Report Writing - A Project Management Perspective

Part 1

1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0

5.0

6.0

Table of Contents
Foreword 2016
Foreword 2003
Introduction
Reports & Their Function
Project Management & Report Writing
Managing the Report Writing Process
4.1 Division of Work, Discipline & Chain of Command
4.2 Organising, Controlling & Communicating
4.3 Coordinating
Planning the Report
5.1 Why a Report Contract/Project Requirement
5.2 What is Required Work/Product Breakdown Structure
5.3 When is the Report Needed Schedule & Programme
5.4 How Will the Report Be Written Monitoring & Control
5.5 Where Will the Report Be Written Location and Communication
5.6 Who Will Write the Report - Organisation
5.7 Change
Writing the Report
6.1 Presentation & Format
6.2 Report Structure
6.3 Report Content
6.3.1 Introduction & Aim
6.3.2 Project Description or Background
6.3.3 Data Acquisition or Data Used
6.3.4 Results or Findings
6.3.5 Discussion or Analysis of Information
6.3.6 Conclusions &/or Recommendations
6.3.7 Tables, Figures, Illustrations & Drawings
6.3.8 Appendices & Annexures
6.3.9 Summaries, Abstracts, Forewords, & Acknowledgements
6.3.10 References & Footnotes
6.3.11 Bibliography

Page
i
iii
iv
1
2
3
6
6
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
12
13
13
14
17
17
18
18
18
19
19
19
20
21
21
21

7.0

6.4 Grammar, Style & Punctuation

6.4.1 Grammar
6.4.2 Style
6.4.3 Punctuation
6.5 Numbers, Dates, Units of Measurement & Abbreviations
6.5.1 Numbers
6.5.2 Dates
6.5.3 Units
6.6 Abbreviations
Conclusions
Bibliography

22
22
23
23
24
2
425
26
26
27
28

Figures

3.1 A Project Management Framework

3.2 Project Management Areas and Risk / Control
5.1 Fayols Management Functions

3
5
6

Tables

3.1 Elements of Project Management and Report Writing

6.1 Types of Punctuation

4
24

Part 2
Appendices A Checklist for Authors
B Checklist for Reviewers
C Report Types & Suggested Content
D References & Referencing
E Style & Word Usage
F- Punctuation
G Abbreviations

ii

Foreword 2016
I wrote the first version of this document in 2003 and, after thirteen tears I decided to
review as to whether or not I was actively practicing what I had preached. So what has
changed since 2003 writing certainly hasnt but technology certainly has, younger
generations are more computer literate, the internet contains report templates and typereports, and clients expect better (or possibly bigger) reports in shorter time frames.
Reports seem to have become more voluminous and there is a worrying, at least to me,
dependence on using reports from previous projects and tailoring them to suit the
specific needs of the current job. This last job syndrome may result in giving the
impression of work being done but by cutting and pasting swathes of information and
adapting it, a tailored report can soon look like a patchwork quilt.
Reports also include for extensive explanations of technical matters which, if the reader is
suitably qualified, should not be needed. Such technical increase the volume but add
little value unless a layperson is reading the report, or perchance has written it. There is
a tendency to regurgitate swathes of information from other reports which does little to
add value to a report. If anything this can dissuade a reader from reading the report and
oftentimes results in the discerning reader finding errors and inconsistencies.
There is also a tendency to treat the readers as if they know nothing about the subject or
the project. A former colleague of mine would often state familiarity with the project is
assumed rather than provide another description of the Project. He, correctly in my
view, felt his description would add little, if any, value to his report and detract from his
contribution to the project. It is important that the readers of the report, in effect the
stakeholders for whom the report is being written, are taken into account in the report
writing process.
Reports are a product and our report should bear in mind that the report is not being
written for their benefit. With todays collaborative working and IT solutions with
track changes and opinions shared through comment and dialogue boxes its easy to have
debates being recorded in a report as it develops. This professional banter can get out
of hand to the detriment of completing the report and probable dismay of the
project/report manager. Authors should resolve their differences verbally and ensure the
project manager mediates before there is a battle of egos entrenched in written warfare.
In this update of the 2003 version I have expanded the section on managing the report
writing process and designing and planning the report. In keeping with the PMBoKs
introduction of Stakeholder Management I have introduced stakeholders; after all they
are the readers of the reports we produce.
Malcolm Peart

Doha 2016

iii

Foreword 2013
I have been writing in some form or other, be it letters, essays or reports for most of my
life indeed most of us have if we put our minds to it. I have also been reading various
types of written works that have ranged in standard or expectation from excellent to
egregious. On a particular note, reports that are lacking tend to poorly presented, badly
written and lack a coherent structure. Hence I have written this article in an effort to help
people plan, design and write their reports in a logical manner.
Most of us have been writing since we first attended school. In those days writing was
confined to a news book or story book, relatively simple essays and letters of thanks at
Christmas time or for a birthday present. As our education progressed writing usually
became more involved including the writing of essays and possibly analyzing the finer
points of some form of science experiments. At university there were more essays and
reports but I, for one, did not actually receive any formal training in report writing.
I was first trained in the art of report writing during service with the British Army
where there was a requirement to write reconnaissance reports, planning and design
reports, letters and orders in the style of Service Writing and Administration in the
Field. In the Forces the written word must be clear concise and accurate, ambiguities
can be a matter of life and death! Senior officers would scrutinise reports for accuracy
but also to ensure that the report was actually readable. During study for my MBA I was
again exposed to scrutiny by university scholars of what was purported to be business
writing.
As part of my writing career I have been a co-author to a guide to authors, written a few
academic papers, and contributed to a book.
In my opinion if a report is planned properly and the writer(s) takes due care and spends
sufficient time and effort in designing, acquiring and analysing information, and writing a
report then a good result can be obtained. Writing is an art and practice makes for
perfection, and writers should practice their skills and expend effort when writing letters,
memoranda and even e-mails.
The writing and production of reports should not be seen as a laborious task but rather as
an opportunity to produce a high quality piece of work that the writer(s) should enjoy
producing and the reader should, similarly, enjoy reading.
On a final note the prior preparation and planning of a report prevents poor performance
and it is hoped that whoever reads this article will benefit from it and be able to build
upon their report writing skills.
Malcolm Peart

Kaohsiung,

iv

2003

Report Writing - A Project Management Perspective

1.0

Introduction

Reports are a means of presenting information, decisions, or opinions based on some

form of investigation or research or due consideration of an issue or requirement. The
process of reporting is a necessary and important part of most disciplines be they
academic or professional as the assimilation and analysis of information is often
paramount to making decisions. Reports in various guises also convey plans, or
processes, or methods of carrying out works, or the status of a project.
Report writing skills are often acquired during education and training and many
organisations offer internal and external courses for report writing. Such courses can
concentrate on writing style and some concern themselves with format, layout and
content. Notwithstanding that many personnel have attended such courses and have
excellent academic qualifications, it is often a criticism of some professionals (in
particular engineers) that their reports are not clear and concise and are, on occasion,
difficult to read.
A considerable amount of time is often spent on preparing and working with the
information that must be presented. However, the standard of reports does not
necessarily reflect the effort that has been spent in their production; this can be
disappointing to both the reader and the writer. Report writing is sometimes perceived by
professionals as difficult, a chore or even painful when, in fact, it should be a
satisfying and rewarding experience. A report usually signifies the completion of an
element of work or a definitive stage in the completion of a task and sometimes can be
the only record of the work, and effort that has been expended.
This article will present report writing from a project management perspective and
describe how reports, in their various guises, may be designed, managed and written. In
addition, generic headings for a range of typical reports that may be required are included
and the content that should be considered. It will also be possible for the discerning
reader to identify issues that should be addressed when procuring a report from another
party in terms of required format, content, quantities and the like.

2.0

Reports & Their Function

"This report by its shear volume defends itself against being read"
Winston Churchill

What are reports? Reports are a medium for communication and provide the means of
conveying information. Typically reports presenting information, interpretations and
opinions and in so doing they must convey information in a clear, concise and accurate
manner. The content of reports may vary, but in all events they must be understandable
and relevant to their need.
Reports communicate and, as communication is effectively information logistics, reports
must provide the right information, to the right people, at the right time, in the right
place,and in the right medium. To this end reports can be written or verbal, short or
voluminous, timely or late.
Verbal communication, short letters or simple graphical representations are a relevant
form of reporting, and are particularly useful for providing information in a timely
manner. Written reports should also be submitted in a timely manner appropriate to their
purpose. Late reports are sometimes not worth the paper theyre written on and cannot
be used. Hence the reporter should consider the appropriate type of report.
When asked to write a report some people embark on compiling a tome demonstrating
how much they know about a particular topic rather than than tailoring a report to meet
the actual rather than perceived needs. Remember, a brief report, letter or presentation
given at the right time is often better than a well written, fully researched and
comprehensive report addressing all (including irrelevant) aspects of a subject that is not
submitted on time.
This article is concerned with written, formal reports. However the principles for written
reports can also be used for preparing letters and presentations. Written reports should be
readily understood. In order to achieve the latter they should be well constructed and
ordered so that the reader may be lead through the information to a logical ending, be it
conclusions or recommendations.
In many circumstances reports are the end deliverable for a project and are a means of
demonstrating that elements of a project have been completed. Hence the reporting
process and the content and quality of the report can be an important supporting element
to any physical work that may have been carried out, or to services that have been
provided. However, just because the report is the end product it should not be read that
the report is the last activity. Reporting should be carried out concurrently with other
activities so that it represents the completion of work carried out rather than the final
task.

3.0

Elements of Project Management and Report Writing

A story should have a beginning a muddle and an end
Various

A project should have a controlled start, middle, and end

Susan Weese

Projects have been defined by many authors in a variety of ways and most include the
essential components of a defined scope with required quality, cost and time limitations.
In addition projects have been defined as a unique undertaking. However, while many
projects may be considered as routine, the personnel involved, or the environment in
which they are carried out, or the constraints on the project bring about the required
degree of uniqueness.
The Project Management Institute identifies five process groups that define the life cycle
of a project and ten project management knowledge areas that occur to a greater or lesser
extent over a project's life. In order for a project to be completed successfully the
organizational elements of, procurement communications, human resources, risk,
stakeholders and integration must be managed within the tetrad scope, quality, cost and
time as shown in Figure 3_1.

Fi

Figure 3_1 A Project Management Framework

From JR Turner's "The Handbook of Project Based Project Management"

When initiating a report its purpose must be defined and from that the planning in terms
of scope, organisational assets required, the inevitable time constraints, and how the
report will be written. Once this has been done in a controlled manner the report writing
may also begin in a controlled manner. Unfortunately, and all too often, reports
commence without a clear aim as to what is actually needed and a story results with the
meanderings of a murder mystery, flashbacks, and an eventual whodunit!

During the execution phase it will eventually become apparent as to whether or not the
objectives are being met, or in the worst case scenario, after the report is completed and
rejected. If proper monitoring and control is applied any shortfalls can be compensated
for in a timely manner, hopefully. However, if the report is not monitored you may find
yourself faced with a rewriting exercise at the last minute and possible rejection by the
end user.
Although many reports are routine and eventually become standard reports (eg monthly
progress reports) the initial report is a unique undertaking. By ensuring that the first
report is 'right' subsequent reports and the inevitable development that occurs can be
readily accommodated. The project management areas and their relevance to report
writing are described below:
Project
Area

Management

Remarks

Scope

Requirements for the report and their content. Work breakdown structure.
Tasks and required resources. Extent of data acquisition, data required,
approval required In many circumstances the scope is defined by the terms of
reference or the project requirements feasibility, design, inspection, QA,
QC, progress, design reports, technical reports etc. Change management
needs to be considered and version control.

Procurement

Obtaining data, source. Copyright. Photocopies, Intellectual Property.

Specialist authors or consultants and necessary Terms of Reference.

Communication

Issuing of requests for data, meetings, reviews, changes, internal and external
meetings, interim drafts and reviews.

Stakeholders

Potentially the end users be they internal or external stakeholders. a Project

may be judged, rightly or wrongly, on the standard of its reporting.

Human Resource

Appropriate personnel, availability, training,

Risk

Intellectual property, reliance on information by others (not direct client),

publication/use of data from others, negligent misrepresentation, disclaimers,
reliance on information from others (substantiation). Paucity of data,
accuracy, sensitivity and exposure to risk. Consequences of failing to meet
deadlines.

Integration

Client/external party requirements (style, content changes), internal coordination.

Quality

Style, format, compliance with requirements, standard style for ease of

editing & collation. Standard of drawings, colour copies, including large
drawings etc. Content, Relevance, Analysis, Presentation

Time

Planning, acquisition, drafts, figures, editing, proofs, final delivery. Changes.

Availability of authors, checkers, approvers. The last minute is for closing
the report and issuing it, not for carrying out rewrites and proof reading.

Cost

Data, acquisition, printing, drafts, human resource input, rejection & redrafting. Changes. Repeat copies & cost.

Table 3-1 Elements of Project Management and Report Writing.

4

The project manager should be aware that the stakeholder(s) are often the end recipients
of the report and, whilst the project manager can define the scope of the report and
procure the resources, personnel and data to produce the repot there will be the inevitable
personalities to deal with who will be involved in producing the report the human
resources.
The people producing the report will need to communicate and the lack of effective
communication is a major risk in producing reports as a result of conflicting views,
changes, location, differing styles, differing cultures etc. Integrating all of these project
management areas is perhaps one of the more difficult things to influence which, again
carried more risk. However, and perhaps the real unknown is the stakeholder who
ultimately reads the report and must ultimately accept it.
These management areas must also be managed within the triple constraint and which is
shown diagrammatically below:

Figure 3.2 Project Management Areas and Risk / Control

4.0

Managing the Report Writing Process

To manage is to forecast and plan, to organise, to command, to coordinate and to control

Henri Fayol, 1916

Managing is based upon several functions and these have been developed over time from
the work of Henri Fayol in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His
'management functions' are shown in Figure 5.1 showing one interpretation of their
interrelationships

Figure 5.1 -Fayol's Management Functions

Fayol also established several management principles including the following

fundamental principles: Division of Work - planning and subdividing/allocating the work
Authority - the person in charge with responsibility
Discipline - through good leadership and respect
Unity of Command - to avoid conflicts
Unity of Direction - a common interest in achieving the same objectives
Subordination of individual interest to the general interest - a focus on the greater
good rather than individual goals
4.1

Division of Work, Discipline & Chain of Command

Although the above principles were developed over one hundred years ago the
development of a Work Breakdown Structure is fundamental to any management
exercise. The aspects of authority, discipline, unity of command and direction, and

subordination may sound very draconian and old-fashioned but in writing reports these
are essential. One dissenting author or contributor can de-rail a report through being
obstructive and self centred and the strength of character of the project manager can be
sorely tried. Academic or opinionated arguments can quickly affect the production of a
report and given that professional viewpoints are being aired the opportunity for conflict
can be high. This is not just in respect of technical aspects but it may also be opinions
regarding the interpretation of a contract, actual progress of works and what does and
does not constitute work-in-progress. On projects it's the people that can make success or
drive failure and consequently their needs to respect for the chain of command, the
greater good, and discipline.
In order to ensure that time and effort is not wasted, or duplicated, in the production of
reports it is important that the author(s), 'report manager', and/or project manager interact
at all stages during the planning and production of a report. The authority of the
personnel should be made clear from the outset and any conflicts should be raised and
escalated and not be swept away and ignored.
4.2

Organising, Controlling & Communicating

The checklist of the report against contents and responsible personnel or information
requirements serves as a control, communication, programming and quality tool in the
management of the report writing process. The checklist may be used on large, complex
reports or for routine reports such as monthly progress reports. It is particularly useful
when there is a reliance on information from a number of sources that must be collated,
checked, edited and issued as a consolidated document. The checklist also serves as a
progress report and may be used by all personnel in the reporting process, for example:

Project manager to assess progress of production and where shortfalls occur in

production, staff or resource availability, information shortfalls, etc. and assess
the impact of any changes be they technical or managerial.

Data gatherers, producers and processors to check coverage and time for
completion.

Author(s) to produce a logical report and optimise the written word in a timely
manner.

Draughting staff for production of figures and drawings.

Reviewers, referees and editors for planning their availability.

Report producers who compile the report and produce copies

The role of the writer or author is relatively obvious to write the report. The author(s)
should be instructed as to what is required for the report and an agreed content with
individual responsibilities must be communicated to all. The author should check that the
work that is being produced meets the report requirements and a checklist for authors is
included in Appendix B.
Reviewers are a necessary part of the report production process. A review of the report
should be made at the start of report by a suitably experienced person to ensure that the

design of the report is suitable and no elements have been overlooked. Periodic reviews,
particularly for larger reports or multidisciplinary studies, are also important so that any
errors in the report design or deviation from the aim of the report can be corrected. A
checklist for reviewers is included in Appendix C. The acronym CRAP is suited to
reviewing a report in that:

4.3

Reports should be clear with respect to Content.

Information presented should be Relevant.

Information should be Analysed

Information should be Presented well

Coordinating

Reports do not magically appear and coordination is required in pulling any report
together. For routine, standard reports this coordination can or should be business as
usual' and standard procedures will be the order of the day.
However, for non-standard reports, reports of a sensitive nature, large reports with
several authors, or multidisciplinary reports then some formal editing should be
considered. The task of an editor is to ensure that the writer has effectively
communicated the information contained within the report and that the report may be
understood. Editors are concerned with standards and ensuring that the report is without
error or inconsistency or ambiguity and that deadlines are met. The editor also ensures
that reports do not contain anything that can either embarrass the organisation or bring
the organization into disrepute or dispute; such as negligent misrepresentation.
The role of report coordinator, be it the editor or even the project manager, depends on
the complexity of the report and how routine it is, or has become.

5.0

Planning the Report

I keep six honest serving men
(They taught me all I know)
Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who
Rudyard Kipling

Prior to embarking on a report writing exercise the overall aim of the report must be
defined. A report may have many objectives in that it may describe, review or evaluate
information; describe many aspects of a subject; and formulate conclusions and make
recommendations. In such circumstances it is important that the aim is well written so
that report writer, or contributors, are focused as to what the report will, and just as
importantly, will not address. Each objective of the report must support the overall aim,
or mission, of the report which should, generally, be singular. For example:
To describe the ground conditions of the project area with respect to tunnelling
To assess the ground conditions at 'a location' for construction
To evaluate the design of the viaducts for Changi Airport Line
To report on the project status for May 2016.
To review Xs report on the safety of the signaling system for Taipei Metro
To evaluate claim no Y for additional cost/time by Contractor X.
Before the report writing process starts some basic questions should be posed, and
answered regarding:
Why is the report required and for whom? - Purpose
What must be reported /communicated? - Scope
When is the report needed? Time
How will the report be written? - Quality / Cost
Where will the report be produced? - Communication / Organisation
Who will write and check the report? Cost / Human Resources
Once defined the design of the report can be carried out in term of its content and overall
structure.
5.1

Why a report? - Contract /Project Requirement

Project requirements or terms of reference will often define the types of reports required
as part of a contract or specification. Other reports may be required in line with good
industry practice or as a consequence of the need to communicate with the Client or other
stakeholders.

The reader of the report may dictate how the report is to be written. If the audience has a
technical understanding, then it may be written in technical terms. However, if the reader
is non-technical there may be a requirement for, at least, a glossary of terms or possibly
an appendix explaining the technicalities in layman's terms so as to educate the reader.
5.2

What is Required? - Work/Product Breakdown Structure

In line with project management practice the scope of the report should be broken down
into a logical framework which will define the main sections of the report and content.
After giving each section an appropriate title a table of contents ahs been generated. The
latter could well be dictated by the project requirements but the actual substance of the
report will be incumbent upon the author(s).
Sections and their content may be based on similar previous types of report. In the event
that a new type of report is required different sections and arrangement of sections may
be required.
On occasion tried-and-trusted report formats are reorganised in an effort to improve
reports but oftentimes the sensible logic and flow are not improved at all. However, one
should also be mindful that tried-andtrusted formats may not necessarily be the
optimum solution and some reorganising may be necessary to improve matters.
Remember do not make changes for the sake of change and bear in mind the adage if it
aint broke - dont fix it and the engineer's warning that "better makes good worse".
After a framework of sections has been defined; keywords and items for inclusion in the
report should then be assigned to each section. The process for identifying keywords or
content may be from the terms of reference for a report, organisational policy, previous
reports, prescribed format and layout, mind-mapping or brainstorming. Once appropriate
keywords have been assigned they should then be arranged in a logical manner for further
development when information comes available: the report planning and writing process
has started.
5.3

When is the Report Needed? - Schedule & Programme

In most cases late reporting is tantamount to no reporting at all. Most reports have to be
delivered to deadlines for them to be of use. Progress reports define progress at a certain
date and may be linked to payments. Design reports may well provide an input into
another activity and any delays could have knock-on effects to later activities.
In establishing a programme for report production the Report Manager needs to work
back from the due date allowing time for compilation, issue and delivery, checking,
proofing and production of figures etc. Time for writing the report needs to be included
and this should allow for a reviews at an early stage to ensure the aim is being met and all
requirements are being addressed. Unfortunately report writing is often put off until the
'last minute' when that last minute belongs to somebody else.

10

5.4 How Will the Report Be Written? - Methodology & Control

The acquisition organizing and presenting information in a logical manner is the essence
of the report writing process.
The table of contents, key words and possibly particular figures or tables should be
reviewed at an early stage to ensure that the required scope of the report is covered and
that the report structure is logical. The latter is particularly important in complex or
large-scale multidisciplinary studies or for unfamiliar reporting topics. For routine or
standard reporting it may not be necessary to carry out such an exercise once a format
and content have been established and accepted as routine. A selection of different
types of reports and suggested headings are included in Appendix C.
The adoption of a house style to ensure that the report is presented in a professional
manner is a relatively simple task as long as authors are disciplined into adopting any
such style.
Other factors that need to be targeted for producing a good report in addition to logic and
presentations are:
Succinctness (Comprehensive but Compact avoiding over-analysis)
Relevance
Accurate and Factual (assumptions stated and justified)
Unambiguous and not contradictory
Complete and self explanatory
5.5

Where Will the Report Be Produced? - Location & Communication

In todays e-age the location for writing a report may appear to be of little importance.
However, the communication between authors, potential time differences, and the
possible breakdown in communications due to physical separation or conflict due to
technical or resource reasons, needs to be considered.
In any event the location for collation, checking and ultimate delivery will need to be
defined and the personnel who will be obliged to prepare the final report. Last minute
needs may well be required from authors and access to native files etc is essential as are
signatories etc. The last minute is often the most crisis-torn minute and the effort needed
in finalising reports produced from multiple locations should not be underestimated.
5.6

Who Will Write & Check the Report? - Organisation

When the contents of the report are identified an author or responsible person needs to be
assigned. The roles and responsibilities for the individuals can then be determined - even
the 'table of contents; has an owner who is responsible for the physical issue of the report
and its compilation.
The table of contents and keywords should be converted into a checklist showing task
list, requirements, due date and personnel. Such an exercise establishes the scope of the

11

report, work breakdown structure and programme. The use of a checklist assists in the
planning of the report and acts as a control, communication, programming and quality
tool in the management of the report writing process.
Several personnel may be involved in writing a report and their efforts should be properly
coordinated through a lead author who is responsible for technical matters and ensuring
that the report is correct. It is difficult for a lead author to check the report as word
blindness and familiarity with a continuing flaw or ambiguity may lead to imprecise
communication. Hence a person who can review reports for presentation, style and
accuracy of the written word should edit reports

5.7 Change
Change is inevitable and as a consequence of scope elaboration, reports being developed
and more detail emerging, or additional reporting requirements being generated.
If it becomes apparent that changes to the report content or design are required, then it
may be necessary to change or amend the design of the report. However, any change
should be considered in terms of time and cost in financial, lost opportunity cost and
human resources. Furthermore, version control needs to be considered and the
stakeholders who may be using incorrect information due to outdated reports.
The project manager should be made aware of all changes and a formal approval
procedure should be developed. Clients may also need to be informed of changes in
order to avoid disappointment or diminished expectations and possible rejection or
adverse reaction to a report. Changes as a result of creeping scope of reports due to
information generation are inevitable but creeping opulence in an attempt to achieve
the perfect report should be looked at pragmatically and, where necessary, dissuaded or
deleted.
And any and all change needs to be addressed in terms of what and why and when, and
how and where and who it affects and managed.

12

6.0

Writing the Report

I am sorry to have made such a long speech, but I did not have enough time to write a
shorter one.
Winston Churchill

I didn't have time to write a short letter, so I wrote long one instead
Mark Twain

Reports are written for a purpose: to communicate information in answer to some form of
query or event. Report writing occurs both during and after the gathering, assimilation
and analysis of information with a view to forming conclusions or recommendations,
seeking approval or obtaining further information.
The sections of a report will, naturally, depend upon the type of report and the subject or
discipline. Often a previous report layout may be used to assist in the structuring of the
report.
However, it is not just the content of the report that matters but how it is presented and
what it looks like as this will have an immediate effect on the reader.
6.1

Presentation & Format

First impressions are important and the presentation of a report gives the first impression
to the reader. It is quite usual for a considerable amount of effort to be made when
writing a report. However, if a report, no matter how well written or researched, is
poorly presented the reader will form a poor impression of the report. The negative
effects of any errors or mistakes, even if they are only perceived, will be magnified, albeit
that such a view may not be correct. If pages have different formats, text is spaced too
closely or is too small or units are not consistent the report will be difficult to read. If a
report has the appearance of some archaic script or is obviously inconsistent the reader
may spend time complaining about the report rather reading and possibly providing
constructive criticism. Hence good presentation is almost a prerequisite for formal,
written reports.
It is common within most organisations for a standard style of presentation and format to
be defined. A standard style allows the work of an organisation to be recognisable and
assists in promoting an organisation. A standard cover and backing sheet with the
company name, logo and contact details also assists promotional activities. On occasion
clients may require their own style to be adopted and this must be ascertained at an early
stage (ideally when tendering for work) so that information is presented appropriately and
the necessary arrangements may be made for ensuring compliance. Late realisation that a
report is in the wrong format or that figures are incorrect or multiple copies of, say, large
format colour images are required, can deleteriously affect the cost of a report or the
delivery date.
Particular presentation and format requirements are also demanded by organisations and
institutions that produce and publish technical, professional or academic papers. The use

13

of a defined text style and font, margin spacing, paragraph format and line spacing,
section numbering, layout for figures and tables, preferred spelling, headers and footers,
etc. constitutes house-style. House-style should be adhered to for reasons of
consistency and compliance with what a report is expected to look like. If there is no
house style then a preferred style or template should be developed, agreed and adopted
for the report at an early stage so that time is not wasted in reformatting the report and
conflicts of opinion can be obviated.
The use of a standard report style also assists in compiling reports, particularly when
contributions are required from a number of authors. Individuals will, inevitably, prefer a
certain format or insist on using a different font or format but such idiosyncrasies have no
place when a report is being compiled and discipline is required. If the report producer is
forced to reformat sections of the report rather than concentrate on compiling the report
then time is wasted and the opportunity to add value may be lost. If a writer insists on
doing it my way then they should be reminded that report writing is a team game and
there is no I in the word team but there are three in discipline.
It is also important to ascertain any quality requirements for report production, the
required number of copies, and any special binding requirements at an early stage.
Consideration must be given as to how the report will be bound unless there are specific
requirements or a house style. The presentation, usefulness, wear and tear and cost of
binding should be evaluated. Poorly bound reports will inevitably fall apart when opened
or pages are copied. Ideally reports should open flat and be sufficiently robust to allow
pages to be turned without then being ripped or damaged at the spine. Reports that are
stapled together or are bound in a ring binder are susceptible to ripping and pages can
detach from glued spines.
Report production is often overlooked at the planning stage and it is not uncommon for
the company that produces a report to end up as a reluctant back-room amateur printer
rather than engaging the appropriate printing support. If repeat reports are envisaged an
expensive binding may be even more expensive due to small orders and these should be
priced or costed accordingly. Remember that report production is about producing a
report, not embarking on an adventure in printing and publishing
6.2

Report Structure

While it is possible to define the look of a report it is not possible to define the structure
of a report rigidly. The structure will depend on what is being reported, the way in which
it is being reported and the physical size of the report. Some organisations attempt to
have a prescribed format for report and some individuals will blindly follow a previous
report format in an attempt to make their information fit. Such an approach can stultify
the reporting process, particularly with new or unfamiliar reports, by forcing the writer to
manipulate the information into predetermined slots rather than present the information in
the most meaningful manner. Notwithstanding the style of how the content of a report is
presented most reports will generally include the following component parts although the
order may be varied depending on house style:

14

 Title Page
Copyright Page with issue data and revision number and disclaimers (if required)
Table of Contents including reference to figures, tables, appendices and other
volumes
Glossary of Terms (if required)
Summary or Abstract
Preface or Foreword
Main Text (as a single or multiple, numbered volumes)
Figures and Tables (unless included judiciously within the main text)
Acknowledgement (sometimes at start of report)
References
Appendices (within a single report or as separate document(s))
Enclosures such as maps, drawings etc.
There are several views as to whether each section of a report should be on separate
pages or if sections should flow. If sections are short, i.e. less than one page long, then
breaks can annoy the reader but, separate sections do assist in compiling reports.
Figures and tables may be presented within the report and should be as close to the text as
possible in order to allow the reader to refer to them. If the text of a report is short and
there is a preponderance of figures and tables it is usually considered appropriate to
include them at the end of the report. If figures, tables or even text are not essential to
meeting the direct aim of the report it may be more appropriate to include the information
within an appendix.
Sections of a report are usually headed and numbered so that they may be referenced.
Headings and numbering systems are often covered by house-style but numbering
systems should not be more than 3 (or possibly 4) numbers long reference numbers
should be numbers, not star-dates. The use of multi-numeric references is confusing
and detracts from the intent of the report. Multi-numeric references are often used in
codes of practice or legislation because each clause may need to be referenced for legal
or statutory purposes; this is not necessarily the case for reports.
A suggested subdivision and indents for presentation purposes is shown below:
3.0 Main Heading
3.1 Sub-heading
3.1.1 Sub-Sub-Heading
a) Topic being addressed
i) Sub Elements that may be distinguished
ii) etc
The use of bullets in various guises may also be used without recourse to providing
complicated taxonomic referencing.

15

Pages of the report should be numbered and numbers must match the table of contents.
The style 1 of xx may be used for numbering so that missing pages can be identified.
Pages in appendices should be numbered with a letter to designate the relevant appendix
as in page A-1 of xx, A-2 of xx, etc. Again the house-style will usually dictate the
accepted style. Tables and figures should also be referenced and a section-table/figure
sequential numbers should be used if allowable.
It is a common and questionable practice to cross-reference sections of the report. Crossreferencing demands a higher degree of control and checking during the report writing
process and, unless judiciously checked should be avoided. The reasons for avoiding
cross references are that any changes during the draughting of a report, particularly when
there are several authors and deadlines are tight, can result in mistakes. Subsequent
revisions also mean that a full check of the report may need to be done. A misplaced
cross-reference or a reference to a section that has been deleted can both annoy and
confuse the reader thereby creating a bad impression as to the accuracy and completeness
of the report. If it is considered absolutely necessary for cross-referencing, then a special
check on cross-references should be made.
The sections should be presented in an ordered manner and arranged logically so that
related information may be introduced and defined prior to being discussed or anlaysed,
if required. It is important to consider that the report, inevitably, will be used by another
party and the requirements of the reader (end-user) should be considered when designing
the structure of the report.
It is important to plan a report so that information is presented in a clear, concise, precise
and logical manner. The design and planning of a report should be addressed prior to its
writing so that the appropriate information can be collected and collated. A good design
and plan for a report can also assist in the physical work that may be associated with a
report and for managing its production.
A general rule that is relevant to all sections of the report when introducing information is
to describe the general aspects first and then focus in varying levels to the specific detail.
Descriptions should cease when the information presented is not relevant to the aim of
the report or any argument that is to be presented. Detail should not be described without
first putting such detail into perspective. A simple analogy is the address on an
international letter to a business. The country is a general address and puts the town or
city into a global perspective; the postcode places the street; the street leads to the
building; the building to floor or office and the name is that of the specific company or
an individual within the company who will receive the letter.
When describing information then use a sensible sequence such as global to regional to
local, top to bottom, largest to smallest, outside to inside, left to right, or start of
process to finish. If several sections describe data, then the use of a similar sequence will
lend consistency and order to a report, describing the general to the specific is a good
rule to follow.

16

6.3 Report Content

Structure, format and presentation are important but the report itself should be coherent.
Most reports will, to a greater or lesser extent, include the following and these generic
sections are described in more detail below:

Beginning

- Introduction & Aim

Middle

- Project Description
- Data Acquisition
-Results or Findings
-Discussion or Analysis of Information

End

-Conclusions &/or Recommendations

The supporting content and sections of the report include references, tables, figures,
illustrations, drawings, annexures and appendices. It is also important that these too are
included in a meaningful and orderly manner within the report. The latter should be a
matter of house style but the temptation to include unreferenced and irrelevant
information in appendices should be avoided.
6.3.1

Introduction & Aim

The introduction and aim section of a report addresses the planning and design of the
report. This section should state the reason for the report, the scope of the report and its
aim in a straightforward, succinct and easy to read manner. The following should be
addressed in the introduction although it may be necessary for subsections to be
introduced:
Who is the report for or who commissioned the report? Is the report internal or
external and who wrote it?
When was the report written, what were project dates, when was research or study
carried out, what is the reporting period?
Why is the report being written and what is to be described to describe a design
or feasibility study, to offer alternate proposals, to seek approval etc. A short
section of a few sentences can usually describe the reason for the report, it is not
essential to describe the entire report in the introduction but it can be useful to
refer to any terms of reference if reporting requirements are expressly referred to.
What is the report about this constitutes the aim of the report and should, where
possible be singular such as, to provide an independent analysis on the design of
XYZ tunnel, to describe the feasibility of the East-West rail link. The aim may be
qualified in terms of extent of work to be included or even excluded to work or
work that is considered to be outside of the scope. The aim, as in a mission, is an
unequivocal statement in the definitive.

17

The introduction should also include a history of any earlier work that has been carried
out on the subject matter. A separate section within the introduction entitled Previous
Work/Studies may be appropriate.
The aim of the report must be adhered to at all times so that all efforts are focused on the
task in hand. Due account of how information fits into the sections of a report must be
given and if data does not appear to be comfortable in a section then it may have to
included in a different or even new section. Report writing should be an iterative process
with the writer checking to ensure that facts are not suddenly introduced and that
information has been properly described and presented.
6.3.2 Project Description or Background
A brief overview of the project or reason for the report being written is required so as to
put the report into context. A project should be described in terms of the type of scheme,
geographic location, size, value, benefit and future or current plans. For large projects
the description should focus on the part of the project to which the report refers.
In respect of background it may be that a report is being written following an accident, or
incident, as a result of a claim or tender evaluation or a situation report. In such cases a
suitably detailed description of the event or circumstances is required.
For short reports or for small projects the project description or background may be
included within the introduction.
6.3.3

Data Acquisition or Data Used

This section includes an ordered and logical description of the information that is
available, or has been collected, from where and by whom. Ideally the data should be
described in discrete sections with a similar order so that the reader is introduced to data
in a like manner and can easily refer back to specific information if required.
The section should address the following:
type of data referred to
how much data is available for any data type or location
how data was obtained
of what use is the data, if not readily apparent
6.3.4

Results or Findings

The findings of any analysis of the data, if required, should be presented as a separate
section or sections. The results should not normally be discussed or interpreted so that
any preconceptions regarding the meaning or usefulness of the data are not made and bias
cannot be introduced
The data should be described and, if appropriate, summarised as tables or graphs within
the report. Detailed results should be described in summary and included in tabular or
graphical form within the main body of the text. Actual results should be included in the
report as appendices or annexures or referenced.

18

6.3.5

Discussion or Analysis of Information

The reason for any discussion is to address and answer the aims and objectives of the
report that are contained within the introduction. A proper discussion will allow the aim
of the report to be satisfied.
The discussion or analysis is possibly the most important part of the report as it is the
basis upon which any conclusions and recommendations are made. The discussion
should consider all aspects of the data and the preceding sections of the report, even if
results do not agree with any preconceived expectations or preferred outcomes.
Limited or questionable data or a paucity of data should be commented on and the risks
of using any such data should be highlighted. Data should not be cooked and reports
should be honest and without prejudice. It is the role of politicians to sexup reports.
Results should not be reiterated and any processed data such as graphs and tables should
be referenced. New information should not be introduced, as it should have been
presented at an earlier stage in the report.
Information should be discussed with respect to variability, reliability and meaning. Data
should also be compared with any previously reported data or experience and errors or
faulty assumptions should be explained and discussed. The discussion should flow in a
logical systematic manner so that any relationships or comparisons between results may
be made and conclusions drawn.
As part of the discussion, information may be compared with previously published
information or other relationships gained from other studies. Such comparisons can
assist in forming conclusions or supporting and reinforcing recommendations.
6.3.6

Conclusions &/or Recommendations

Conclusions are conclusions and not a repetition of statements made in the report. The
conclusions for any report must be based on the information that is available and that has
been presented within or referred to within the report. The conclusions should also be
based on the discussions or opinions expressed in the report and new information or
incompatible conclusions should not be offered.
It may be necessary to draw some interim conclusions, findings or deductions within the
section on results or within the discussion. Such ratiocinations are often in the interests
of assisting the reader to understand an argument or the reasoning behind an argument.
Even though conclusions should be made at the end of the report that is not to say that
reports are whodunit-style detective stories with readers guessing as to the outcome of the
report.
6.3.7

Appurtenances - Tables, Figures, Illustrations & Drawings

Many, if not most reports require the inclusion of some form of tables and figures within
the report. The use of drawings and illustrations to accompany a report is dependent on
the type of report. In any event the table, figure, illustration or drawing must be referred
to within the text such as The results of the survey are shown in Table 3 and the
comparative figures for the study by xyz are shown in Figure 4. The reference can also
be included in parentheses as in the site is 20 km from Port Moresby (Figure 2).

19

The tables and figures should be both numbered and referred to sequentially in order to
avoid missing-out tables and to present data in an ordered and logical fashion to the
reader.
The number of tables and figures should be optimised; Are all of the tables/figures
necessary? Do they contain relevant information? Can a figure be used to present data
more effectively than a table (and vice-versa)? The latter are all question s that should be
addressed during the report writing process and not thought about just prior to report
publication.
The location of the tables and figures is a question of presentation; should they be placed
within the text or at the end of the main text of the report? If they are paced at the end of
the text then tables and figures should be in separate sections. However, if they are to be
included in the text then each table and figure should be as close to the text referring to it
as possible and, preferably, be on the same page. Inclusion of figures in the text often
leads to figures being reduced in size so that detail is lost. In some technical reports there
can be pages of figures (or tables) with little or no adjacent supporting text, hence the
inclusion of figures at the end of the report may be more appropriate. If the reader
requires tables and figures to work with while reading the report, then a dedicated,
separate volume containing such information may be more appropriate.
The use of illustrations and drawings is also a function of end-user requirements and
presentation and their production can be both time consuming and costly: Are drawings
or illustrations needed and do they have to form part of the report? Do they have to be in
colour? Can we produce them? Can black & white copies suffice? How many copies will
be needed? Can they form a separate volume? Has the production of additional copies
been priced correctly?
It is unlikely that drawings or illustrations would be included within the text but it is
normal to include them in a wallet that is bound into the main report or as a separate
volume. When planning the report, its presentation and physical production should be
considered, in particular those requiring special drawings etc,.
6.3.8

Appendices and Annexures.

All data appropriate to the report should be included as appendices (or annexures if
required by house-style). Each appendix should contain similar data and this may be
based on a geographic or technical or sequential system appropriate to how the data are
presented in the text. The relevant appendix should be referred to in the text, for example
The concrete test results for the viaduct beams are shown in Appendix C.
The contents of an appendix, or a self explanatory cover sheet or header should also be
provided for each appendix. In addition some text may be provided if required to explain
the appendix if it could be used in isolation from the main report. In the event that an
appendix requires a further appendix then this should be referred to as an annexure.
Appendices or annexures should be numbered or lettered sequentially and referred to in a
logical fashion within the text. If both are used in a report then appendices should be
lettered and annexures numbered.
Should there be a requirement for further sub-division then there may be an appendix to
an annexure, or an annex to an appendix.
20

6.3.9

Summaries, Abstracts, Prefaces, Forewords, Footnotes & Acknowledgements

A summary, or executive summary may be written for reports and it should address the
important parts of the report only. The aim of the report should be included, who the
report is for and a prcis of the major findings, conclusions and/or recommendations.
Summaries can be valuable to those readers who do not have time to read the entire
report and summaries can advise other readers of the content of the report. However,
summaries can be detrimental to the presentation of a report in that the report is not read
and important arguments may not be fully realised or understood. Hence it is vital that
summaries address the salient points and ensure that important or controversial aspects
are not understated.
Abstracts are usually required for technical papers and constitute a short summary,
usually less than 200 words, of the principal findings of the report or article. Phrases
such as this paper describes or the author found that are redundant.
Forewords or prefaces can be written to explain why a report has been written. If a report
is written in retrospect, or in hindsight, or if it has been compiled on behalf of another, or
is written for personal reasons then a foreword or preface should be used. Prefaces are
sometimes used to convey a personal message by the author(s) at the front of a book.
Footnotes are sometimes used to provide additional information on an item raised within
a report as an explanation. If the explanation cannot be included within the text because
it interrupts the flow of the discussion it should be included as a footnote. The use of
footnotes is a matter of house style and the reader. For instance, lawyers are used to
reading footnotes within a report whereas in business writing it would probably be
frowned upon.
Acknowledgements are sometimes included in reports or articles when particular
assistance by a person(s) or an organisation has been given. It is appropriate to
acknowledge any organisation that has give permission to publish articles or who have
funded a study. While it may seem generous to acknowledge the efforts of individuals
in reports any acknowledgement should be consistent, fair and avoid favoritism. The
saying credit where credit is due should be borne in mind when giving
acknowledgements.
6.3.10 References & Referencing
All references cited in the text, figures, tables and appendices must refer to one of a
complete list of references included at the end of any report. References should be cited
in the following instances:

when direct quotations from other work are used,

when a summary of work or information from other work is used,

when controversial information or opinions are used which could be challenged

when statistical data or figures are used from other sources

There are several systems for presenting references. A common system that is used by
many organizations is the name-and-date, or Harvard system in which the author(s) and
date are cited in the text and the full reference is listed alphabetically at the end of the

21

report. On occasion some organisations require a page number or, when citing a block of
text, page numbers as in (Smith & Jones 1956, p. 321; Smith 1956, pp. 1,5,6; Smith 1959,
pp. 345-356; Smith et al 1975, p. 1). Note the use of a semi colon between different
references and the use of et al for more than two authors. When two or more works
from the same author are used a single letter suffix should be used (1991a, 1991b) and
the order of references should be the same as the List of References.
All references should have been seen by the author(s), i.e. source-checked, and full
details obtained so that the reference may be correctly cited. In the event that a report is
scrutinised the references may need to be reviewed and copies may well be required.
The most common references are from books, journals, proceeding and the Internet.
Examples of theses are shown below while other sources such as newspapers and
organisations and e-mails are described in Appendix D.
Books - Gilbreath R.D., 1986, Winning at Project Management What Works, What
Fails and Why, Wiley, New York in Cleland D.I., 1999, Project Management
Strategic Design & Implementation, McGraw-Hill, Singapore, pp308 313.
Journals - Larson, E.W. & Gobeli D.H. 1987, Matrix management: Contradictions and
insights, California Management Review, vol XXXIX, no4, Summer, pp 126138.
Proceedings - Menon, A.P.G. & Chin K.K, 1998, The Making of Singapore's Electronic
Road Pricing System, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Transportation into the Next Millenium, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore, 9-11 Sept 1998, pp.35-42
Internet - Clinton, W.J. & Gore A. 1996, Framework for Global Electronic Commerce,
http://library.findlaw.com/scipts/getfile.pl?file=/federal/ftc/ftc000187.html
[Accessed 23 September 2000]
6.3.11 Bibliography
A bibliography is used when a number of references are used to prepare a text but they
are not referenced individually. The format for references to books, articles and Internet
sources is described above.
6.4

Grammar, Style & Punctuation

6.4.1 Grammar
Reports should be grammatically correct so that the meaning of the data described and
any arguments are presented in a are clear, concise and unambiguous manner. A good
report conveys information in a form that the reader can understand readily. The use of
short, well constructed sentences and even short words can assist in conveying
information in an understandable fashion.
Short sentences also contribute to the construction of grammatically correct reports.
However, sentences should not be so short that they are staccato nor should they be so
long that the reader becomes confused as to the direct meaning of the sentence.

22

The use of word-processing software can assist in checking that grammar and spelling is
correct. A computer is not always right and human judgement is required in reconciling a
computer prompt, any suggested corrections must be analysed and considered before
such suggestions are accepted. Similarly, spell check will not identify if the correct
word or if English as opposed to US spelling has been used. Proof reading, reading a
report aloud and reviews are a prerequisite for a good report computers are only a tool
in the writing process and a computer will not create good English.
Writers should use a dictionary when in doubt as to the meaning or spelling of a word.
The use of a thesaurus can also assist in word choice but the true meaning of any
alternative word should be checked to ensure that it is correct or appropriate. English
spelling is preferred but, if writing a report for an American it may be more appropriate
to use US spelling.
6.4.2 Style
The writing of a report presupposes an ability to write concise grammatically correct
English so that information may be conveyed and, as is often required, interprets and
conveys that information accurately, concisely and with clarity. Style is important but if
a report is clear in its intent, then errors in sentence construction and grammar are of less
significance.
In order to convey information well it is preferable to use simple sentence construction
rather than complex or even pompous and verbose language. Concrete rather than
abstract terms should also be used to convey meaning. Double negatives such as it is
not uncommon should be avoided as they imply conditions rather than define them
strictly. Sentences that contain numerous negative moods should be reconstructed so that
the reader does not become confused as to whether something has or has not been done.
Whilst double negatives can be used correctly they should only be used in less formal
writing or saved for the spoken word. Similarly, questions should be phrased so that a
yes is a positive response and a no is unequivocally no.
Comments on the use of certain English words and styles are given in Appendix E in an
effort to demonstrate how such words may be used effectively and reinforce writing style.
Writers should, if required, consult a dictionary during the report writing process or
consult a text on grammar and style should they feel that the words that they have written
are clumsy or are lacking. Alternatively, the advice of a colleague or the lead author or
project manager may be sought so as to obtain some constructive criticism or ideas.
6.4.3 Punctuation
Punctuation, as with grammar, is necessary in conveying accurate information to the
reader. There are rigorous rules for punctuation and these should be followed. However,
a common sense approach to the use of punctuation can convey the meaning of the
written word accurately. If sentences are so long that punctuation is complicated, then it
implies that the sentence is not understandable and may be grammatically incorrect.
Punctuation is also a matter of the individual style of the author but, in any event, the
punctuation should be correct and not convey information in an ambiguous manner.
The types of punctuation are shown below and an explanation on the use of particular
types of punctuation is described in Appendix F.
23

Full Stop (.)

Hyphen/ Dash (-)

Ellipsis (3xDots) ()

Colon (:)

Apostrophe ()

Brackets ({[ ]})

Semicolon (;)

Solidus (slash) (/)

Question Mark (?)

Comma (,)

Quotation Marks ( ) or Exclamation Mark (!)

( )

Italics not
exactly
punctuation but
included herein

Table 6.1 Types of Punctuation

6.5

Numbers, Dates & Units of Measurement

6.5.1 Numbers
Numbers as figures are used to express sums of money, times (e.g. 0900hrs or 9.00 a.m.),
ages, weights, measures, angles in degrees or radians, percentages and degrees of
temperature. Some organisations use figures for numbers while others spell them. A
preferred method is to spell the numbers from one to ten and write them numerically
from 11 onwards. A comma may be used between thousands or a gap may be left (e.g.
3,143 or 3 143) depending on the house style or end user, but whatever style is used it
must be consistent. For decimals a zero must be used if the number is less than one (e.g.
0.123).
If a sentence must begin with a number, then it should spelt out completely. When twoword numbers are used they should be hyphenated (e.g. one hundred and twenty-one).
Similarly, fractions should also be hyphened as in one-third. When two series of
numbers are given in a passage of text then one number should be expressed in words and
the other in figures to aid clarity, for example twenty 16-mm films. When to sets of
figures cannot be avoided then they should be separated by a comma as in in 2005, 345
more staff will be required.
Examples of the use of spaces between numbers are shown below. If in doubt about
spacing then, as with any other area concerning format, use a consistent approach
throughout the entire report.
No Space Required

Space required

Ordinal Numbers

21st, First

Weight

One tonne, 21 t

Percentages

One percent, 21%

Measure

One kilometre, 21
km

Time

0900hrs

Time

9 a.m.

24

6.5.2 Dates
Dates can be written in several ways depending on the country. The unambiguous way of
writing a date is 21 March 2003. Abbreviated dates using day, month, year may also be
used such as 21/03/04, 21.03.04, 21 Mar 2004, or 21 Mar 04.
The type of date and style of presentation should be ascertained at the commencement of
reporting and an explanatory note to the effect that dates are written in a particular
manner is considered appropriate where necessary.
The Americans and some other countries use a month/day/year system, which can be
confusing. There are also different dates used in some countries and cultures such as
Taiwan and the Middle East.
In order to avoid confusion, the preferred system based is day, month (written in full) and
year. In tables or figures then dates may be abbreviated using numbers separated by full
stops (21.03.04) or solidi (21/3/2014).
Dates should not run together but should be separated by either a hyphen (19801990) or
through the use of words (from 1980 to 1990). For financial years a solidus is used as in
the financial year 2004/05.
When referring to decades the preferred method is to use numbers as in the 1980s (note
no apostrophe). There are alternatives such as the eighties or 80s (note the
apostrophe in place of 19) but whatever system is adopted it must be consistent
throughout the report. When referring to centuries the century numbers are usually spelt
out, as in twentieth century and twentieth-century building.
6.5.3 Units
The International System of Units (SI) or metric units should be used in preference to
Imperial units or American units. If local units are mandated, then they should be
followed in parentheses by the equivalent SI or other recognised unit. A common and
misleading mistake occurs when liquid measures are used: a US gallon and an Imperial
gallon are not equal although each contain 8 pints, a US pint is 16 fluid ounces whereas
an Imperial pint is 20 fluid ounces hence use litres (or liters) for the avoidance of any
doubt!
6.6

Abbreviations & Acronyms

On most projects there are a plethora of abbreviations and acronyms which become
everyday language to project proponents. To an outsider such abbreviations can be
overwhelming and confusing and these need to be defined in the report. Acronyms also
need to be defined and it should be noted that acronyms are words that are formed by
abbreviations - abbreviations are not acronyms as explained later.
When using abbreviations there should be a listing within the report or, as a minimum
when the abbreviation is used for the first time it should be defined in full included in
parentheses after the full usage. For example, the United Kingdom (UK) would be
mentioned first and thereafter UK.
25

Full stops are normally used after abbreviations with the following exceptions:

When the last letter forms part of the abbreviation, Mr, Dr (but Prof.).

After symbols or abbreviations of units of measurement, Fe, Cu, pH, kHz, m.

After certain countries or states, USA, UAE, UK.

Well-known organisations, UN, IBM, UNESCO, NATO.

Abbreviation other than standard SI units or well-known countries or organisations such

as UK, USA, IBM, or UN should be spelt out with the abbreviation given in brackets.
The abbreviation may be used for both singular and plural. When referring to litres it is
preferable to spell litres in the text of a report as the SI symbol l can be confused with
the number one (1).
Some abbreviations are acronyms such as WRAC (Womens Royal Army Corps -rack)
or Radar (radio detecting and ranging) or NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
nay-tow). Acronyms are pronounced as words and are not abbreviations as is in UN
(United Nations you-en) or USA (youess-a) as each letter is pronounced
individually.
The ampersand (&) should not be used in report writing, unless incorporated in a proper
name or common expression. The exception to this rule is when & is used in references
and in titles of sections or headings.
When referring to currency, in particular dollars, the country should be designated as in
US$1 (one US dollar) or S$1 (one Singapore dollar).
A list of commonly used abbreviations is given in Appendix G.

26

7.0

Conclusions
Well begun done is half done
Aristotle

Successful reporting comes from good planning which can result in a definitive
requirement with a logical set of contents. Such logic results in good presentation A
report should have an ending and such an ending is normally a conclusion or
recommendation or even a request for a decision. On occasion a conclusion is not
warranted and this is just such an occasion, hence some concluding remarks will be made
in respect of some general rules on report writing:

Reports should have an introduction, a main body and an ending.

Reports must have an aim and this must be ascertained at an early stage in the
report writing process.

A report should be designed so that the required sections are structured in a

recognisable form. If the design of a report is not suited to the aim of the report
then change the design.

All data or information must be presented in a logical and systematic way.

All tables and figures must be necessary.

A report must have the appropriate Content, the information must be Relevant, the
information should be fully Analysed and the Presentation should be consistent
and to a predefined style.

Reports should be checked and reviewed rigorously before being issued.

Reports are often the only visible result of considerable amounts of work. The effort that
is put into researching, writing, checking and producing the report should reflect such
work. Proper planning and execution can result in a good report that is satisfying to the
writer and enjoyable to the reader. However, a poorly planned report can be a laborious
exercise for the writer and an equally laborious, annoying and frustrating chore for the
reader.
An essential component of any project is the value that it brings and, from a reporting
perspective, value can be added to a report by making it readable and . Readability is
brought about by ensuring that the report is well written, clear, concise and accurate so
that the reader may assimilate the information and any arguments with ease. Hence the
readability factor is essential to any report. If a report is not readable then its only real
use is to sit on a shelf and gather dust.
On a final note, and in keeping Churchills observations regarding the readability of
voluminous reports and that it can take longer to write a short report there is a related 18th
century English proverb
to talk without thinking is to shoot without aiming
Similarly, if one writes without planning, the report may well be read but it wont hit the
mark.

27

Bibliography
Chappell, D. 1996, Report Writing For Architects and Project Managers, Third Edition,
Blackwell Science, Cornwall, England.
Rogerson, R. & Peart M. 1990, Guide to Authors, First Edition, Geological Survey of
Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, PNG.
University of Southern Queensland, 1997, Faculty of Business: Communication Skills
Handbook: How to succeed in written and oral communication, Second Edition, Eds. B.
Smith & J. Summers, B & Blackwell Science, Cornwall, USQ, Toowoomba, Australia.

28