Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
A Hovercraft is a vehicle that flies like a plane but can float like a
boat, can drive like a car but will traverse ditches and gullies as it is a flat
terrain. A Hovercraft also sometimes called an air cushion vehicle because it
can hover over or move across land or water surfaces while being held off
from the surfaces by a cushion of air. A Hovercraft can travel over all types
of surfaces including grass, mud, muskeg, sand, quicksand, water and ice.
Hovercraft prefer gentle terrain although they are capable of climbing
slopes up to 20%, depending upon surface characteristics. Modern
Hovercrafts are used for many applications where people and equipment
need to travel at speed over water but be able load and unload on land. For
example they are used as passenger or freight carriers, as recreational
machines and even use as warships. Hovercrafts are very exciting to fly and
feeling of effortlessly traveling from land to water and back again is unique.
Hovercrafts work on the two main principles of lift and propulsion. Lift is an
essential factor because it is that which allows the craft to rideon a cushion
of air several inches off the ground.
The process of attaining lift begins by directing airflow under the
craft. The force of thrust is responsible for the movement of hovercraft in the
horizontal direction, and is achieved with the help of a propeller fan. When
the hovercraft is finally able to move it will most definitely require steering
capabilities.
1

This is achieved through the use of rudders. The shape of the rudder
dictates how well it will be able to move air.When riding a hovercraft the
natural state of motion is easily seen to be constant vector velocity with a
constant rate of rotation.

Chapter 2
HISTORY
Hovercraft as we know them today started life as an experimental
design to reduce the drag that was placed on boats and ships as they
ploughed through water. The first recorded design for an air cushion vehicle
was put forwarded by Swedish designer and philosopher Emmanuel
Swedenborg in 1716. The craft resembled an upturned dinghy with a cockpit
in the centre. Apertures on either side of this allowed the operator to raise or
lower a pair of oar-like air scoops, which on downward strokes would force
compressed air beneath the hull, thus raising it above the surface. The
project was short-lived because it was never built, for soon Swedenborg
soon realized that to operate such a machine required a source of energy far
greater than that could be supplied by single human equipment. Not until the
early20th century was a Hovercraft practically possible, because only the
internal combustion engine had the very high power to weight ratio suitable
for Hover flight.
In the mid 1950s Christopher Cockrell, a brilliant British radio
engineer and French engineer John Bertin, worked along with similar line of
research, although they used different approaches to the problem of
maintaining the air cushion. Cockrell while running a small boatyard in
Norfolk Boards in the early 1950s began by exploring the use of air
lubrication to reduce the hydrodynamic drag, first by employing a punt, then
a 20 knot ex-naval launch as a test craft.

Chapter 3
PRINCIPLE OF WORKING
The hovercraft floats above the ground surface on a cushion of air
supplied by the lift fan. The air cushion makes the hovercraft essentially
frictionless. Air is blown into the skirt through a hole by the blower as
shown in Figure 1. The skirt inflates and the increasing air pressure acts on
the base of the hull thereby pushing up (lifting) the unit. Small holes made
underneath the skirt prevent it from bursting and provide the cushion of air
needed. A little effort on the hovercraft propels it in the direction of the push.
Figure 1 shows how pressure is developed in the skirt. As soon as the
assembly floats, a blower incorporated in the thrust engine blows air
backwards which provides an equal reaction that causes the vehicle to move
forward. Little power is needed as the air cushion has drastically reduced
friction. Steering effect is achieved by mounting rudders in the airflow from
the blower or propeller. A change in direction of the rudders changes the
direction of air flow thereby resulting in a change in direction of the vehicle.
This is achieved by connecting wire cables and pulleys to a handle. When
the handle is pushed it changes the direction of the rudders.

Fig.1.1: Pressure development in skirt

Chapter-4
MAIN PARTS
Lower hull- It is the basic structure on which the Hovercraft floats when the
engine is stopped while moving over water. It supports the whole weight of
the craft.

Skirts- They are air bags inflated by air are fitted around the perimeter of
the craft hold air under the craft and thus upon a cushion of air. It enables to
obtain greater Hover height. The material used is rib stop nylon or Terylene.

Lift fan-It is fitted to the primary structure of the Hovercraft. The air is
pumped under the craft between the skirt space to produce a cushion of air.

Propeller-It is used to obtain the forward motion of the craft. It is fitted

to the top of the craft and is powered by a powerful gas turbine or diesel
engine.

Rudders-They are similar to that used in an aircraft. Rudders are moved

by hydraulic systems. By moving the rudders we can change the direction of
the craft.

Chater-5
DEVELOPMENT OF AIR CUSHION BY MOMENTUM
CURTAIN EFFECT
Stability of the Hovercraft on its cushion of air remained a real
problem despite some design efforts and new approach was needed. To solve
these problems, plenum chamber with a momentum curtain was developed
by Sir Christopher Cockrell.
His first experiments were conducted with the aid of two cans and a
vacuum cleaner (with blower end). The cans were drilled and bolted so that
one can was inside the other with open ends facing down to some weighing
scales, the top of the larger can was open and had a tube connected to it so
that air could be forced in to the top can and around the smaller can inside.

Fig.5.1: momentum curtain effect

The air traveled around between the inside of the bigger can and
outside of the smaller can and was then let out towards the scales in a narrow
ring of air, the cans were mad4e so that it was possible to remove inner can
so the air could be directed in two ways.
The experiment was conducted in two steps. First the smaller can was
removed and blower switched on. The scales measured the amount of thrust
the air from the one can produced down onto the scales. The smaller can was
now replaced inside the larger can so that the ring of air was produced.
Again the blower was switched on and the scales measured amount of thrust
the ring of air produced down onto the scales. Here is the key discovery
because Cockrell observed that the two cans nested inside each other
produced more thrust onto the scales than the simple open can or plenum
chamber did, he had discovered the momentum curtain effect and this was
the key ingredient that he patented.
In the full size craft the plenum chamber was also filled in so that a
slot round the bottom edge of plenum chamber wall was former where the
air fed in at the top. The slot produced a curtain of flowing air that was
inclined. The high pressure air from the slot angled inwards towards the
centre of the craft helped to contains and sustains the air cushion. Using this
method a stable air cushion could be created. The craft was still riding on a
plenum chamber of sorts but it was created and maintained by the high
pressure ring of air surrounding the lower pressure air in the center.
The momentum curtain arrangement achieved higher hover heights
with less power. It also solved some of the stability problems. The box
structure in the center of the craft around which air escaped was closed to

form a buoyancy tank to enable the craft to float on water when it came to
rest.
The design was exactly what was used in first publicly demonstrated
Hovercraft the SRN1, built by Saunders Roe in the United Kingdom it
served as a test bed for many years during Hovercraft development.

Fig.5.2 :development of air in cushion according to two theorirs

Chapter 6
HULL CONSTRUCTION
The lower hull of the craft includes the craft floor, side panels, forward
and aft panels till the top skirt attachment line. Most commercially build craft
in polyester resin will use this section to transfer to the top hull. The lower
hull
Needs to have adequate size for the total weight of the craft and
payload
Must be strong enough to support craft off cushion (on landing pads)
Have enough freeboard to support craft in displacement mode on water
Must be watertight and as smooth as possible.
The lower hull can be build out of all boat building materials. From simple
ply to very complicated composite panels.

Fig.6.1:hull

Chapter-7
HOVERCRAFT SKIRTS
Despite the momentum curtain being very effective the hover
height was still too low unless great, and uneconomical, power was used.
Simple obstacles such as small waves, or tide-formed ridges of shingle on a
beach, could prove to be too much for the hover height of the craft. These
problems led to the development of the skirt
A skirt is a flexible shaped strip fitted below the bottom edges of
the plenum chamber slot. As the Hovercraft lifts, the skirt extends below it to
retain much deeper cushion of air. The development of skirts enables a
Hovercraft to maintain its normal operating speed through large waves and
also allows it to pass over rocks, ridges and gullies.
Skirt is one of the most design sensitive parts. The design must
be just right or an uncomfortable ride for passengers or damage to craft and
skirts results. The skirt material has to be light flexible and durable all at the
same time. For skirt to meet all of the requirements the design and use of new
materials has slowly evolved.
There are three types of skirts
Bag skirt
Finger skirt
Bag and finger skirt

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Fig.7.1: Skirt
7.1 A Hovercraft Skirt Is Required To Fulfill the Following Functions
Contain the cushion of air beneath the craft at required Hover height
Have the ability to confirm or contour effectively over obstacles so as to
keep minimum, the loss of cushion air
Return to its original shape after having been deformed
Give adequate stability
Offer little resistance to passage of obstacles beneath it
Have the ability to absorb a large portion of the energy which is
produced on impacts or collision with obstacles greater than hover height
or cushion depth.

11

Chapter-8
THE LIFTING FAN
In the enclosed space fan operates in a propeller would not be
suitable. Firstly the volume of air needed is very large and a propeller is
designed to be most efficient in open air like on an aircraft. Propellers again
are not efficient in applications when an air backpressure will be applied to
the propeller blades as they rotate.
Because of this the lifting on most Hovercraft uses what is known as a
centrifugal fan. This is a fan in which two discs are fitted together and looks
rather like a doughnut with angled slat at their edges.
When the assembly is rotated at high speed air is sucked in to the
center hole in the fan and the slats force it out at the edges. The advantages
of the fan are two fold. They operate efficiently in an environment when
back pressure is high and they will move larger volumes of air for a given
rotation speed than a propeller with the same speed and power input
The lifting fan is coupled via a gearbox to the engine. The
engine also drives the propeller on the craft, which provides thrust for
forward motion of the Hovercraft.

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Fig.8.1:Cross section view of list system of the SRN4

13

Chapter-9
THE ENGINE
The engines used in Hovercraft have evolved like the skirt design. The
SRN 1 and other early craft used piston type engines. As models like the
SRN 4 and SRN 6 were brought into service they tended to favor the use of
gas turbines. This type of engine is smaller and lighter for a given
horsepower and has been used extensively in turbo prop aircraft.

Fig.9.1:engine layout
The engine has a main shaft on which is mounted a compressor and
turbine. A starter motor is connected to one end and the other end is
connected to the lift fan. Both the compressor and turbine look like fans with
large number of blades.
When the engine is started the compressor compresses air from the
engine intakes and pushes into the combustion chambers mounted around
the engine. Fuel is squirted into the combustion chamber and is ignited. The
compressed air then rapidly expands as it is heated and forces its way out
through the turbine to the exhaust. As the gas pressure raises the turbine
speeds up, there by driving the compressor faster. The engine speed
increases until it reaches engines normal operating speed.
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However the use of these engines results in very high level of engine
noise outside the craft. In the SRN6 this meant that it was possible to hear
the craft traveling across the Solent between the Portsmouth and the isle of
Wight in the UK several miles away. The current AP188 crafts that runs on
the old SRN6 routes has now moved back towards the piston engines and
uses marine diesel engines that are much quieter and fuel efficient.

Fig.9.1: sketch of engine

15

Chapter 10
THE THRUST PROPELLER
The propeller used to drive the Hovercraft along is usually an aircraft
type with variable pitch blades. Its speed of rotation must remain fixed to
that the engine and the lift fan. This is because the amount of lift air requires
dictates the engine speed to drive the lift fan. In turn the amount of
propulsion which the propellers provide must be obtained by varying the
propeller pitch and not its rate of rotation. This system is termed integrated
lift. Hovercraft having more than one lift fan and propeller generally has a
separate engine for each fan and propeller unit.
The propellers used on hovercraft can vary from four bladed versions
and about nine feet in diameter on the smaller craft to the four propellers on
the SRN4 cross-channel Hovercraft. These are four bladed and nineteen feet
in diameter.

Fig.10.1: Thrust Propeller

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Chapter-11
SYSTEMS
Momentum Curtain
The craft would require enormous power to maintain a reasonable
hover height. To solve these problems, a plenum chamber with a momentum
curtain was developed.
Air box
The air box takes about 10% of the air being pushed backward by the
propeller and forces it downward, underneath the hovercraft. There are three
small ducts cut into the base of the hovercraft, underneath the air box. Two
of these ducts lead into the skirt, which is basically a bag that goes all the
way around the perimeter of the craft, while the third duct leads directly
underneath the hovercraft developed.
Lift System
The hovercraft relies on a stable cushion of air to maintain sufficient
lift. The weight distribution on top of the deck is arranged so that the air is
distributed the air from the rear of the deck throughout the cushion volume
in an approximately even fashion to provide the necessary support. The skirt
extending below the deck provides containment, improves balance, and
allows the craft to traverse more varied terrain.

17

Thrust System
The air not directed to the cushion and skirt is propelled backwards,
providing forward thrust to the craft. The size of the propeller, rpm output of
the engine, and height of the lift/thrust divider are the determining
parameters for the thrust force.
Steering System
Rudders are a main source of steering and are attached to the rear of
the duct to direct the flow of air and the direction of the subsequent
momentum transfer from the air to the craft. Because of the air cushion
effect, the driver may influence the steering by shifting his weight nearer to
any of the four sides of the deck.
We begin our considerations by determining the necessary power for
static lift. If we assume that all of the air through the propeller goes into the
air cushion and model the flow of air withBernoulli equations ignoring
frictional losses. Note that the velocity associated to the minor losses
through the propeller and duct are associated with the velocity through the
duct since this is the only relevant velocity available from calculations. From
these equations, we can determine the energy gain needed from the
propeller. The total expected weight of the craft is obtained by summing the
individual weights of all components such that, in pounds,
Total Weight = 200 passenger + 50 engine
+ 25 round + 10 skirt + 40 deck/supports =325 lb
Assuming incompressible flow, we can multiply the mass flow rate of the
escaping air by the airs kinetic energy to obtain the power needed to
18

pressurize the cushion at a certain clearance height for a given weight load
on a deck of specific area. This is the power needed to maintain the pressure
in the cushion.
Lift Power
The lift system must produce a steady state cushion pressure that will
provide enough force Engine Displacement 27.2 cc Max Engine Power hp
@ 7500 rpm Average Air Volume 1 0.15 CBM/second Net Weight 5.2 kg
Table 1: Engine Specification312 Int. J. Mech. Eng. & Rob. Res. 2014 V
Abhiram et al., 2014 to counteract the weight of the craft, shown by
Equation (3.2) Pc = f(M, g) The sensity of lift requirements to weight
were derived by differentiating the governing equations. This resultant graph
is approximately linear, giving a sensitivity of 29 W/kg for the lift system.
Thrust
The lift forces generated by the engine i.e. leaf blower are used to
create an air gap between the skirt and the ground surface. As indicated in
the above lift calculations, the air gap generated is approximately 20 mm. As
a result of air gap generation, the static and dynamic frictional forces are
reduced immensely, because the co-efficient of friction of air is very
low when compared to the ground surface. Thus, the thrust force required
for propelling the hovercraft in the horizontal direction, is greatly reduced.

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Chapter-12

RUDDERS AND CONTROL OF HOVERCRAFT

Control of a Hovercraft is accomplished by primarily though the use
of rudders like the type used on aircraft. The main difference would be,
however, that Hovercraft generally utilizes many rudders rather than just
one.
On the SRN4 the pylons on which they are mounted can be rotated to
change the direction of thrust. Another method of control is through puff
ports or dual thrust fans where you would slow one down and speed up the
other to turn in the direction desired.

Fig.12.1:Rudders

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The hovercrafts are designed to float like a boat with the engine
turned off. To stop the Hovercraft-Reducing engine RPM will reduce the air
cushion height and increased drag between the skirt and the surface will
slow and stop the Hovercraft. Alternatively, the Hovercraft can be turned
180 degrees and the engine accelerated till the craft stops. In an emergency
situation on most surfaces turning the engine off will stop the Hovercraft
immediately.

Fig.12.3:movements

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Chapter-13
APPLICATIONS
As technology improves, performance improves and reduces noise
levels; Hovercrafts are becoming increasingly popular as recreational
machines. From cabins year round to cruising, fishing, driving and racingthe possibilities are endless. With the advantage of loading and unloading on
land they are used for transporting people and equipment over water.
Hovercrafts are also used as warships to carry out rapid sea-lift and
beach landing. They also provide fire support for troop on the shore. They
are also capable of lying active minefields.
It will travel against a current of river with no reduction of speed
A Hovercraft travel over the surface of water without concern for
depth or hidden obstacles
It can travel with great speed of up to 60 knots
Hovercraft are unaffected by small waves and offer a comfortable
smooth ride
It is safe around swimmers as there are no propellers in water
Many Hovercraft have sufficient hover height, ranging from 8 in to 18
in to pass right over a person in water
The air cushion enables Hovercraft to operate over environmentally
sensitive areas such as mudflats without disturbing the surface
The lack of wake on water minimizes the potential for bank erosion
It can load and unload peoples and equipments on land

22

Unlike many boats, engine exhaust fumes are not directed into water and
poisonous antifouling compounds are not required on Hovercraft
Border/coastal/inland patrol, anti terrorism, drug smuggling patrol.
High speed marine sub surface & ground scanning survey & detection.
Rescue work from flooded areas, mud, sand, tidal areas. Hovercraft do
not create the problem with downdraft associated with helicopters, & a
fraction of the cost to purchase, operate & maintain. Rescuers can reach
floods, mud, and sand & ice victims without exposing rescuers to life
threatening danger.
Distribution of famine or flood aid support craft. Relief work (United
Nations).
Civil emergency & infrastructure support
Oil industry survey, exploration & pipeline patrol.
Electrical Power-line patrol & safety.
Remote mining access support vehicle.
River, lake & port geological surveys.
Mud & riverbed sampling.
Environmental projects & clean-up operations.
Airport bird scaring/support/rescue services.
Coastal civil engineering & bridge construction & repair/maintenance.

Transport, service & safety craft for river & low tide coastal work
where 24-hour access is vital for staff safety.

Fish farm & low tide access.

23

 Leisure & family fun. Rental Operations, Corporate entertainment.

Education, schools. Summer fetes & shows.

Chapter-14
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
By using the hover principle many designs have arise. One is the
hover concept by replacing the cushion of low pressure air as inform the
modern Hovercraft by high pressure pad it was thought that the pads of high
pressure could replace the wheels of the car. but there are two difficulties.
1. It is difficult to lift
2. New method of propulsion is required
Then moved towards Hover train. Here rails provide smooth surface
for high pressure air and guidance from the track overcomes the problem of
steering.

24

Chapter-15
CONCLUSION
Hovercrafts are generally simple mechanism sin theory. Yet the
process from theory to manifestation is not as easy as it may seem. A
plethora of problems exist and must be faced in order to attain a wellfunctioning hover craft.The plans and designs must be flawless. One must
take under consideration the weight and the shape of each component in
order to avoid problems such as instability and dysfunction. This is a
marvelous machine which greatly cuts down the friction which in turn helps
it to attain greater speed and more stability. The unique capabilities of
Hovercrafts are recognized and appreciated by a diverse group of its end
users. Hovercrafts are in use worldwide with search research groups, fire
departments, airport emergency response units and scientific research teams.
Hovercrafts are an integral part of numerous commercial operations
including driving, tourism, water taxi, ferry service, ice breaking, goods
delivery, survey, environmental monitoring and guide outfitting. The
Hovercraft as a vehicle is still in common use but not in large volumes. As
engine and materials technology progress the Hovercraft may yet make a
comeback but for now it is a special vehicle for special applications.

25

Chapter-16
REFERENCES
1. Christopher Fitzgerald and Robert Wilson (1995), Light Hovercraft
Design, Hover Club of America.
2. Devereux A J and Elsley G H (1968), Hovercraft Design and
Construction, David & Charles Ltd., Newton Abbot.
3. Khurmi R S and Gupta J K (2005), A Textbook of Machine Design,
Eurasia Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
4. Khurmi R S and Gupta J K (2008), Theory of Machines, Eurasia
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
5. Lipson C and Junival R (1963), Handbook of Stress and Strength,
Macmillan, New York.
6. McClintock and Argon (1966), Mechanical Behavior of Materials,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA.
7. Shanley F R (1957), Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York.

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