Theself

Whatistheself?
Baumeister&Bushman(2008)suggest3aspectsofself:
1.Selfconcept(selfknowledge;e.g.,traits,roles)
Selfschemasenhancememory(SelfReferenceEffect;Rogers&colleagues,1977)
Canalsoincludepossibleselves:Apossibleselvesinterventionincreasedacademicinitiativeandgrades
anddecreaseddepressionandschoolmisbehaviorinlowincometeens(Oyserman&colleagues,2006)
2.Interpersonalself
3.Executiveself
ObjectificationTheory
Bodyasanaspectofself
ObjectificationTheorysuggeststhatbeingobjectifiedleadstoselfobjectification,whichleadstobody
dissatisfaction,depression,eatingdisorders,etc.(Moradi&Huang,2008)
Womenhavehigherbodydissatisfaction,exceptattheverythinendofthespectrum(Frederick&
colleagues,2007)
Adolescentgirlshavehigherlevelsofbodysurveillanceandappearanceanxiety(Slater&Tiggemann,
2010)
Appearancefeedbackpredictsbodysurveillance,comparingtoothers,anddisorderedeating(Tylka&
Sabik,2010)
Forwomenhighontraitselfobjectification,acomplimentonappearanceincreasesbodyshame
(Tiggemann&Boundy,2008)
Wearingaswimsuit(vs.asweater)increasesbodyshameanddecreasesmathperformanceforwomen,
butnotmen(Fredrickson&colleagues,1998)[ButHebl&colleagues,2004foundeffectsformentoo]
Also,bodyrelatedthoughtspersistevenafteronechangesintoregularclothing(Quinn&colleagues,
2006)
Selfobjectificationpredictslowersoftballthrowingperformance(Fredrickson&Harrison,2005)
Selfobjectificationpredictsbodyshame,loweresteem,andlowerlifesatisfaction(Mercurio&Landry,
2008)
DevelopmentoftheSelf
1.Thelookingglassself
Eachtoeachalookingglass
Reflectstheotherthatdothpass(Cooley,1902,p. 152)
2.SelfPerceptionTheory(Bem,1967)
3.SocialComparisonTheory(Festinger,1954)
DistinctivenessTheoryandthespontaneousselfconcept
Ethnicityifintheminority(McGuire&colleagues,1978),lefthandedness(McGuire&McGuire,
1980), ageifnontraditional(Kite,1992)
CultureandtheSelf
Hofstede(1983)examined50+nationsandidentifieddimensionsonwhichculturesvary
Individualistandcollectivistcultures
OftenstudiedwiththeTwentyStatementsTest(Kuhn&McPartland,1954)

Cousins(1989)U.S.psmoreoftendescribethemselveswithtraits,butJapanesepswithroles
Ma&Schoeneman(1997):
Describedselfwithpersonalcharacteristics:U.S.collegestudents(48%),Kenyancollegestudents(38%),
Nairobiemployees(12%),Maasaips(2%),Samburups(1%)
Describedselfwithroles/memberships:Samburups(68%),Maasaips(58%),Nairobiemployees(36%),
Kenyancollegestudents(6%),U.S.collegestudents(7%)
PositiveIllusions
1.EgocentricBias(e.g.,Ross&Sicoly,1979)
Peoplefocusontheircontributions(Kruger&Savitsky,2009)
Giftgiversfocusoncosts(whichmightincludecostsotherthanthegiftitself),butreceiversfocuson
benefits(Zhang&Epley,2009)
Providinginsightaboutotherscontributionsreducesthebias(Corgnet&Gunia,2010)
2.SelfServingBias(e.g.,Arkin&Maruyama,1979;Wiley&colleagues,1979)
FoundforstudentsjudgingtheACT/SAT(Schmitt&colleagues,2004)andconflictsbetweensiblings
(Ross&colleagues,2004);peoplesometimesblametheircomputersforbadpurchasingdecisions(Moon,
2003)
3.Illusionofcontrol(e.g.,Langer,1977)
Peoplebetmoreinadicegameiftheygettothrowthedice(Davis&colleagues,2000)
4.TheBetterthanAverageEffect/LakeWobegoneffect
Betterdrivers(Williams2003)[evenifhospitalizedforaccident;Preston&Harris,1965],more
intelligentandhonest(Zell&Alicke,2011),athleticabilityandgettingalongwithothers(CollegeBoard,
1976)
WorsethanAverageEffectfordifficulttasks(Moore&Small,2007)
Moore&Small(2007)suggestpeopleknowmoreaboutthemselvesandsomakeextremejudgmentsfor
goodorbadperformance
5.FalseConsensus
Foundforattitudestowardcelebrities(Bui,2012),neoNaziviews(Wojcieszak,2011),stereotypicbeliefs
(Strube&Rahimi,2006),supportforpoliticalcandidates(Delavande&Manski,2012),anddruguse
(Henry&colleagues,2011)
6.Unrealisticoptimism
Peoplethinktheyarelesslikelythanotherstoexperiencenegativeevents(heartattack,beingfired)and
morelikelytoexperiencepositiveevents(livingpast80,havingagiftedchild;Weinstein,1980)
Smokersunderestimatetheirlikelihoodofgettinglungcancer(Dillard&colleagues,2006)andgaymen
underestimatetheirlikelihoodofcatchingHIV(Gold&Aucote,2003)
SelfEsteem
Tesser'sSelfEvaluationMaintenanceModel(SEM)
1.TheComparisonProcess
Morse&Gergen(1970)Mr.Clean/Mr.Dirty
Morrison&colleagues(2004)comparingtomodels/celebritiespredictsappearanceesteem,dieting,
steroiduse(men),andharmfulweightcontrolinmenandwomen

2.TheReflectionProcess
BIRGingandCORFing
Cialdini&colleagues(1976)Clothing/We
Selfrelevance
Peoplemightdistancethemselveswhenoutperformedonselfrelevanttasks(Tesser,1980)
SelfEsteem
Lowesteemisassociatedwithnegativeeffects(e.g.,depression,druguse,eatingdisorders;e.g.,Ybarra,
1999)
However,soishighesteem(e.g.,earlysexualactivity,interruptothers,aggressionaftercriticism;e.g.,
Bushman&Baumeister,1998,Dawes,1994)
Twomainbenefitsofhighesteemarehappinessandinitiative(Baumeister&colleagues,2003);however,
initiativecanbegoodorbad.Hitlerhadveryhighselfesteemandplentyofinitiative,too(Baumeister
&colleagues,2003,p.39)
NegativeeffectsespeciallytrueofNarcissists
Baumeister&colleagues(2003)suggestedweshouldnottrytoraiseesteemindiscriminately,butshould
encourageesteemforethicalbehaviorandachievement
SwannsSelfVerificationTheory
Epistemicandpragmaticconcerns
Peoplewithnegativeselfviewschoosetointeractwiththosewhoseethemnegatively(Swann&
colleagues,1992)
Peoplewithnegativeselfviewsseekfeedbacktoconfirmtheirviews(Swann&Read,1981)
Peoplewithfirmlyheldnegativeselfviewswantanewroommatewhentheirroommateseesthem
positively(Swann&Pelham,2002)
Agreementbetweenspousesaboutonespousesqualities(evenwhennegative)predictsgreaterintimacy
(Swann&colleagues,1994)
Metaanalysissupportsselfverification(Kwang&Swann,2010)
Peoplearelesslikelytoselfverifywhenrushed,suggestingtheselfmustbeaccessed(Swann&
colleagues,1990)
Peoplearemorelikelytoselfverifywhenfeedbackishighlyselfrelevant(Seta&colleagues,1999)
Reconcilingverificationandesteemmotives:Peoplepreferconsistentfeedback,butespeciallyconsistent
positivefeedback(Swann&colleagues,1989)
SelfRegulation
Theselfisnotonlyinformation(selfconcept),butalsoadecisionmakingagent(executiveself)
Failingtocontroloneselfleadstoproblems(e.g.,drugabuse,overeating,sexualmisbehavior,academic
failure,aggression)andegostrength(orwillpower)isneededformoralandsuccessfulbehavior(e.g.,
honesty,delayinggratification)
Theselfasamuscle:Usingselfcontrolcanleadtoegodepletion,butexertingselfcontrolproducesgains
overtime(Baumeister,2012)
Baumeister&colleagues(1998)psinstructedtoeatradishesandavoidchocolatechipcookiesquitsooner
onapuzzletask
Egodepletion(usingyourselfcontrolforonethingmaydepleteyourresourcesforselfcontrolforthe
nextthing)increasesaggression(DeWall&colleagues,2007),prejudice(Muraven,2008),dishonesty
(DeBono&colleagues,2011),alcoholuse(Muraven&colleagues,2005),andrisktaking(Freeman&

Muraven,2010),andreduceshelpfulness(DeWall&colleagues,2008)andresistancetosocialinfluence
(Burkley&colleagues,2011)
Mostegodepletionseemstobeconservationofselfcontrol;egodepletedpeoplecanexertselfcontrol
whenhighlymotivated(Muraven&Slessareva,2003),althoughnotifhighlydepleted(Vohs&
colleagues,2012)
Egostrengthisrelatedtobloodglucoselevels:Usingselfcontrolreducesbloodglucoseanddrinking
lemonadewithsugarhelpstorestoreselfcontrol(Gailliot&colleagues,2007)
Workingtoimprovepostureincreasesselfcontrol(Muraven,1999)
Eatingfewersweetsandsqueezingahandgripincreasesselfcontrol(Muraven,2010)
SelfPresentation
Clothing,bumperstickers,roomdecor,butalsotanning,smoking,etc.
Jones&Pittman's(1982)selfpresentationstrategies:
Ingratiation(andtheIngratiatorsdilemmaex.,toomuchshoweringofcompliments)tryingto
belikeable,friendly
Intimidationthegoalistobefeared
Selfpromotion(andtheSelfpromotersparadox)thegoalistobeseenascapable,to
communicatethatyouhaveskills/abilities
Supplicationthegoalistobeseenasweakorincompetent
Exemplificationwherepeoplehavethegoalofbeingseenasethical,moral,aprincipledperson,
apersonofintegrity
Namedroppingbackfires(ClaimingtobeafriendofRogerFederercreatesanegativeimpressionandis
perceivedasmanipulative;Lebherz&colleagues,2009)
Stealingthunderworks[politicianstakenote](Williams&Wirth,2007)ex.Beforeopponentcanreveal
badinformation,theyrevealitabouttheirself
Selfhandicappingpeopledeliberatelymakeithardertosucceedtohandicapthemselves,tomakeit
hardertodowellatsomething,itprovidesanexcuseincasetheyfail
Whensuccessseemedaccidental(notknowledgebased),menselfhandicapped(Berglas&Jones,1978)
Athleteshighinameasureofselfhandicappingpracticelesswhenacompetitionthreatensesteem
(Rhodewalt&colleagues,1984)
ImposterPhenomenonWhenpeoplethinktheirsuccesswasntbasedonability(Cowman&Ferrari,
2002)
Selfmonitoring(Snyder,1974)thedegreetowhichpeopleareawareofsocialsituations,andadjustto
accommodatethem,achameleon
Highselfmonitorsusemoredeceptiveselfpresentationtogetadate(Rowatt&colleagues,1998),
evaluatecheesebasedonplaceoforigin(FranceorKansas)ratherthantaste(DeBono&Rubin,1995),
andplacemoreemphasisonphysicalappearanceinhiringdecisions(Snyder&colleagues,1988)
Then,attheageoftenImovedtoBowlingGreenKentucky,whereIresidedforeightyears.Thisisthe
longesttimeIhaveeverbeenstationary.Finally,asanadultofeighteenyears,ICHOSEtomoveto
Florida.OncethehousethatIwaslivinginburneddown,Iwasforcedtomoveagain.