS can be correlated to the base S4 of the present
study, whereas the Intra Carnian Gore Point Formation (limestone dominated, and thus starved of
clastic sediments), that separates the Murray Harbour Formation below from the Hoyle Bay

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Formation above, correlates to the Intra Carnian MFS that is the top of the S4 second order
sequence presented herein (Fig. 15). The Early Norian MFS correlate to the top of the S5 in the
Snadd Formation. However, the hierarchy of sequence boundaries and their sequence

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stratigraphic subdivision differs from the present study, as does the third order sequence
subdivision. The differences in second order sequence subdivision between the studies can be
partly attributed to different study methods, but should also be considered in light of the basin

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position of the studied succession relative to sediment sources. Based on the similarities, it is

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reasonable to assume eustatic control on second order sequences.

Considering the third order sequence development of the formation, higher order eustatic changes
can be used to explain MFS but allogenic tectonic forcing also need to be considered.
Specifically, there are notable differences between L1, C1 and C3. L1 resembles the underlying
Kobbe Formation packages with relatively thin FA3, 4 and 5. The C1 sequence represents

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progressively larger channel bodies than in the Ladinian, reflecting a progradation of the fluvial
system itself. In the C2 sequence, there is interpreted a northward shift in sediment supply which
could be attributed allogenic forcing by a cessation of halokinesis in the Nordkapp Basin (Fig.

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13). In this basin, Nilsen et al. (1995) describes a salt source layer depletion by the end of the

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Anisian, and a subsequent stabilization of the passive salt movement by the end of the Early
Carnian time. The influence on sediment dispersal was significant, as also noted by Nttvedt et
al. (2008). A northward shift in sediment dispersal patterns can be attributed to this local
diastrophism, i.e. that the Nordkapp Basin eventually or periodically ceased to create significant
local accommodation with accompanying sediment routing to southwest. Accommodation in the
Nordkapp Basin explains the thick Early Carnian succession in Figure 8, and the cessation of
halokinesis in the Nordkapp Basin towards the end of the Early Carnian is interpreted as the main

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allogenic control on the development of the next third order sequence, the C2 unit. Figure 9 also
suggest that the Nordkapp Basin again accommodated for sediments in the Late Carnian C3

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sequence, albeit of less magnitude.

The transition between C2 and C3 is marked by a second order eustatic relative sea level rise (the
Intra-Carnian MFS), but there is also a profound change in channel size and form compared to
the underlying lower Snadd second order sequence. The Late Carnian C3 is interpreted to have

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experienced increased accommodation coupled with significant progradation, which would

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explain its change in depositional style accompanied by significant northwest progradation (Fig.
13). Klausen et al. (2014) documents this pronounced change in geometries of fluvial channels
across the Intra-Carnian MFS and suggest that it could be linked to the Novaya Zemlya phase of
the Uralide Orogeny. This westward protrusion of the hinterland fold and thrust belt has been
modelled by Buiter and Torsvik (2007) to occur in the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic. Finally, the

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transgressive marine deposits of the Early Norian N1 are interpreted to mark the cessation of this
progradation, and the gradual submersion of the C3 delta.

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6.3 Basin infill

The lack of a western source in the palaeogeographic reconstruction is due to the post-

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depositional history of this part of the study area. Although the De Geerdalen Formation is
present here (Mrk et al., 1982), this is not the position in which it was deposited and
palaeogeographic reconstructions including them in this position would inherently be incorrect. A
tectonic northward translation of this part of the succession is suggested in Hy and Lundschien
(2011). Additionally, the whole northwest Barents Sea, including the eastern Svalbard
Archipelago must also have been displaced northward following the Late Jurassic rifting shown

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in Faleide et al. (2008), adding to the offset relative to its present position. Recent provenance
studies have further documented that there is an Uralide sedimentary source for the De Geerdalen
Formation in western Spitsbergen, similar to Edgeya and Hopen (Bue and Andresen, 2013).

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Granted that the westerly source existed in the Ladinian, which is implicit from the sand deposits
along the western outcrops (Lundschien et al, In press; Vigran et al., 2014), this should be treated
as a different formation altogether and treated separately from the Snadd Formation. These issues

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are beyond the scope of the present study, but within the Snadd Formation there are no
indications of a western source elsewhere in the Barents Sea. The results in the present study are

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compatible with the deposits of western Spitsbergen, and possibly eastern Greenland, being part
of the Snadd Formation delta across a periodically closed western seaway (Fig. 13, Lundschien et
al., In press). This can again be used as an argument for considering the northeast Sverdrup Basin
as being sourced from the Uralides, through the Barents Sea.

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Pronounced cross-shelf, basinward translations of the Snadd Formation shoreline could be

explained by the prevailing greenhouse conditions (Sellwood and Valdes, 2006) where relative
sea level fluctuations are less accentuated and allow deltas to prograde more rapidly across the

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shelf (Smme et al., 2009). In addition, as evident from clinoform heights, the Barents Sea was a

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relatively shallow basin (up to about 500 metres), which would have facilitated for a more rapid
progradation than some modern large-scale deltas that drain into deep marine basins.
Carvajal et al. (2009) reports that systems with high sediment supply are characterised by
recurrent bypass of sediment to the deep marine yet no such deposits have been confidently
identified within the Snadd Formation despite it being interpreted as a supply-dominated system.
The clinoforms of the Snadd Formation are muddy to silty and relatively homogenous, and the
offshore basin in front of the clinoforms comprises organic rich mudstone, which is favoured by

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anoxic conditions with implicit absence of hyperpycnal flows. A possible explanation could be a
decoupling of the mud-dominated delta from the shelf edge with cross shelf sediment transport

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by shallow (20-40 metre) wave induced shear-stresses (Patruno et al., In press).

As the river system in the proximal parts of the study area span the most of the palynological
zone for both Early Carnian third order sequences (Fig. 8), the river system is interpreted to be
associated with a long-lived palaeovalley system (Klausen et al., 2014) and even though the

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deposits that are preserved might have formed over a shorter period at the end of the third order

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sequence, the channel system is interpreted to have been active throughout much of the sequence.
This channel system would have fed sediments to the more distal parts of both these sequences
with successive avulsion-nodes in intermediate positions between the Finnmark and Bjarmeland
platforms. An important implication of this interpretation is that it differs from classical
conceptual models (Posamentier et al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1990) where valleys are cut

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and sediments bypassed, with subsequent valley fill deposits after a relative sea-level rise.
Instead, the cut and fill process is interpreted to be continuous and the delta plain to paleovalley
transition (i.e. the areas in net deposition vs net degradation) is suggested to be governed by the

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backwater length as a function of river gradient (Blum et al., 2013; Strong and Paola, 2008).

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After its appearance in the southwest Finnmark Platform in the C1 sequence, the present study
has found no significant evidence of basinward translation of this transitional boundary, even
though the contemporaneous shoreline prograded rapidly.
The interpretations in this study thus favour a depositional model characterised by a fluvial
dominated delta as opposed to a tidally dominated alternative. However, due to the broad and
presumably low-gradient of the delta plain the deposits are naturally influenced by tidal forces,
with increasing degree in more distal positions. Estuaries are also encountered in the field, and

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although rare these deposits should be expected during destructive, transgressive phases for the
shoreline. Smaller tidal channels and extensive tidal deposits are common in paralic
interdistributary areas, both in core and in outcrops on Svalbard. Whether the entire delta was

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actively accreting sediments at its maximum extent in the Late Carnian C3 and C4 sequences
seems counter-intuitive because of the sheer size of the system, yet the dataset suggest no deep
fluvial incision and well logs are interpreted to consist of thick accumulations of non-marine

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deposits. However, periods of subaerial exposure have been documented in outcrop, where
multiple meter-scale palaeosol horizons have been found along with thin decimetre-scale coal

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horizons in the De Geerdalen Formation (Klausen and Mrk, 2014), and local elevated areas with
sediment bypass should therefore be assumed to have existed periodically in response to river
avulsion and delta progradation.
Conclusion

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7.

The Snadd Formation can be subdivided into two second order sequences and six third order
sequences, with the possibility of one or more additional sequences in the upper part. The latter

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commences with a Ladinian prograding sequence (L1), followed by an Early Carnian interval
with well-developed channel sandstones within a floodplain facies. In the western part of the

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study area this interval incorporates two third order sequences (C1 and C2) where the upper is
back stepping due to allogenic changes in sediment dispersal patterns. Overlying these Early
Carnian sequences is the Late Carnian (C3) and Early Norian (N1) third order sequence, where
the Early Norian is slightly back stepping relative to the prograding Late Carnian sequence. The
Late Carnian C3 and C4 intervals collectively represent the maximum regressive stage of the
Snadd Formation. Although the western limit of the formation at the maximum regressive stage
cannot be determined with the present dataset, it is suggested that the Snadd Formation delta

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could have been linked with time-equivalent deposits on eastern Greenland, effectively closing
the Boreal epicontinental seaway. Two second order sequences are defined within the formation,

(S5) include the Late Carnian and the Early Norian.

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the lower (S4) include the Ladinian and Early Carnian third order sequences, whereas the upper

Mapped variations within the depositional environment show that the largest channel bodies in
the area are concentrated in a proximal position relative to the delta plain towards the east and

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southeast, and with diminishing dimensions down depositional dip to the west and northwest.

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Due to the decrease in channel size down the delta plain, the seismic-scale reservoirs of the
Snadd Formation become progressively smaller and more isolated down the delta plain.
Basinward of the distributary channels of the lower delta plain there are no indications of seismic
scale turbiditic sandstone bodies, suggesting that most of the coarse grained sediments were
sequestered on the delta. A broad, shallow shelf and the continued creation of accommodation

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accompanied by high sediment supply allowed for thick and widespread non-marine deposition
in the Ladinian to Early Norian Barents Sea, with rapid and aerially significant landward shift of

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the shoreline during transgressions.

Acknowledgements

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This work has been carried out within the Geoillustrator research project, which is funded by
Statoil and the PETROMAKS programme of The Research Council of Norway. Jonas Aas
Torland and Christopher Sb Serck are thanked for valuable discussions, and Gareth Steven
Lord for assistance in the field. We are grateful for the comments and suggestions from two
anonymous reviewers who helped improve the quality of the manuscript.

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Figure captions

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164-196.

Figure 1: Regional setting and datasets used in the present study. Basins and highs along with

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structural elements in the southwest from Gabrielsen et al. (1990) and Gabrielsen et al. (1997),
structural elements in the northern and western parts from Faleide et al. (2008). Blue lines are

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2D-seismic, yellow lines indicate seismic transects (dashed segment correspond to deviation from
SE-NW trend in Fig. 9), green line indicate position of figure 3 and purple the position of figure
2. Inset is the Triassic lithostratigraphy of Henriksen et al. (2011b), and sequence stratigraphic
subdivisions from the southwest Barents Sea. Second order sequences from Glrstad-Clark et al.
(2010).

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Figure 2: Schematic overview of depositional environments and their relative basinward

distribution in parts of the Snadd Formation, and how they are interpreted to appear in seismic

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cross section. Location given in Figure 1.

Figure 3: A) Seismic profile from the Loppa High area where shelf edge clinoforms can be
observed to the left of the white arrow, and more parallel reflectors indicating shelf to the right of
the black arrow. The section is flattened on the base of the Snadd Formation. Location of section

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is given by the green line in Figure 1. B) Geophysical log from well 7321/8-1 with facies

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interpretations and stratigraphic intervals. C) Marginal marine facies in planform seismic, and in
a cross section view (D). The survey, Obesum, is located on the eastern Loppa High (Fig. 1).
Figure 4: Raggfjell in Fulmardalen, between Sassendalen and Agardhdalen on Spitsbergen. At
this locality, distal parts of the succession is exposed in outcrop and show the transition from

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shelf to marginal marine and shoreface with some minor channel deposits and indications of
floodplain. Tidal channel deposits are observed with an erosive base overlying a shell rich
horizon (4 and 3). Heavily weathered and poorly exposed indications of bay-fill deposits are

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characterised by carbonaceous silt (2). The basal sandstone section comprises wave ripple
laminations, a common sedimentary structure throughout the log interval at this locality. Key to

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the log is given in figure 5.

Figure 5: Marginal marine facies from the Caurus survey on the eastern Loppa High (Fig. 1). A)
Planform geometries interpreted as progradational beach ridge sets with aeolian dunes behind
them. B) 7222/11-1 Core 3, marginal marine facies. Discrete coarsening upward (CU) trends are
indicated with arrows. C) Seismic cross section through the planview image showed above, the

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barrier bar is the high amplitude signal to the left. The attribute map in A) is extracted along the
dashed black line.

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Figure 6: Seismic expression of the floodplain facies in planform seismic (A), in cross section
view (C) from the Obesum survey on the eastern Loppa High (Fig. 1) and in their time-equivalent
outcrop counterpart in the northeast edge of Hopen (D), photo courtesy of Terje Hellem. The
planform seismic is characterised by channel sandstone bodies, and the cross section reveal a

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characteristic discontinuous pattern. B) Well log motifs are characteristically serrated, with

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neutron and density spikes that indicate coal. All examples are from the Late Carnian (above the
Intra Carnian MFS).

Figure 7: Seismic expression of the channel sandstone bodies in the Early Carnian. As illustrated
in the previous figure and here, the channel sandstone bodies vary both in size and degree of

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amalgamation down depositional dip (Compare A, proximal, to B, distal). The 2D seismic profile
in D) corresponds to the yellow line in A). The logged core from the well 7131/4-1 (C) is marked
in D) and shows a characteristic fluvial channel with multiple rip-up mud clast horizons and

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fining upwards trends (key as in Fig. 5).

Figure 8: Well correlation panels, flattened on the Early Norian MFS, showing the stratigraphic

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intervals and the facies interpretations of the geophysical well logs within the intervals. Inset map
shows the position of each panel.
Figure 9: Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) regional profile from east to west. Sections
are flattened on the Early Norian MFS. Western part of the formation is partly eroded (red line in
bottom section). Location given in figure 1.

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Figure 10: Uninterpreted (top) and interpreted (bottom) regional profile from NW to SE. The
section is flattened on the Early Ladinian MFS, except for in the northwest part of the section
where this surface is extrapolated due to poorly constrained correlations. Note clinoform

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geometries in the northward thickening package at the Gardarbanken High and in the Srkapp
Basin. Location given in figure 1. Red arrows correspond to the dashed segment of the SE-NW
trending yellow line in figures 1 and 11.

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Figure 11: Isopach thickness map of the Ladinian to Early Norian interval, and the lower and

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upper part of the Snadd Formation. The yellow lines marks the geoseismic profiles in figures 9
and 10, the dashed part of the SE-NW line marks where the cross section runs parallel to
depositional dip, with implications for cross sectional expression. The brown lines mark where
the correlation panels in Fig. 8 are located relative to the isopach. The top of the Snadd Formation

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is eroded in the NW, as indicated by diagonal pattern, hence the cut-off line in the isopach map.
Figure 12: A) Uninterpreted close-up of Figure 2, vertically exaggerated by 25 but has not been
decompacted, flattened or rotated. B) Interpreted clinoform successions for the L1 sequence.

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Trajectory was measured on the last clinoform succession, marked in blue, and is 0.0021. C)
Qualitative rotation of the trajectory to illustrate the potential for a flat to rising trajectory.

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Figure 13: Paleogeographic evolution, showing the interpreted initial and final position of the
shoreface and extent of paralic deposits for each individual sequence, except C4. The
northeastern channel in L1 and C2 is interpreted based on Riis et al. (2008).
Figure 14: Progradation of Early Carnian clinoforms which downlap on the Top L1 MFS in the
Fingerdjupet Sub-Basin show that progradation from the southwest is prominent as far northwest

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as there is data coverage. The section is flattened on the top Kobbe Formation, Early Ladinian
MFS.

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Figure 15: Comparison of sequence subdivisions. Third order sequences for the Snadd Formation
(white background), with supplementary data from Glrstad-Clark et al. (2010) in light grey and
Glrstad-Clark et al. (2011) in dark grey. Brown background indicates suggested refinements to
the Triassic stratigraphy, outside the scope of the present study (Fruholmen and Tuben

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Highlights
Infill history of the Ladinian to Norian Barents Sea

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Sequence stratigraphic subdivisions of the Snadd Formation

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Regional distribution and variability of potential reservoir rocks