CHANGING CULTURAL TRADITIONS

Besides formal education what were the other ways by which the minds
of the people of the age were shaped?
OR
Explain how realism affected art and sculpting in Europe.
Sculptor

Art architecture and books effectively transmitted humanist ideas

Artists revived the ancient Roman culture.
Remains of their culture was studied by artists
The Romans in those days admired figures of perfectly proportioned men
and women, this inspired the Italian artists. They continued this style.
Italian artists sought the help of scientist to study the human body
accurately , they went to the laboratories of medical schools to do so
Important Sculptor: Donatello: Made life like statues.
Andreas Vesalius: A Belgian professor of medicine at the University of
Padua was the first to dissect the human body.

Painters had no Roman models to copy but they tried to paint as

realistically as possible
They used the knowledge of geometry to understand perspective and by
changing quality of light their picture acquired a three dimensional quality.
Oil was used as medium of painting which gave richness that was never
seen before.
Colours and costumes seen the paintings reflect Chinese influence.
Conclusion: Thus we see that anatomy, geometry, physic, as well as a
strong sense of what was beautiful gave a new quality to Italian art which
was called realism.
Describe how the architecture of the city of Rome was revived
during the 15th century?
Development of a new discipline-Archaeology led to the excavation of old
Roman cities.
This brought to light the ancient Roman architecture which was revived by
the architects.
This style was copied by the architects, then known as classical.
Artists and sculptors were also to decorate the building with paintings,
sculptor and relief.
Artist of this age were not known as a group or guild but as an individual.
Important creations of the time.

Painting on the ceiling of the Sistine chapel by Michelangelo Buonarroti. He

also designed a sculpture called the Pieta and the dome of St Peters
church in Rome.
What was the chief reason of the spread of humanist culture of
Italy during the 16th century?
Why were the earlier intellectual movements localized to a
particular region?
Italian literature during the 15th century started travelling to distant land
due to greatest revolution of the 16th century- the mastery of the
technology of printing.
The Europeans are indebted to the Chinese, for learning print technology
and the Mongol rulers for making this technology available universally.
In 1455, 150 copies of the Bible were printed in the workshop of Johannes
Gutenberg the German who made the first printing press.
By 1500 many of the classical texts were printed in Italy.
As printed books were now available students were nor solely dependent
on lectures and notes.
Printed books promoting new ideas could reach hundreds of readers at the
same time.
Individuals processes copies of books and reading habit was developed.
Conclusion: the chief reason that the humanist culture spread briskly from
the end of the 15th century due to the circulation of printed books. This
also explains why earlier intellectual movements were limited to a
particular area.
Describe very briefly the new concept of human being that
emerged in Italy during the early 15th century.
OR
State the salient features of Humanist culture.
The humanist culture can be identified by these qualities:
Reduction of control of religion from human life.
Men and women had strong attachment for material wealth power and
glory at the same time was religious by nature.
It was believed that study of history can lead to life full of perfection.
The Christian stigma for pleasure was overlooked.

A lot of emphasis was given to good manner how to speak, dress, what to
learn, became a matter of concern.
Humanism also implied that individuals were capable of shaping their own
lives through means other than pursue of power and money.
It was believed that human nature is many sided which was against the
medieval theory of three orders.
Describe the position of women in 15th century Europe.
The new ideal of individualism excluded women.
Position of women in aristocratic families
Men of aristocratic families dominated public life and were the decision
makers in the families too.
Sons were educated and the eldest was entrusted with the family business
and the youngest joined the church.
Women had no say in their husbands business however their dowries
could be utilised for the same.
Marriages were intended to strengthen business alliances.
If dowries could not be arranged daughters were sent to convents to lead
a life of nun.
Women did not enjoy any public role and were supposed to look after the
household.
Position of women in merchant families.
Shopkeepers were often assisted by their wife to look after their shop.
Wives of merchants and bankers looked after their business in their
absence.
In case of early death of husband women of such families played a larger
public role.
Education
A few women intellectually creative and sensitive to humanist education.
One of the few women who attained knowledge was Venetian Cassandra
Fedele.
She questioned the idea that women were incapable of achieving the
qualities of humanist scholar.

She was well known for high proficiency in Greek and Latin.
She was invited to give orations (lecture) to the University of Padua.
Who was Venetian Cassandra Fedele? Discuss her achievements.
One of the few women who attained knowledge was Venetian Cassandra
Fedele.
She questioned the idea that women were incapable of achieving the
qualities of humanist scholar.
She was well known for high proficiency in Greek and Latin.
She was invited to give orations (lecture) to the University of Padua.
In her writing she criticised the republic for creating a limited definition of
humanism which favoured the desire of men over women.
Describe the Copernican Revolution.
The Earth Centric View of the Christians:
The Christians believed that the earth was sinful place and a heavy burden
of sin made it immobile. The earth stood at the centre of the universe
around which orbited all the celestial planets.
The new view by Copernicus:
Copernicus asserted that the planets, including the earth rotate around
the sun.
His apprehension
As he was a devout Christian he did not want to go against the church and
did not publish his manuscript De Revolutionibus.
At his deathbed he passed on this manuscript to his follower Joachim
Rheticus.
At first it was difficult for people to accept this idea.
Sun Centric theory proved by Kepler and Galileo
The works of Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei helped in propounding the
Sun centric theory of the universe.
Keplers Cosmographical mystery proved that the planets moved around
the sun in ellipses and not circles.
Galileo confirmed the notion of dynamic world in his work the motion.
This theory was further strengthened by Isaac Newtons theory of gravity.

THEME 8 CONFRONTATION OF CULTURES.

WHAT WERE THE RESULTS OF THE EUROPEAN EXPLORATIONS ON
THE NATIVE CULTURE OF AMERICA.
Indians of the new world belonged to a different cultural group
which was neither a part of Asia nor Europe.
Their economies were small and subsistent type located in the
Caribbean and Brazil region.
They were also powerful monarchical system based on welldeveloped agriculture and mining.
The Incas, Aztecs and the Mayans also had monumental
architecture.
European explorations had disastrous consequences on the
American Civilizations.
It marked the beginning of slave trade.
Europeans formed a triangular trading system: Slaves were
purchased from Africa and sold in the American colonies to work
in the plantations and mines.
The produce of the mines and plantations were sent to Europe
and the rest of the world.
The coming of the Europeans led to the degeneration and decline
of the European civilizations.
WHO WERE THE ARAWAKS? DESCRIBE THEIR LIFESTYLE AND
OCCUPATION.
The Arawaks lived in the hundreds of clusters of Island located in
the Caribbean Sea .
These islands are known as the Bahama and the Greater Antillies.
They were people who preferred negotiation to conflict.
They were skilled boat builders, the built boats by hollowing tree
trunks which could sail in the open sea.
They lived by hunting fishing and agriculture.
They grew corn sweet potato, tubers and cassava.
Their social system
The society was organised to produce food collectively and feed
everyone in the community.
The society was organised under the clan elders.
Polygamy was common
The Arawaks were animists (everything including inanimate
objects has life).
Shamans played a very important role as healers and
intermediaries between this world and that of the supernatural.
DISCUSS THE RELATION BETWEEN THE ARAWAKS AND THE
SPAINISH INVADERS.

The Arawaks used gold ornaments but did not attach any value to
it.
They happily exchanged gold with colourful glass beads brought
by the European sailors.
The Arawaks willingly and generously collaborated with the
Spanish to search for gold.
However they were forced to fight with them when the Spanish
gave them a harsh treatment.
This resulted into a disaster, the Spanish destroyed most of the
Arawak civilization.
WHO WERE THE TUPINAMBAS? MENTION ANY FOUR IMPORTANT
POINTS ABOUT
THEIR LIFESTYLE.
The Tupinambas lived along the east coast of South America and
in villages in the forest rich in Brazil wood trees.
They could not clear the dense forest for cultivation as they did
not have access to iron.
They had a healthy and plentiful supply to fruits vegetables and
fish so they did not have to depend upon agriculture.
The Europeans envied their freedom, with no king army or church
to regulate their lives.
HOW DID MEXICO BECOME THE HOMELAND OF THE AZTECS?
ELUCIDATE THE SOCIAL HIERARCHY THAT PREVAILED.
The Aztecs had migrated from the Isthmus of Panama to the
central valley of Mexico, named after their God Mexitili.
The Aztec society was hierarchical.
The king was regarded as the representative of sun on earth.
The nobility included those who were noble by birth, priests and
others who had been awarded the rank.
The hereditary nobility was a small minority who occupied the senior
position in the government they also joined the army and became priests.
The respected groups were the warriors priests and nobles.
The traders were also respected and enjoyed privileges and often served
the government as ambassadors and spies.
Talented artisans, physicians and teachers were also respected.
DESCRIBE THE ARCHITECTURE AGRICULTURE AND THE EDUCATION OF
THE AZTECS.
ALSO MENTION THE CAUSE OF ITS DOWNFALL.
ARCHITECTURE
The Aztecs undertook land reclamation projects by constructing artificial
islands called chinampas.
These islands were built in lake Mexico by weaving huge reed mats and
covering them with mud and plants.
These exceptionally fertile islands had canals and other constructions on
them.

The city of Tenochititlan was built in1325. The palace and pyramids in the
lake.
The most impressive temples were dedicated to gods of war and sun.
The Aztecs were frequently engaged in war.
AGRICULTURE
The empire rested on a rural base.
Corn, beans, manioc root, potatoes, pumpkin, squash and other crops
were grown.
Land was not owned by clans and not by individuals.
Clans also organised public construction work.
Peasants cultivated the land of the nobles in exchange of a share of the
cultivation.
The poor would some time sell their children as slaves.
The slavery however was for a limited period they could buy their freedom
back.
EDUCATION
The Aztecs ensured that all the children went to school.
The children of the nobility went to calmecac
They were trained to become military and religious leaders.
The others went to tepochcalli in their neighbourhood.
They learned history, myth, religion and ceremonial songs.
Boys received military training and training in agriculture and trade.
Girls were trained in domestic skills.

DECLINE OF THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION

During the early 16th century the Aztec empire started showing signs of
strain.
The strains were due to the discontent among the recently conquered
people who wanted to break free from the centralized control.

LIST THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE MAYAN CIVILIZATION.

The Mayan civilization flourished between the 11 th and the 14th centuries.

Corn cultivation was central to their culture.

Many religious ceremonies were central to the planting growing and
harvesting of corn.
An efficient system of production helped the ruling class (consisting of
priests and chiefs) in architecture, development of mathematics and
astronomy.
They devised a pictorial script.
The script could be partially deciphered.

HIGHLIGHT THE IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE INCAS CIVILIZATION.

The Incas civilization was the largest of all the indigenous civilizations of
South America.
The capital was at Cuzco.
The empire spread between Ecuador to Chile for about 3000 km.
The empire was highly centralized and the king represented the highest
authority.
Every subject was expected to speak Quechua the language of the court.
Each tribe was ruled independently by a council of elders but he tribe as a
whole owed their alliance to the ruler.
The local rulers were rewarded from time to time for their military
cooperation.

THE INCAS WERE MAGNIFICIANT BUILDERS. JUSTIFY.

They build roads through mountains from Ecuador to Chile.

Their forts were built of stone slabs that were perfectly cut and did not
need mortar.
They used labour intensive technology to carve and move rocks from
neighbouring rock falls.
Masons use a technology called flaking to shape the blocks.
Stone blocks which weighed more than 100 metric tonnes could not be
transported by any wheeled vehicle but by the help of labour force.

Describe the agricultural activities and other occupations of the Incas.

Agriculture was the chief occupation.
As the land was not fertile they made terraces on the hill slopes and
cultivated them .
They developed a drainage system and irrigation system.
The Incas grew corn and potatoes and reared Ilamas for food.

LIST THE COMMON FEATURES OF THE INCAS AND THE AZTEC CIVILIZATION

The society of both the civilization was hierarchical.

No private ownership of resources.
Priest and Shamans were given an exalted status.
Large temples were built.
Gold was used for performing rituals in these temples .
No value was attached to gold and silver.
Mention the factors that encouraged the Europeans to go out on voyages
of discovery.
The invention of magnetic compass helped in identifying directions
accurately.
Many improvements were made in the sailing ships
Larger ships were constructed which could carry a lot of cargo and arms
and ammunitions to defend them.
Circulation of travel literature and books on cosmography and geography
created widespread in this field.
Ptolemy an Egyptian geographer divide the regions of the world in terms
of latitudes and longitudes creating points of references which helped the
sailors.

WHY WERE THE PEOPLE OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA THE FIRST TO

VENTURE ACROSS THE ATLANTIC?

There wer e three motives behind these conquests.

Economic , religious and political.
The European population declined from the mid-14 th centuries due to
plague and war.
Trade declined and there was a shortage of gold and silver.
As the Turks took control over the trade by conquering Constantinople the
Italians had to pay a higher tax .
As the Italians were devout Christians they were ready to face any kind of
adventure to spread their own religion.