Year 12 ATAR

PHYSICS
Unit 3

Gravity and Motion

Gravity and motion

the movement of free-falling bodies in Earths gravitational field is predictable

all objects with mass attract one another with a gravitational force; the magnitude of
this force can be calculated using Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation
This includes applying the relationship

objects with mass produce a gravitational field in the space that surrounds them; field
theory attributes the gravitational force on an object to the presence of a gravitational
field
This includes applying the relationship

when a mass moves or is moved from one point to another in a gravitational field and its
potential energy changes, work is done on the mass by the field
This includes applying the relationships

gravitational field strength is defined as the net force per unit mass at a particular point
in the field
This includes applying the relationships

the vector nature of the gravitational force can be used to analyse motion on inclined
planes by considering the components of the gravitational force (that is, weight) parallel
and perpendicular to the plane

projectile motion can be analysed quantitatively by treating the horizontal and vertical
components of the motion independently
This includes applying the relationships

when an object experiences a net force of constant magnitude perpendicular to its

velocity, it will undergo uniform circular motion, including circular motion on a horizontal
plane and around a banked track; and vertical circular motion
This includes applying the relationships

Newtons Law of Universal Gravitation is used to explain Keplers laws of planetary

motion and to describe the motion of planets and other satellites, modelled as uniform
circular motion
This includes deriving and applying the relationship

when an object experiences a net force at a distance from a pivot and at an angle to the

lever arm, it will experience a torque or moment about that point

This includes applying the relationship

for a rigid body to be in equilibrium, the sum of the forces and the sum of the moments
must be zero
This includes applying the relationships

Year 11 Review
Fundamental Units

An internationally recognised set of units for measurements.

All mathematical answers are to be expressed in Standard Internationale Units (SI Units).

Mass
Length
Time
Electric current

kilogram (kg)
metres (m)
seconds (s)
ampere (A)

Temperature
Luminous intensity
Amount of substance

Kelvin (K)
Candela (cd)
mole (mol)

Derived Units

A derived unit is a combination of fundamental units. Some examples of the use of symbols for
derived units are: ms-2 or m/s2 (speed), kW.h (electricity), kgm-3 or kg/m3 (density).
Some derived units are given their own unit for simplicity. For example, force is calculated from
F = ma and would have a derived unit of kg ms-2 but is given the unit newton (N).

Prefixes

These are helpful for large or small numbers.

Name
atto
femto
pico
nano
micro
mili
centi
deci
deca
hecto
kilo
myria
d
mega
giga
tera
peta
exa

Symbol
a
f
p
n

m
c
d
da
h
k
my
M
G
T
P
E

-18

10
10-15
10-12
10-9
10-6

=
=
=
=
=

10-3
10-2
10-1
101
102
103
104

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

106
109
1012
1015
1018

=
=
=
=
=

Orders of magnitude
0.000 000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 001
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1 000
10 000
1 000 000
1 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000

Use of Significant Figures

Description
one million million millionth
one thousand million millionth
one million millionth
one thousand millionth
one millionth
one thousandth
one hundredth
one tenth
ten
one hundred
one thousand
ten thousand
one million
one thousand million
one million million
one thousand million million
one million million million

The correct number of significant figures must be used in your numerical answers.

A small proportion of the marks for your assessments and WACE Examination will relate to the correct
use of significant figures and units.

In general, external examinations have three significant figures however all estimate questions will have
no more than two significant figures (usually one).

For large or small numbers, give your answer in scientific notation. For example, 98 344 N to three
significant figures is 9.83 x 104 N and 0.000023403 to three significant figures is 2.34 x 10-5.

RULES:
1. All non zero digits are significant.
E.g. 7.92 has 3 significant figures (hence forth called SF)
2. Zeros that fall between two significant digits are significant.
E.g. 9.002 x 10-4 has 4 SF.
3. Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are not significant.
Eg. 0.35 has 2 SF.
4. Zeros at the end of a number and to the right of the decimal point are significant.
Eg. 0.0710 has 3 SF.
5. Zeros at the end of a number and to the left of the decimal point are not significant unless otherwise
indicated. Eg. 3500 has 2 SF. If zeros are significant then scientific notation can be used to show
this. E.g. 3.500 x 104 has 4 SF while 3.50 x 104 has 3 SF.
6. When multiplying or dividing, the answer is given with as many significant figures as the
measurement with the least significant figures.
E.g.
1.498 g 6.2 x 10-1 L
(4 SF 2 SF so answer must have 2 SF)
= 2.316129 gL-1
= 2.4 gL-1
(2 SF)
7. When adding or subtracting, the answer is quoted with as many decimal places as the measurement
with the least decimal places.
E.g. 1.49 x 102 gL-1 + 6.2 g
= 149 + 6.2 g
(zero decimal places so answer must have zero)
= 155.2 g
= 155 g
8. When rounding an answer, if the digit to be rounded is:
greater than 5 then increase the preceding number by
e.g. 3.677 rounded to 3SF is 3.68
less than 5 then leave the preceding number as it is.
e.g. 6.632 rounded to 3SF is 6.63.
exactly 5 then increase the preceding number by 1.
e.g. 6.25 rounded to 2SF is 6.3

1.

Wherever possible, leave the rounding off till the very end. Some calculations involve multiple steps
and rounding off at each step could cause an error in the final answer.
How many significant figures in the following?
a. 125

b. 0.013

c. 1007

d. 25.10

e. 3700

f. 0.003

g. 10.030

h. 630

2. Convert the following to three significant figures and in scientific notation.

a. 34 791

b. 0.000 034 53

c. 3 478

d. 6 953

e. 0.005 451

f. 0.1955

4. Multiply 2.340 by 5.29002

5. Subtract 0.984 from 5.6

Accuracy, Precision, Uncertainty and Absolute Error

Accuracy:

Accuracy relates to an instruments use.

An instrument is accurate if it truly reflects the quantity being measured.
The closer a measured value is to the true or actual value, the more accurate it is.

Precision:

Precision relates to the repeatability of several measurements.

For example, if you weigh a given substance five times, and get
3.2 N each time, then your measurement is very precise.
Uncertainty:
All measurements you make have some amount of uncertainty.
Unless given, the uncertainty of an instrument is usually one half
of the finest scale e.g. a ruler which measures in millimetres has
an uncertainty of 0.5 mm. An electronic timer usually to 0.005 s.
The uncertainty of an instrument measure its precision. If you
measure the width of this page you will get a reading of 21.1
cm. The uncertainty is 0.5 mm so the reading is 21.1 0.05 cm.

Uncertainty in common laboratory equipment:

Metre rule
gauge 0.005 mm
50 mL measuring cylinder
50 mL measuring cylinder
-100C 1100C thermometer

0.05 cm

Micrometer screw

0.2 mL
Vernier Callipers
0.005 cm
0.2 mL
10 mL measuring cylinder
0.1 mL
0.50C (does depend on precision of thermometer)

Estimating the uncertainty in a result

An experiment or a measurement exercise is not complete until the uncertainties have been
analysed.
The report should include an estimate of the total uncertainty. This gives the reader of the report
some idea of your confidence in the result.
The following three processes are used for estimating uncertainty.
When adding or subtracting data, add the absolute uncertainties.
e.g. T (change in temperature) = 40 0.5 0C - 35 0.5 0C = 5 1 0C

When multiplying or dividing data, add the percentage uncertainties.

When raising data to power n, multiply the percentage uncertainty by n.

Measuring the power of a person.

Use the data in the table to determine the power of the student and the associated uncertainty.

Power

energy mgh

time
t

Suppose you had the following data included in your results:

Quantity
Absolute uncertainty
m (student)
81 kg
1 kg
g*

9.80 ms-2

0.02 ms-2

% Uncertainty

1.75 m

0.01 m

t **

2.20 s

0.1 s

* g varies between about 9.78 ms-2 and 9.82 ms-2

** t is an average time but needs to incorporate reaction time.

Power =
Power required to run up a set of steps is

Uncertainty (%) =
Hence:
so

P=
now
P =

W %
% of
=

Therefore, you could confidently say that the power of this person during this exercise was
W P
W

You will notice that your final value has fairly large percentage error due to the timing of the run.
You could therefore suggest a several improvements to the experiment e.g.
1. Use a more accurate timing method
2. Use a higher set of steps so the time is increased and the percentage error is smaller.

It is always important to look at errors and uncertainties in experiments and investigations.

Graphical analysis of data

Physicists commonly use graphical techniques to analyse a set of data.

They like to take a large amount of data and observe the trends in that data.
This gives more precise measurements.

Some relationships studied in physics are linear, while others are not.
It is possible to manipulate non-linear data so that a linear graph reveals a measurement.

Linear Relationships

Linear relationships and their graphs are fully specified with just two numbers: gradient, m, and
vertical axis intercept, c. In general, linear relationships are written as:
y = mx + c

The gradient, m, can be calculated from the coordinates of two points on the line:
m =

rise
run

y 2 y 1
x 2x 1

where (x1,y1) and (x2,y2) are any two points on the line.

Note: Dont forget that m and c have units. These need to be given in assessments.

Example:
Some students used a computer with an ultrasonic detector to obtain the velocity-time data for a
falling tennis ball. They wanted to determine the acceleration of the ball as it fell. They assumed that
the acceleration was nearly constant and that the relevant relationship was v = u + at, where v is the

speed of the ball at any given time, u was the speed when the measurements began, a is the
acceleration of the ball and t is the time since the measurement began. Their computer returned the
following data:
Time (s)
Speed (ms-1)
0.0
1.25
0.1
2.30
0.2
3.15
0.3
4.10
0.4
5.25
0.5
6.10
0.6
6.95

The data is assumed linear with the relationship v = u + at, which can be thought of as being
v = at + u, which makes it clear that putting v on the vertical axis and t on the horizontal axis gives a
linear graph with gradient a and vertical intercept u. A graph of the data can now be drawn on the
following grid.
Velocity (ms -1)

Velocity-Time profile for a falling tennis ball.

8
X

X
X
X

4
2

X
X

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
Time (s)

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

Using computer software, the regression line is given as y = 9.57x + 1.2857.

If this is rearranged and the constants are suitably rounded, the equation is v = 1.3 + 9.6t.
This indicates that the ball was moving at 1.3 ms-1 at the commencement of data collection and the
ball was accelerating at 9.6 ms-2.

NOTE if the point (0,0) is not in your data, DO NOT force the line of best fit through the origin.
When finding the gradient, use as big an area as possible. Select suitable points that are not from
your data.
Show all working on your graph. This includes construction lines to determine gradient and
interpreting data from the graph.

Manipulating non-linear data

Suppose we were examining the relationship between two quantities B and d and had good reason
to believe that the relationship between them is :
B=

k
d

where k is a constant value.

Clearly, this relationship is non-linear and a graph of B against d will not be a straight line.
By thinking about the relationship it can be seen that in linear form:
B = k

1
d

which can be seen as

y = mx + c

1
d

A graph of B (on the vertical axis) against

The gradient of the line will be k and the vertical intercept, c, will be zero.
This line of best fit might go through the origin because there is no constant added and c is zero.

(on the horizontal axis) will be linear.

Some students were investigating the relationship between current and resistance for a new solid state
electronic device. They obtained the data shown in the table.

Resistance ()

Current, I (A)
Resistance, R ()
1.5
22
1.7
39
2.2
46
2.6
70
3.1
110
3.4
145
3.9
212
4.2
236
Resistance and Current of an electronic device.
250

X
X

200
X

150

X
X

100
50

X X

2
Current (A)

According to the theory they had researched on relevant Internet sites, the students believed that the
relationship between I and R is R = d I3 + g, where d and g are constants. From this,
R = d I3 + g which can be seen as
y = mx + c

A graph of R on the vertical axis and I3 on the horizontal axis would have a gradient equal to d and a
vertical axis intercept equal to c.

By appropriate manipulation and graphical techniques, find their experimental values for d and g.
The following steps would be used:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Work out what you would have to graph to get a straight line. (i.e. I3)
Make a new table of the manipulated data.
Plot the graph of manipulated data.
What is the equation relating I and R?
Current, I (A)
1.5
1.7
2.2
2.6
3.1
3.4
3.9
4.2

Resistance, R ()
22
39
46
70
110
145
212
236

Current cubed , I3 (A3)

Resistance ()

Resistance and Current of an electronic device.

250
200
150
100
50

20

40
60
Current cubed (A 3)

80

From the graph

From a computer based spread sheet, a graph with the following regression line was obtained:
y = 3.1412 x + 15.092
This equation can be written as y = 3.1 x + 15.1, so the equation relating I and R is
R = 3.1 I3 + 15.1.
Hence, the value of d is 3.1 A-3 and the value of g is 15.1 .

Definitions
Scalar quantity:
Vector quantity:
Distance:

Displacement:

Speed:

Velocity:

Acceleration:

m=

c=

100

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Momentum
= mv

A cricket ball has a mass of 0.160 kg and foam ball has a mass of 0.0200 kg.

If both are thrown at

15.0 ms-1, calculate their momentum.

Change in Momentum
= mv - mu

= m(v u)

While running in the park you are initially travelling at 3.50 ms-1 east.

A dog runs out and starts to chase

you so you increase your velocity to 6.00 ms east. Assuming that your mass is 60.0 kg, what was your
change in momentum?
-1

A change in momentum can also include a change in direction.

Consider a foam ball hitting a window.
While the magnitude of the velocity is unchanged, its direction has changed so it is a different velocity
and there has been a change in momentum.

A 20.0 g foam ball hits the window at 15.0 ms-1 north and rebounds at 15.0 ms-1 south.

What is the

change in momentum?

Newtons Second Law of Motion

Newtons Second Law states that force is equal to the rate of change of momentum,
OR

which is the same as

Now we know that change in velocity divided by time,

, is acceleration so substituting this
into the above equation results in F = ma; a simple way of expressing Newtons Second Law.

A foam ball of mass 20.0 g and a cricket ball of mass 160 g are thrown at two separate windows at
speeds of 15.0 ms-1. The foam ball rebounds at 10 ms-1 and the cricket ball at 5.0 ms-1. Each ball is in
contact with the window for about 0.05 sec. If each sheet of glass can withstand 50 N of force, will either
window shatter?

11

Impulse

In a car crash your velocity changes so you undergo a change in momentum.

this can be re-written as
Ft = mv - mu

Ft is known as impulse (units Ns) and is equal to the change in momentum: Impulse = Ft

As Ft = p, then p can also have the units Ns.

Putting it all together

For the collision, the change in momentum cant be altered, that means
that the magnitude of the impulse cant be changed.
However, it is the force on you that car designers are trying to decrease.
If the time over which the crash takes place is increased, the force must
be decreased (since I is constant, if t the F).
To increase the time of the crash, car designers design cars that crumple
this increases the time for the car to stop in a crash, thus decreases the force and possibly saving you
from injury or death.

Air bags and retractable seat belts also increase the time for the passenger to come to rest.

While running in the park, you were initially-1travelling at 3.50 ms

-1

east and a dog started to chase you

and you increased your velocity to 6.00 ms east. Assuming that your mass is 60.0 kg and that the
change of momentum happened in 1.50 s, what force was applied to increase your velocity?

As you are dealing with velocity, which is a vector quantity, you need to consider direction. You may
need to use v u = v + (-u) if v and u are not in the same direction.

A motorcyclist moving along the road applies the brakes to stop in

8.70 m to avoid hitting a car out of an intersection. It is moving at a

velocity of 36.0 kmh-1 and the total mass of the person and the bike is
760.0 kg. Calculate the force exerted by the brakes, the change in
momentum and then the impulse you experience.
Remember that vector quantities have magnitude and direction.

12

A 1.50 tonne car is travelling at 72.0 kmh-1, experiences a force of 1.00 x 104 N for 0.800 s when the
brakes are applied. What is its final velocity?

Conservation Of Momentum

The law of conservation of momentum states that; the momentum of a system remains unchanged.
Collisions are an example of conservation of momentum.
There are two main types of collisions, one where the objects
bounce apart and another where they stick together.
In both cases:
net momentum after collision = net momentum before collision
after = before
m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2

Work and energy

Work = force x displacement

W = Fs
The unit of work is the joule (J). One joule of work is done if a force of 1 Newton moves an object
through a displacement of 1 metre in the direction of the force.

Two boys are using a force of 1.00 x 102 N to move a bed 3.00 m across a bedroom.

What is the work

done?

What work is required to lift a 5.00 kg bag of potatoes from the floor to a shelf 1.50 m above the ground?

Energy

Work and energy are related.

Energy can be defined as the ability or capacity to do work. Whenever work is done, some energy is
transferred from one object to another.
The unit of energy is the same as that of work, namely the joule (J).
Kinetic Energy

13

Ek = mv

Ek = kinetic energy (J)

m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (ms-1)

A man is running at 5.00 ms1 and using 937 J of energy, what is his mass?

Gravitational Potential Energy

Ep = mgh

Ep = potential energy (J)

m = mass (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)
h = height above earth (m)

A ball is thrown into the air. Just before it starts its downward journey (velocity equal to zero) it is at a
height of 2.50 m above the ground. If it has a mass of 0.500 kg, what is its potential energy?

Law Of Conservation Of Energy

Energy is neither created nor destroyed, but can be readily converted from one form to another.
Energy Transformations Between Kinetic And Potential Energy
Ep lost = Ek gained
mgh = mv2
gh = v2

masses cancel so

A girl is on a diving board 3.00 m above the water below.

With what velocity will she hit the water when

she dives?

Free body diagrams

In solving problems, it is sometimes useful to illustrate on a diagram all the forces
that are acting on the object. This type of diagram is called a free body diagram.
Arrows will show the direction of the force and the length will show the size of the force relative to
other forces shown on the diagram.
Questions to ask about a situation

1. Is there gravity? This will be downwards. Fg

2. Is the object on a surface? Upward normal force, FN (also known as reaction force R)
Generally these two forces are the same length unless the object is ascending or descending.
3. Is something pushing or pulling. This is the forward action force. FA
4. Is there friction. This is the force that retards the motion. Ff
5. Is the object accelerating. Positive acceleration then FA arrow larger than friction, negative
acceleration then FA arrow is shorter than friction.
Sam is riding a bike along a straight road at a constant velocity. The following forces are acting on Sam:
weight, reaction force from road, forward force and frictional forces (including air resistance). As his
velocity is constant, forces up must equal forces down and forces right must equal forces left:
Reaction force road
FN

If Sam stopped pedalling, no forward force

exists he rider slows down due to friction.

14

FA

Friction Ff

Forward force

Fg
Weight

A driver places a large heavy box in the middle of the

tray of a delivery truck. The box is not tied down.

a. On the diagram show all the major forces acting
on the box as the truck accelerates. Use labelled
arrows to show their direction and related size of
each force.
F air resistance low to start

b. On the right, draw a skydiver

who has just opened his
parachute.

F air resistance now equal to weight

F weight

c. On the right, draw a skydiver

who has reached terminal
velocity.

F weight

The vector nature of the gravitational force can be used to analyse motion on inclined planes by
considering the components of the gravitational force (that is, weight) parallel and perpendicular to
the plane.

VECTORS

There are two types of physical quantities.

i) Vector Quantities these quantities have a magnitude (size) and a
direction. Examples of vector quantities are velocity of a cyclist,
momentum of a cyclist and forces acting on the cyclist.
ii) Scalar Quantities these quantities have magnitude only. Examples of
scalars are time for the cyclist to finish the race, mass of a cyclist, temperature inside the velodrome
and density of air in the tyres.

Regroup the following quantities as either scalars or vectors:

velocity, speed, mass, momentum, density, volume, weight, acceleration, work, pressure, torque,
magnetic flux, distance, impulse, area, force.
Scalars

Vectors

15

All vectors must always be expressed with both magnitude and direction.

Vector Representation

Graphically, a vector quantity can be represented by a line containing an arrow head. The length (drawn
to an appropriate scale) indicates the magnitude and the arrow direction indicates the vector direction.
i) 5m S

ii) 10m N

scale:
1cm = 5m

Combining Vectors

1)

2)

There are two methods of combining vectors

Use a scale diagram, ruler and a protractor.
Mathematically use pythagorus, sine rule, cosine rule.

Vector Addition

When adding vectors, the tail of the second is added to the head of the first. The resultant vector is
found by drawing a resultant arrow from the tail of the first vector to the head of the final vector.
Vectors need a direction. In all calculations, make one direction positive and the other negative.
3m
Example 1: Karis walks 3m East then 5 m East. Calculate her displacement.
East is positive
s=3+5
s = 8 m East
Example 2: Tony runs 3 m East then 5 m West. Calculate his displacement.
Assign east is positive so west is negative
s = 3 + (-5)
s = -2
s = 2m West

5m

s = 8m East
3m
5m
s = 2 m west

Example 3: Michael walks his dog 3 m North then 4m East.

What was his displacement?
s =
s = 5m
s = 5m N 530 E

= tan-1 (43)
= 530

With vectors at an angle that is not 90, use the cosine rule or the sine rule to determine the resultant
and the angle.

16

b
C

Adding vectors together.

1. A couple stroll 160m south & then 160m east. Find the distance and the displacement.

2. A plane is heading due north at 120 kmhr-1 in an easterly cross wind of 50.0 kmhr-1. What is the
actual ground velocity?

3. What is the single equivalent force to replace 6.0N NW, 6.0N S and 6.0N NW?

Vector Subtraction

When subtracting vectors, add the opposite vector.

v = v u = v + (-u)
vector 1
(e.g. final velocity V)

vector 2
(e.g. initial velocity u)
-

OR reversing direction of vector 2

vector 1

(- vector 2)
+

which is solved with the usual vector addition triangle

resultant

- vector 2

vector 1

The resultant is found in the usual way (magnitude & direction).

17
-1

Example 1. A ball hits a wall at 8.0 ms East then

rebounds at 6.0 ms-1 West. Find the change in
velocity.
The change in velocity is the final velocity
subtract the initial velocity.
v = v u
v = 6.0 ms-1 West 8.0 ms-1 East is the same as
v = 6.0 ms-1 West + (-8.0 ms-1 East) opposite of 8 ms1 East is 8ms1 West so
v = 6.0 ms-1 West + 8.0 ms-1 West
v = 14 ms-1 West

6 ms-1 W

8 ms-1 W

v = 14 ms-1 W

Example 2: A 0.5kg ball is thrown at a wall at 3.5 ms-1 North then rebounds at 2.5 ms-1 South. Change of
velocity took 30.0 ms. Calculate force of wall on ball.
(Wall on ball so need force South)
v = 2.5 ms-1 South 3.5 ms-1 North
F = ma = mv = 0.5 x 6.0
v = 2.5 ms-1 South + 3.5 ms-1 South
t
30 x 10 -3
v = 6.0 ms-1 South
F = 100 N South.
Now calculate force.
Example 3: A bike is travelling 4.0 ms-1 West, it then turns a corner to travel 3.0 ms-1 North. The change
of velocity took 2.0 s. What is the acceleration of the bike?
First find change in velocity.
4 ms -1
v = 3.0 ms-1 North - 4.0 ms-1 West
v = 3.0 ms-1 North + (-4.0 ms-1 West)
v = 3.0 ms-1 North + 4.0 ms-1 East now draw a diagram
v = 32+4 2
v = 5.0 ms-1

3 ms-1

= tan-1 (4.0 3.0)

= 53.10
v = 5.0 ms-1 N 53.10 E

has been used for acceleration but as the direction has changed (v u) is NOT
(3.0 4.0) but the v calculated above 5.0 ms-1 N 53.10 E
Acceleration =

1.

a = 2.5 ms-2 N 53.10 E (a is a vector needs a direction)

A motorcycle going around a corner is travelling initially at 15.0 ms-1 south then, after the corner, the
motorcycle is travelling at 10.0 ms-1 east. Determine the cars acceleration if the change in velocity
takes 1.40 s

2. You are walking south along the corridor at 1.50 ms-1 when you turn east to go to your class. If the
turn took 0.700 s and you are now walking at 3.20 ms-1, what was your acceleration around the
corner?

18

3. Fern, the ginger cat is running at 9.36 kmh-1 west chasing a mouse. She turns north to follow the
mouse and is now running at 11.52 kmh-1. If the turn took 0.400 s, what was Ferns acceleration?

Dont forget to change

velocity to ms-1.

4. A pitcher throws a baseball due south towards the batter at 105.0 kmh-1. The batter hits the ball foul
by striking it due west at 85.0 kmh-1. What is the change in the baseballs velocity?

Vector Components

Just as two vectors can be added, a single vector can be split into two parts or components.
It is often useful to deal with two components which are mutually perpendicular, since they cannot
influence each other. (E.g. moving north cannot have any effect on how far east you are.)
Two components must of course add up to give you the original vector.
e.g. A car drives NW at 65 kmhr-1. At what velocity is the car moving
(a) northwards & (b) westwards?
component
north

65 kmhr-1

component
west
A vector can be resolved into a horizontal and a
vertical component that are at right angles to

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each other as shown in the diagram.

A glider is being pulled by a plane to lift it into the air. The rope has a tension of 4.00 x 103 N and makes
an angle of 30.0o to the ground. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the force.

Objects on a slope.

Component parallel to plane = mg sin

Component perpendicular to plane = mg cos

A boy on skis is accelerating down a hill that is inclined at 30.0o to the horizontal. If the combined mass
of the boy and skis is 45.0 kg, what force is accelerating them down?

Three boys are pulling on a toy. Sam pulls with a force of 20.5 N east, Jim with a force of 20.5 N south
and Tom with a force of 29.0 N north-west. Who will pull the toy their way?

Equilibrium of Vectors

Objects are sometimes stationary (or at constant velocity) even though there may be several forces
acting on it. In such a situation it is obvious that somehow these forces are balanced or at equilibrium.

Here is Tarzan hanging from two vines. This is an equilibrium of forces because nothing is
accelerating. Two diagrams are usually necessary.
30o

60o

20

T1 = ?

T2 = ?
90o

Setup diagram:

T2 > T1 (T2 takes most of the tension

upwards due to steeper angle)

The two vine tensions must combine (i.e. sum together) to produce an upward resultant that exactly
T3 = weight of tarzan
balances Tarzans weight downwards. That is T1 + T2 = - T3 (vector addition)
Vector addition diagram:
60o

T1

Therefore adding T1 and T2

Resultant
(-T3)
30 o T2

The two tensions T1 and T2 could now be easily found by solving the triangle above.
However, there is another way of looking at this.
For an equilibrium system such as this,
the sum of all the vertical forces (including vertical components) = zero
and
the sum of all the horizontal forces (including horizontal components) = zero
Therefore for dangling Tarzan, the vertical component up for T1 added to the vertical component up
for T2 must be equal to Tarzans weight (T3).
vertical
component
of T2

T2
T3

T1

vertical
component
of T1

The two horizontal components (dotted) must be equal and opposite? This must be so because
Tarzan is not experiencing a nett sidewise accelerating force.

Similarly, the sum of all the vertical forces (i.e vertical components) must be zero, sice Tarzan is not
accelerating vertically either. That is the two vertical components shown together exactly balance T3.

Questions on Vectors
1.

While working at Coles, Giles needs to move cartons of tomatoes to the Fruit and Vegetable
section of the store using a trolley. The handle of the trolley is at an angle of 65.00 to the vertical and
the horizontal component of the force is 23.02 N. With what force is Giles pulling the cart?
2.
Tina is taking a plane trip to New Zealand. The plane is climbing at an angle of 40.0o to the
ground with a constant speed of 3.50 x 102 kmh-1. What is the effective forward speed of the plane?
3.
A small van with a mass of 1.50 x 103 kg is parked at the top of a hill that is inclined at 67.0o to
the vertical. The brakes fail. Calculate the force that is now pulling the truck down the hill?
4.
Explain why it is easier to pull a heavy roller across a lawn than it is to push it.

21

5. Sam and Matt are trying to pull Matts car out of the
sand where it has become bogged. Sam is using 75.0
of force at an angle of 47.0o while Matt uses 71.5 N at
angle of 36.0o to the resultant forward force. The boys
need an overall force of 105 N to pull the car free. Will
they be able to do so? You must show calculations to
justify your answer.

N
an

6. Rohan throws a 340 g ball with a velocity of 6.40 ms-1

East at a wall. The ball rebounds returns at 3.80 ms-1
West. If the change in velocity occurred in 0.350 s, what force did the wall apply to the ball?
7. A pitcher throws a baseball due south towards the batter at 104.4 kmh-1. The batter hits the ball foul
by striking it due west at 86.4 kmh-1. If the balls change in velocity occurred in 0.200 s, what was the
balls acceleration?

Projectile motion can be analysed quantitatively by treating the horizontal and vertical components of
the motion independently
This includes applying the relationships

Flying through the air

Projectiles In General

A projectile is something that is launched into the air such that it

lands a distance from where it started.

The stroboscopic photograph shows the motion of two balls. One

is projected horizontally while the other is dropped vertically. At any
instant, the two balls are at the same level.

Their initial vertical velocities are zero and their vertical

accelerations (due to gravity) are equal. Thus the projectile falls like a
body which is dropped from rest. Its horizontal velocity does not affect
its vertical motion.

The horizontal and vertical motions of an object are

independent and can be treated separately.

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Horizontal Motion - this is assumed to be constant during the flight of the projectile. There is no
horizontal acceleration, a = 0. This motion can be used to determine the range of the flight (horizontal
distance travelled).

Vertical Motion - the body is under the influence of gravity with a constant downward acceleration of
9.80 ms-2. This motion can be used to determine time of flight and maximum height.

Horizontal projectiles

Consider a golfer hitting a ball off a cliff. Assume the ball is struck such that its initial
path is parallel to the ground, i.e. no vertical component to the motion.

At the moment of impact a force is acting on the ball to deform it. The forces acting
on the ball are shown.
FN

Fclub

Once the ball is in flight the only forces acting on it are gravity and air resistance.

mg

velocity
(not a force)

If air resistance is ignored, there is only one force

gravity.

velocity

air resistance

(not a force)

nett
force
mg

nett
force

mg

-2
Because only the weight force is acting here, the
ball will
accelerate
downward
at g
(9.8 ms
) while
The
horizontal
component
of the
velocity
remains
at the same time, continue to move horizontally. Twothe
motions
one not affecting
same. happen
There issimultaneously,
no force in the horizontal
the other.
direction (since friction has been ignored) and,
therefore, there is no acceleration in the horizontal
Further, the horizontal velocity remains constant because
direction.there is no horizontal force acting (ignoring
friction with the air).

can be used to solve problems.

The motion of the golf ball after it has been hit is shown.

The vertical component is getting bigger due to

acceleration in this direction, g. Each vertical
component would be the same as an object
dropped straight down.
Equations involving acceleration can be used to
solve problems.

23

These lines
represent the
component of
the velocity at
that point not
the force acting
on it.

A rock is thrown outward from a very high cliff at 25 ms-1. Plot its path.
After 1 second:
horizontal displacement
vertical displacement down (s)

0
20
VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT
Vertical
40

Start

1 sec

4.9

25

displacemen
t (m)
60
Horizontal
displacemen
t (m)

2 sec

3 sec

4 sec

Complete the table.

5 sec

80

Plot
Object

this data below.

Trajectory after thrown
Horizontally at 25ms-1

100
120
140
10

20

30 40

50 60

70 80

90 100 110 120 130

24

HORIZONTAL DISPLACEMENT

The resulting parabola represents the path taken by the rock.

This is a multiflash image of a ball

which is propelled horizontally.

Note that horizontal displacement

forward stays about the same, while
vertical displacement increases with
each frame.

Resultant Velocity (overall velocity)

At any instant the resultant velocity can be found by adding the 25ms-1 horizontal velocity vector to
the vertical velocity vector at this point, using vector addition.

Find the resultant velocity at t = 1.0 seconds. (Fill in missing calculations)

Setup diagram:

Addition diagram:

25 ms-1
9.8ms-1

Resultant

The time it takes to fall vertically is the same time it takes to move horizontally.

A revolver is fired horizontally 1.5m above the ground at a muzzle velocity of 650 ms-1.
(a) What is the vertical component of the velocity of the bullet when it lands?
(b) How long does it take to strike the ground?
(c) How far away from the rifle does it strike the ground (range)?

A boy throws a rock into the sea with a horizontal velocity of 5.00 ms-1.

The height of the cliff is 49.0 m

and the rock is thrown 1.00 m above the top of the cliff. How far from the face of the cliff did the rock
land?

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A boy jumps horizontally from a diving tower 1.00 m above the water and lands 2.50 m away from the
edge of the tower.
a. How long was he in the air?
b. What was his horizontal take-off velocity?

Two thugs heave a body horizontally off a 60.0 m high cliff top at 1.20 ms-1, hoping that it will land in
bushes 5.00 m from the base of the cliff. Determine if they succeed and if not, how far away from the
bush does the body land.

A much harder question!

A ski jumper competing in the winter Olympics travels down a slope and leaves the ski track moving in
the horizontal direction with a speed of 30.0 m s-1. The landing incline below the take off point slopes
downwards at 45o to the horizontal. (Assume no air resistance or friction.)
a. If the skier lands on the slope, calculate the skier's displacement down the
b. How long is the skier in the air before landing?
c. What is the vertical component of velocity just before the instant the skier

slope.
lands?

26

Vertical projectiles

A ball is thrown into the air at 5.0 ms

0 ms-1
-1

and then returns to the same height it was9.8thrown

ms-2 from. Complete
the following diagram to show the velocity and acceleration at the start, middle and end of the throw
assuming no air resistance.
-5.0 ms-1
9.8 ms-2

5.0 ms-1
9.8 ms-2

All objects will fall to Earth regardless of their size and mass (assuming no air resistance) at 9.8 ms-2
due to the pull of gravity.

If an object is thrown into the air, it will take the same time to reach the top, as it will to return to its
starting position. Newtons equations of motion can be used to solve vertical projectile problems.

When an object moves up and down, when dealing with displacement, velocity and acceleration, a
direction must be indicted. Choose one direction as positive then values in the other direction must
be negative.

Choosing a sign convention

When doing these calculations it is important to remember that vectors acting in opposite directions must
have opposite signs.

During a car accident a piece of the car is projected vertically upwards from the ground with an initial
velocity of 20.0 ms-1. Neglecting air resistance find
a. maximum height the piece reaches
b. total time in the air after returning

27

A ball, which is held 1.20 m above the ground, is thrown into the air at 3.50 ms-1 then returns to hit the
ground.
a.

With what velocity will it hit the ground?

c.

How far horizontally did the ball travel?

1.

b. How long is it in the air?

A kangaroo jumps to a vertical height of 2.80 m. How long was it in the air before
returning to earth?

2. A helicopter is ascending vertically with a velocity of 6.00 ms-1. At a height of 1.20 x 102 m above the
earth, a package is dropped from a window. How much time does it take for the package to reach
the ground?

3. A toy rocket is fired vertically upwards from the ground at an initial velocity
of 20.0 ms-1.
a. How fast is it moving when it reaches a height of 16.0 m on the way up?

b. How long is required to reach this height?

4. A stone is thrown vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 10.0 ms-1 from the edge of a cliff 65.0 m
high.
a. What is its velocity just before hitting the ground below?

28

b. How much later does it reach the bottom of the cliff?

Oblique Projectiles

These are projectiles where the initial

velocity is not horizontal or vertical to the
ground but is at some angle e.g. an athlete
doing the high jump.

As the diagrams shows, projectile

motion consists of
a. a horizontal component with constant
velocity (unchanged throughout flight)
b. a vertical component with constant
downward acceleration (9.8 ms-2)

The combination of these two

components produces the characteristic curve associated with projectile motion.

1. The path of an oblique projectile is a parabolic curve (if no air resistance)

2. Initial velocity has vertical and horizontal components:
vertical velocity
horizontal velocity

vV = v sin
vH = v cos

3. Range is the horizontal displacement and the flight is the path the projectile takes.

4. If the object lands at the same height that it takes off from, then the maximum range occurs when
initial velocity is at 45. However, depending on situation, e.g. air resistance, height above ground
and other factors, other angles can be preferred.

29

5. Horizontal component is constant (if no air resistance) and depends only on initial horizontal velocity.
6. Vertical component decreases to top of flight (where it is zero) then increases to bottom of flight. If
take off and landing at same height, initial and final velocities are the same. Vertical component
depends on both initial velocity and acceleration due to gravity.
7. Direction is important for displacement, velocity and acceleration. Use one direction as positive and
one as negative your teacher will mostly use down as positive (as gravity always acts down).
8. CONSIDER HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL MOTION SEPARATELY.
Example
A ball is kicked off the ground with a velocity of 36.0 ms-1 into the air at an
elevation of 25 above the horizontal. Find the height the ball reached and
the distance it landed from the kicker.
STEP 1: Usually the first step is to resolve the velocity in horizontal and vertical
components.
v
25

vV

vertical component, vv = 36 sin25 = 15.21 ms-1

horizontal component, vH = 36 cos25 = 32.63 ms-1

vH

STEP 2: Find the maximum height reached when vV = 0.

A projectile fired straight up at 15.21 ms-1 will reach the same height as a projectile fired at 36 ms-1 at an
angle of 25.

36 ms-1

15.21 ms-1

25
Using vertical data only:
u = vV = 15.21 ms-1 (up is ve)
a = g = 9.8 ms-2
v = 0 ms-1
s=?
A person viewing the kick from the side, at a distance, will not see

height

30

the ball go at an angle. Rather, they will see the ball go straight up
at 15.21 ms-1, reach a height of 11.80 m then return to the ground.
STEP 3: Find the time to strike the ground using the vertical component.
The time taken for a projectile thrown straight up with a velocity of 15.21 ms-1 to reach the ground will be
the same time taken for a projectile thrown at an angle of 25 at a velocity of 36 ms-1 to reach the ground.
v=0

u = vV = 15.21 ms-1 (up is ve)

v = +15.21 ms-1
a = g = 9.8 ms-2
t=?

t=v-u
a
t = 1.55 s
x 2 = 3.10 s
u = -15.21

STEP 4 : Find the range of the ball. This is determined from the time of flight and the horizontal
component of the velocity a constant 32.63 ms-1.
A projectile fired straight out at 32.63 ms-1 will cover the same distance as a projectile fired at 36 ms-1 at
an angle of 25.
u = vH = 32.63 ms-1
a=0
no horizontal acceleration
t = 1.55 s
s=?
A person viewing the kick from above, at a distance, will not see
the ball go at an angle. Rather, they will see the ball go straight
across at 32.63 ms-1 and cover a distance of 50.60m.

1.

An archer fires an arrow at 20.0 ms-1 into the air at an angle of 40.0 to the horizontal.
a. How long was it in the air before it hit the target which was at the same height as the arrow was
fired?

b. How far did it travel before hitting the target at the same height it was fired from?

2. Bruce kicks a ball at an angle of 30.00 from the horizontal with an initial speed of 15.0 ms-1. Find
how far the ball travels horizontally before hitting the ground.

Often, the point of release of the projectile is not the same as the landing point. For example, a
basketball shot or a shot put throw.

31

45 is the optimum angle when the points of release and landing are the same. In track and field this
is seldom the case. For example, a shot putter can release the shot from about 2m above the ground.
There are four factors that will influence the distance a projectile will travel:
a) the original speed of the projectile,
b) angle of projection to the horizontal,
c) acceleration due to gravity,
d) height of projection (vertical distance from point of release to point of landing).
Example
A javelin is hurled at 42 ms-1 into the air at an elevation of 35 from a height of 1.85m.
How high will it travel and how far away does it land?
STEP 1: Resolve the velocity in horizontal and vertical components.
v

vV

35

vertical component, vv = 42 sin35 = 24.1 ms-1

horizontal component, vH = 42 cos35 = 34.4 ms-1

vH
STEP 2: Find the time to strike the ground using the vertical component.
The time taken for a projectile thrown straight up with a velocity of 24.1 ms-1 to reach the ground will be
the same time taken for a projectile thrown at an angle of 35 at a velocity of 42 ms-1 to reach the ground.
42 ms-1

24.1 ms-1

35

Using vertical data only:

u = vV = 24.1 ms-1 (up is ve)
a = g = 9.8 ms-2
s = 1.85 m

STEP 3: Find the maximum height reached when vV = 0.

u = vV = 24.1 ms-1 (up is ve)
a = g = 9.8 ms-2
v = 0 ms-1
s = ?viewing the throw from the side, at a distance,
A person
will not see the javelin go at an angle. Rather, they will
see it go straight up at 24.1 ms-1, reach a height of 41.9 m
then return to the ground.
STEP 4 : Find the range of the javelin. This is determined from the time of flight and the horizontal
component of the velocity a constant 34.4 ms-1.

32

u = vH = 34.4 ms-1
a=0
no horizontal acceleration
t = 4.99 s
s=?

A person viewing the throw from above, at a distance, will not see the javelin go at
an angle. Rather, they will see it go straight across at 34.4 ms-1 and cover 172 m
before it hit the ground.

1.

An archer fires an arrow at an angle of 35.00 to the horizontal with an initial velocity of 25.0 ms-1. If
the arrow is 1.30 m above the ground when fired, how far from the archer will it hit the ground?

2. An archer fires an arrow at 35.0 ms-1 horizontal to the ground. If it lands 17.3 m away,
a. how high was the arrow above the ground?
b. at what velocity and angle did the arrow hit the ground?

3. A cricket ball is thrown at an angle of 20.00 to the horizontal and reaches a maximum height of 15.0 m
above its release point. How fast was it thrown?

33

4. A stuntman is planning a stunt. A car is to take off from a ramp, which is angled at 15.00 to the
horizontal to land on another ramp also angled at 15.00 to the horizontal (in the opposite direction), inbetween the two ramps are a number of cars. The cars maximum take-off velocity is 90.0 kmh -1
which it can reach as it starts up the first ramp. The distance between the end of the first ramp and
the start of the second ramp is exactly 32.0 m. (Assume no friction between car and ramps). Using
your knowledge of projectiles, calculate if the stunt is safe to do.

5. A high jumper leaves the ground at an angle of 70.00 to the horizontal and clears the bar, which is set
at just below 1.55 m. She then lands on a mat which is 0.500 m above the ground on the other side
of the bar.
a. What is the size of the vertical velocity the jumper must have to just clear the bar?

b. How long is the high jumper in the air?

Tougher exam questions!

1. A physics student observes a stone of mass 450 g being catapulted from the top of a cliff. The launch
position at the top of the cliff is 6.00 m above ground level. The stone lands 20.0 m in front of the
launch position. The initial launch speed u is at an angle of 40.0 to the horizontal. You may ignore air
resistance for the calculations.
Initial launch speed u
40

Cliff

6.00
mm
6.00

20.0 m

34

20.0 m
Calculate the initial launch speed u of the stone. You must show clear algebraic steps in your solution.
Hint: the flight time for both the horizontal and vertical components of motion will be the same.
Combine two equations involving u and t.

2. The photograph shows a swimming pool toy that sprays water when the plunger is pressed into the
barrel containing water. A boy, using the toy, sprays water vertically from a height of 1 m and counts
the time from the last drop of water leaving the barrel to it hitting the ground and finds it to be 3 s.
Plunger
Barrel

Estimate the angle at which the toy should be held if it is to be used to spray water from the
surface of a swimming pool onto a person 4 m away. Assume that air resistance is negligible and
show all your workings.

Hint: You may need to use the trigonometric identity sin 2 = 2 sin cos to answer this question.

35

Applications

Long Jump
o Centre of gravity follows a parabolic path.
o Legs do not.
o At end of jump, legs are thrust forward to gain distance. This creates a different angle of
the legs at landing from take-off. This causes the C of G to fall below the level at take-off.
o Four ranges need to be considered during a long jump as shown above.
o Optimum angle for take off is less than 30. This is because the athlete is trying to
maximize horizontal velocity. This is done at the expense of vertical velocity. The higher
the person tries to jump the slower they run. (Usually between 18 and 22.)

Estimate how far a top class long jumper could jump.

High Jump

o The path of the C.O.M. is parabolic but vertical movement is stressed ie short and steep
parabola.
o Style of jump can influence maximum height achieved. Lifting the C.O.M. by the minimum
amount in order to clear the bar means less effort is required. ie the Fosbury Flop is
preferred to other styles.
Air resistance
1. As a projectile forces its way through the air it experiences a drag force (air resistance) which slows it
down.
On the way up the
On the way down
net force is more.
the net force is less.

36

2. The trajectory will differ from the ideal parabolic curve that would occur in a vacuum.
3. Air resistance will have the following effects:
o reduce the range of the projectile,
o reduce the maximum height (maximum height is beyond the half way point),
o increase the angle of descent,
o speed of impact is less than launch speed,
o the projectile will take longer to come down than go up.