Topic 5 & 11 Electricity and magnetism

Current (I): the rate of flow of charge. Units: Amps ( 1 )

() =

()
;

()

Electrons carry charge (): = ()1.6 1019

Conventional current flow +
Electron flow +

Current in a conductor

=
= ; = ; = ; =
( ).
(): The average rate of progress of the charge when it moves down the
conductor but it bumps into other electrons and protons.
Metals:
-

When metals start to heat up the current increases, there are more collisions and it increases
the lattice vibrations which increase resistance.

Semiconductors:
-

The same thing happens but at the same time increases n. Electrons become delocalized and
resistance decreases.

Potential Difference
= = /
Potential difference: the work done necessary in order to take a charge from one point to
another.
E.m.f (electro-motive-force): The energy given to each coulomb of charge passing through the
power supply.
Potential difference between two points: the energy transformed from electrical energy into
other forms per coulomb of charge passing between the points.

Rules of circuits
Series circuit:
-

Current is the same everywhere 1 = 2 = 3 1 = 2 = 3

Potential difference is divided amongst the components in ratio to their resistance.
=

1 + 2 +

Parallel circuit:
-

Current splits at junctions (depends on the resistance)

Potential difference is the same across junctions. 1 = 2 =

We can summarize all laws using Kirchhoffs laws

Kirchhoffs Laws
1st Law: at a junction in a circuit current in = current out.

= 0
2nd Law: Around any circuit loop, the sum of the emfs is equal to the sum of the IR components.

= 0

Ohms Law
Resistance: the force which opposes the current to flow.
= ; TIP: Remember electricity is VIRtual.
: =

; =

Resistor Networks
Series:
In series the total resistance is the sum of all the resistance.
= 1 + 2 + 3
= 1 + 2 + 3
= 1 + 2 + 3
For our e.g.
= 11 + 7.5 + 0.5 = 19
Parallel:
Since the I splits but the p.d stays the same we can say that:
= 1 + 2 + 3 ; =
=
1

1
1

=
1
2

+
1

+ ;

GOLDEN RULE: In any parallel resistor

combination, the total resistance is always
smaller than the smallest one.
For our e.g.
1
1 1 1
=
+ + = 0.54
15 3 7

Potential Dividers
We can more the wire on the right along the resistor
in order to get the desired voltage. Then we can
connect a component at Vout Say I touch at distance

and if the length of the resistor is . Then: =

Uses of potential dividers

Thermistor (component which increases resistance as temperature increases). We can use it

as a switch attached to a heater.
Light dependent resistor (component which increases resistance as light increases) can be
used as a switch for illuminating crops at night for example.

I-V Graphs
The characteristic graphs for certain components.
Filament lamps (

Thermistor (

Ohmic Resistor (

Diode (

Resistivity

double the length, double the resistance

double the surface area, half the resistance.

We can say that: =

; ()

Electrical Power
Power is the rate of transfer of electrical energy into heat energy.
=

We can say that =

= ; =

*TIP*: Remember PIVE man in Argentinian.

=
= 2 =

Internal Resistance
Although it is ignored in many questions, our power supply also has some resistance, this is the
internal resistance. It is denoted with dotted lines across the power supply.

= +
= ( + )
For a power supply we say that the terminal potential difference is what a voltmeter reads when
across the terminals (whether or not anything is plugged into the power supply).
Power supply is on open circuit: I = 0 we have air between the two wire ends and therefore
resistance is infinite.

In an open circuit since = then is negligible, therefore = 1.

In an open circuit, if a voltmeter still reads an e.m.f we call it a short circuit. The terminal
potential difference is zero because resistance is zero.
Ideal voltmeter: has infinite resistance
Ideal Ammeter: has zero resistance
= +
= ( )

Magnetism
Magnetic field due to a bar magnet and a wire

Right hand corkscrew rule

Used for a wire, thumb shows current, and your fingers point in the direction of the field. Note
that for an electron the current is the opposite.

Right Hand Grip Rule

Used to find the field and current in a COIL.

Catapult or motor effect

When a current travels in an already existent magnetic field it experiences a force. The two
magnetic fields interact. To find the force, field and current.
Thumb -> thrust (force), First finger -> Field, second finger -> current

Formula

=
= , = [], = ,
=
=

= []

1 1

This is only true when your conductor is perpendicular to the magnetic field. If it is at an angle:
= ()
Additionally when a charge q, moves at a speed v at an angle theta to a field B, it will experience
a force of:
= () =

REMEMBER I AM NEVER GOING TO QUIT! =

=

()

=
=

= ()

Path of a charge through a magnetic field

A moving charge perpendicular to the magnetic field, feels a force which is at all times
perpendicular to the field. Therefore it feels a force towards the center of the field (Centripetal
force). In a circular path.
= () =

Magnetic Flux () [ ] = [, ]
Magnetic flux: the total amount of magnetic field or magnetic field lines in a certain area.
= ()
= , =

Note that magnetic field strength is also known as magnetic flux density or flux linkage (because
it is the amount of field linking through and area). Also note that in this case theta is the angle
between the NORMAL and the FIELD.

Whenever there is relative motion between a conductor and magnetic flux lines, an emf is

induced.
To increase the emf:
-

The closer the conductor the more flux.

Increase the rate of change of flux.
More coils (N)
Faster movement of the magnet
Magnet with a greater magnetic field strength.

A good way to remember:

fly British Airways
=
fly NBA
=
Remember that = =

Graphs
For a coil entering or leaving a magnetic field with its plane perpendicular to the field.

Faradays Law
The induced emf is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkage.

=1

But for a coil we have to use Lenzs Law

Lenzs Law
The induced emf is such as to oppose the flux change created. In other words the emf will have
flow to repel the magnet so that there is conservation of energy and that the magnet doesnt
accelerate more than possible and energy comes from nowhere. That is why we introduce the
negative sign.
Easy def: the induced emf is such as to oppose the flux change creating it.
=

Long straight conductor moving through a magnetic field at constant

velocity and perpendicular

When there is a conductor through a field, because all electrons move (In this case up) a
secondary electric field is created which will keep the electrons and protons spread apart until the
potential difference of the primary field is reached. Since we are dealing with electrons we can
manipulate our formula like so:
= () =
= (Bev is Bils sister)

Second peak is bigger because magnet is faster hence the rate of change is faster.
Width Is less for the same reason
A1=A2 since linkage entering must equal linkage leaving

Addition of fields
It is very important to know that within a region of space there can only be 1 field, this is
because fields must interact, they can add to each other or cancel out.

AC Generator
The AC Generator creates an alternating current which oscillates between positive and negative
very quickly. It creates a curve of a sin curve.
Therefore we can say that = () since pd
is proportional to current: = ()
= = 2 ()
=
Average of the sin squared is one half.
1
=

2
We can calculate the effective values of V and I for
a DC current that would give the same power
output.

= =
= =

Rms: the rms (root mean squared) value is the DC current that will give out the same power output.

Transformers
Why is there an emf induced in the second coil?
The primary coil creates a change in the magnetic field.
This causes a change in flux linking the secondary coil
(through the iron). Due to Faradays law an emf is
induced in the secondary coil.


=

If > step-up transformer
If < step-down transformer
Unfortunately, transformers arent 100% efficient because:
-

Joule heating: because there is current in the windings they heat up.
o Sol: resolved by using thick wires. = 2
Eddy current heating: iron is also a conductor and so an emf is induced in it. The current
flow in it causes the magnet to heat up.
o Sol: laminations in the core (iron is sandwiched in between insulated layered and
prevent eddy currents).
Hysteresis: the repeated magnetization and demagnetization (little magnets have to move
around) causes a heating effect.

Power transmission
A power station might produce 25 kW AC. P.d is stepped up in order to reduce the power loss
( 2 ).

Although we can use AC there are some tools like electronic devices that need DC current.

AC DC
1. Half-wave rectification

We have our AC current which we put through a transformer to output the desired voltage but
first we make it pass through a diode so that the output is only positive current. Unfortunately
this is wasteful since it basically loses half of the energy provided.

2. Full-wave rectification

Note: All diodes should be going left to right.

Capacitors (

Capacitance [ ] []: the ability to store charge.

In a capacitor charge flows and it is stored in the two different plates (one + and the other -) until
the p.d between the plates is equal to the pd in the circuit. If we detach this capacitor, we are
storing charge.

= , = , =
=

By experimentation it was determined that the closer the planes, the more charge could be stored.
1

If we call the distance between the planes , then we can say that and we can derive that

and . Then

= , =
= 0
= 0 0 = ()

Capacitors can store charge but also energy.

1

Just like with Hookes Law = . = but that is when the force is constant. But with a
2

1
string F = 0 and at the end its F. Therefore the average force is = . We can say that =
1
2

. If we look at the graph of charge vs voltage a similar think happened.

1
=
2
There are a few derivations for this formula:
1
=
2
1
= 2
2
1 2
=
2

Capacitors Combinations
In series:
Note that electrons will flow until the potential difference between 1
and 2 is equal to the emf.

= 1 + 2 + 3

= + +
1 2 3
=

1
1
1
1
= + +
1 2 3
TIP: the opposite of the resistance
In parallel:

= 1 + 2 + 3
= 1 + 2 + 3 =

The p.dd between them is independent.

Decay of a Capacitor
If we let a capacitor charge up and then we connect a component to it. Current flows because the
electrons want to escape since they are all repelling each other. We see that the current, charge
and voltage decay as this happens.

Similar to topic 7 we can say that

= 0
= , = , = , = =
But we abbreviate:
=

=
Units for Rc is OhmFarrads [] = [] since exponents dont have units that means that units
must cancel out with time. Noet that RC is also the time taken for 37% of the initial charge to
remain (we can see this by making = ) and we call it the time constant.
Note that these equations also exist: