Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Introduction
There are certain aspects of the various joining
and cutting processes which the successful
welding inspector must understand in order to
perform most effectively.
The inspector should realize the important
advantages and limitations of each process.
The inspector should be aware of those
discontinuities which may result when a
particular process is used.
The welding inspector should have some
knowledge of the equipment requirements for
each process.
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Introduction
The inspector should be familiar with the
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Introduction
The processes discussed here can be divided
into three basic groups: welding, brazing
and cutting.
There are numerous joining and cutting
processes available for use in the
fabrication of metal products. These are
shown by the American Welding Society's
Master Chart of Welding and Allied
Processes, shown in Figure 3.1
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Welding Processes
A weld is, "a localized coalescence of
metals or nonmetals produced either by
heating the materials to the welding
temperature, with or without the
application of pressure, or by the
application of pressure alone and with or
without the use of filler metal."
Coalescence means "joining together."
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The identification
consists of an "E," which stands for
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Electrode Suffixes - 1 of 2
- A1
0.5% Mo
- B1
0.5% Mo 0.5% Cr
- B2
0.5% Mo 1.25% Cr
- B3
1.0% Mo 2.25% Cr
- B4
0.5% Mo 2.0% Cr
-W
Weathering
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Electrode Suffixes - 2 of 2
- C1
2.5% Ni
- C2
3.5% Ni
- C3
1.0% Ni
- D1
0.3% Mo 1.5% Mn
- D2
0.3% Mo 1.75% Mn
-G
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SMAW Equipment
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fusion,
incomplete
joint
penetration, cracking, undercut, overlap,
incorrect weld size, and improper weld profile.
Arc blow
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ER XXS-X
They are denoted by the letters "ER," followed
by two or three numbers, the letter "S," a
hyphen, and finally, another number,
The ER means Electrode , Rod.
The next two or three numbers state the
minimum tensile strength of the deposited weld
metal in thousands of pounds per square inch. a
"70" denotes a filler metal whose tensile
strength is at least 70,000 psi. The letter "S"
stands for a Solid wire. Finally, the number after
the hyphen refers to the particular chemistry of
the electrode
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Metal Transfer
There are four basic modes of metal
transfer. They are spray, globular, pulsed
arc, and short circuiting.
The type of metal transfer depends upon
several factors, including shielding gas,
current and voltage levels, and power source
characteristics.
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3-Pulsed arc
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Spray
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Globular
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Short-Circuiting Transfer
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Advantages:
GMAW can be effectively used to join or
overlay many types of ferrous and nonferrous
metals.
GMAW can be used successfully in situations
where the presence of hydrogen could cause
problems.
GMAW is well suited for automatic and
robotic welding or other high production
situations.
The efficiency is further increased by the
fact that the continuous spool of wire doesn't
require changing nearly as often as the
individual electrodes used in SMAW.
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Limitation
If the base metal is excessively
contaminated, the shielding gas alone may
not be sufficient to prevent the occurrence
of porosity.
GMAW is also very sensitive to drafts or
wind which tend to blow the shielding gas
away and leave the metal unprotected. For
this reason, gas metal arc welding is not
well suited for field welding.
The equipment required is complex
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Inherent Problems
porosity due to contamination or loss of
shielding,
Incomplete fusion due to the use of
short circuiting transfer on heavy sections,
and arc instability caused by worn liners
and contact tips.
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EXXT-X
An identification begins with the letter "E" which
stands for electrode.
The first number refers to the minimum tensile
strength of the deposited weld metal in ten
thousands of pounds per square inch, so a "7"
means that the weld metal tensile strength is at
least 70,000 psi.
The second digit is either a "0" or a "1." A "0"
means that the electrode is suitable for use in the
flat or horizontal fillet positions only, while a "1"
describes an electrode which can be used in any
position
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Advantages
High productivity in terms of the
amount of weld metal that can be
deposited in a given period of time.
Requires less skills
FCAW is capable of tolerating a greater
degree of base metal contamination than
is GMAW
FCAW lends itself well to field situations
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Limitations
The smoke reduces the welder's visibility to
the point where it may be difficult to properly
manipulate the arc in the joint , and their will
be a need for ventilation
The equipment required for FCAW is more
complex than that for SMAW
There exists a possibility that the solidified
slag could become trapped in the finished
weld.
Lake of maintenance can cause the wire
feeding problems
incomplete
joint
penetration,
slag
inclusions, and porosity.
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Class
EWP
EWCe-2
EWLa-1
EWLa-1.5
EWLa-2
EWTh-1
EWTh-2
EWZr
Alloy
Pure tungsten
1.8-2.2% cerium
1% lanthanum
1.5% lanthanum
2.0% lanthanum
0.8 -1.2% thorium
1.7-2.2% thorium
0.15-0.40% zirconium
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Color
Green
Orange
Black
Gold
Blue
Yellow
Red
Brown
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Effect of DCEN
Current on
GTAW
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Effect of DCEP
Current on
GTAW
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Effect of AC
Current on
GTAW
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Problems
porosity in the deposited weld.
tungsten inclusions
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Submerged
Arc Welding
(SAW)
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Identification
FXXX-EXXX
Examples
F7A6-EM12K is a complete designation. It
refers to a flux that will produce weld metal
which, in the as-welded condition, will have a
tensile strength no lower than 70,000 psi (480
MPa) and Charpy V-notch impact strength of a
least 20 ft-lb (27 J) at -60F (-51 C) when
produced with an EM12K electrode under the
conditions called for in this specification.
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The equipment
used for submerged arc welding consists of
several components a power source is
required. most submerged arc welding is
performed with a constant voltage power
source, there are certain applications where a
constant current type is preferred.
the flux is generally placed into a hopper
above the welding torch and fed by gravity so
that it is distributed either slightly ahead of
the arc or around the arc from a nozzle
surrounding the contact tip.
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For
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Advantages
1-High deposition rate
2-High operator appeal
3-less smoke generated
4-Ability to penetrate deeply
limitation
1-flat or horizontal fillet positions only
2-extensive fixturing and positioning equipment
3-slag must be removed
4-the flux prevents the welder from seeing the
arc
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Inherent problems
porosity .
underbead cracking .
solidification cracking .
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Plasma Arc
Welding
(PAW)
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Keyhole
Welding
Technique
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Advantages
It provides a very localized heat source.
Faster welding speeds and less distortion
The welder has better visibility
The welder is less likely to contact the
molten metal and produce a tungsten
inclusion.
Limitations
possibility of getting incomplete fusion
small amounts of mistracking can produce
incomplete fusion along the joint.
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Electroslag
Welding
Equipment
---Conventional
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Electroslag
Welding
Equipment
--Consumable
Guide
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ESW Advantages
Joins heavy sections
High deposition rates
Single or multiple electrodes
Minimum joint preparation
Low distortion
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ESW Limitations
Vertical casting process
Very extensive setup time
Uses water-cooled shoes
Flux storage
Largely confined to vertical
orientation and flat position only
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ESW Discontinuities
Gross porosity
Slag inclusions
Large grains
Gross shrinkage
Cracks
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Oxyacetylene
Welding
(OAW)
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Oxyacetylene Welding
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OAW
Equipment
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RG - 45
RG - 60
R refers to rod
G refers to gas
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OAW Advantages
Simple equipment
Suitable for thin materials
Very portable
No electricity required
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OAW Limitations
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Stud Welding
(SW)
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Stud
Welding
Cycle
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SW Advantages
Simple
Fast
Repetitive
Automatic stud feeding (option)
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SW Limitations
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SW Discontinuities
Lack of flash
Incomplete fusion
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Laser Beam
Welding
(LBW)
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LBW - 1 of 2
Laser
Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
A fusion welding process
Heat from concentrated light source
Keyhole welding
Light beam very small x-section
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LBW - 2 of 2
Light can be transmitted by
fiber optics or mirrors
Non-contact process
Shielding gas often required
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LBW Advantages - 1 of 2
Low heat input
Less grain growth and distortion
High D/W ratios of 10:1 attainable
Relatively thick single pass welds (up to 1.25 )
Welds thin metals or small
diameter wires
Closely spaced components, small
welds
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LBW Advantages - 2 of 2
Welds wide variety of materials
Beams readily focused and aligned
Not influenced by magnetic fields
Welds metals of dissimilar physical
properties
No vacuum or X-ray shielding
required
Beams transmitted to many work
stations
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LBW Limitations
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LBW Discontinuities
Porosity
Embrittlement
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EBW
Originally required high vacuum
Can now operate in low, or no,
vacuum
A fusion joining process
Heat applied from stream of
high-energy electrons from gun
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EB
Schematic
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Electron
Beam
Welding
Fixture
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EB Weld
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EBW Advantages
Similar to LBW
Deeper penetration capability
High purity, especially for
vacuum environment
High welding speeds
Ability to change weld shape
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EB Limitations
Similar to LBW
Vacuum chamber may be
required
Vacuum chamber size can
limit assembly size
X-Rays generated
Cost
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EBW Discontinuities
Cracking
Root voids
Porosity
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Resistanc
e Welding
- 1 of 3
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Resistance Welding
- 2 of 3
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Resistance Welding
- 3 of 3
Heat obtained from resistance
of workpieces as current flows
through them
Electrodes are usually copper
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RSW Advantages
Very fast welding times - < 1
sec / spot
Semiautomatic or automatic
Good for thin materials
No flux required
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RSW Limitations
Inspection of welds may be
difficult
Primarily a shop process
Electrodes must be clean
Metal surfaces must be clean
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RSW Discontinuities
Non-fusion areas
Cracks
Misalignment of RSEW
electrodes
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Brazing
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Brazing vs Welding vs
Soldering
Base metal not melted in brazing or
soldering
Brazing filler metals melt above
8400 F (4500 C)
Soldering filler metals melt below
8400 F
Strong joints possible with all
processes if designed properly
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Brazing Aspects
Large surface area
Very small clearance
Clean surfaces
Flux often used
Capillary action
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Primary Element
Aluminum-Silicon
Copper-Phosphorus
Silver
Gold
Copper
Copper-Zinc
Magnesium
Nickel
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Brazing Methods
Named after heating
method
Torch
Furnace
Induction
Resistance
Dip
Infrared
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Brazing Advantages
Strong joints
Joins dissimilar metals
Joins metals to nonmetals
Joins unweldable metals
Less heat, less distortion
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Brazing Limitations
Cleanliness requirements
Joint design requirements
Difficult to inspect
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Brazing Discontinuities
Voids, unbonded areas
Base metal erosion
Corrosion by flux
Trapped flux
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TORCH BRAZING
TORCH BRAZING IS accomplished by heating with one or
more gas torches. Depending upon the temperature and
the amount of heat required, the fuel gas (acetylene,
propane, city gas, etc.) may be burned with air,
compressed air, or oxygen. Air-natural gas torches
provide the lowest flame temperature as well as the
least heat. Acetylene under pressure is used in the airacetylene torch with air at atmospheric pressure. Both
air-natural gas and air-acetylene torches can be used to
advantage on small parts and thin sections.
Torch heating for brazing is limited in use to filler metals
supplied with flux or self-fluxing.
Proof Testing
PROOF TESTING IS a method of inspection that subjects the completed
joint to loads slightly in excess of those that will be experienced during
its subsequent service life.
Leak Testing
PRESSURE TESTING DETERMINES the gas or liquid tightness of a closed
vessel.
Radiographic Inspection
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION OF brazements detects lack of bond or
incomplete flow of filler metal.
Ultrasonic Inspection
THE ULTRASONIC TESTING method using low energy, high
frequency mechanical vibration (sound waves) readily detects, locates,
or identifies discontinuities in brazed joints.
Peel Tests
PEEL TESTS ARE frequently employed to evaluate lap type
joints. One member of the brazed specimen is clamped rigidly in a
vise, and the free member is peeled away from the joint. The broken
parts reveal the general quality of the bond
Torsion Tests
THE TORSION TEST evaluates brazed joints with a stud,
screw, or tubular member brazed to a base member.
Cutting Processes
We will be discussing:
Oxyfuel Cutting
Air Carbon Arc Cutting
Plasma Arc Cutting
Mechanical Cutting
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Oxyfuel
Cutting (OFC)
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OFC Torches
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OFC Cut
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OFC Advantages
Simple equipment
Very portable
Cuts thin or thick materials
Good accuracy
Manual or mechanized
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