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    2 views51 pages

    Mathemactics For Economics

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    DrishtiLalwani
    ECON

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 51
    Mathematic: rods Tel ant Michael Hoy eMail y Chris McKenna Lear Thanasis Stengos. rice [GEE Review of Fundamentals “Tne render is encouraged to consol our website bop/npess. ni dues econ forthe following material uel othe dcusion ofthis chapter: ‘The Completeness Property of R Proof, the Necessary and Sint Contions * Practice Beeraes Tn sxion 21 we preset the basic elqments of set theory. We then go on the various Kinds of numbers ending witha concise rextment of he numbers, andthe dimensions of economie vale, We then Pont ses beponing with te simplest ate of nerve of function, st et out the main properties ofthe types of functions y encountered inesonomice, Weslo dete the nortan properties iy, conven and qusiconavty and quasiconvexity. Pallet a ond and eufiient conditions 2.1 Sets and Subsets ‘single objet, which matbematcal operations may be applied. One way of sets by enumeration we simply standard notation for describing ses, we could write = be isan even number between Isa 5 = 02,4,6.8,10) a2 Te ft way ofwrkngS comespods to defnon by propery (hey should be © Acaptl eter denoting the se, ere = Braces, tat enclose be elements ofthe stand empha th we tet In general, lowerese let such asx denotes items that miyof may nt be Jemenis of some partes. For example, bere x can represet say number whatsoever Then, takes on a vale that inthe ewe wie res Also gener the defn of st by property may be vite Xa Pe) where Pisa propeny that x mayor may not have, so Ps) is guano the Consider now te fre sete of umber: la risa posiveienge a3) Az leeZy:x 511) =0,2,3455.6,7.8,9,10 11) 4) Ba [reAsx/26 24) = (246.8, 10) as) Note hatin he ete of 4 and we ave extended he notation sgh by writing the set to which mos belong (a popety of A and 8) othe eh of the lon, sotaton Deed follow 4 id : Fee: in Z, but not in A, This observation leads to " 7 cing proper bt of AT Cony, B © Atesne odd imep 1. win Te equality betwen wo ses is defined by 1M_CHAPTER 2 _ REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS a EE] howrmr ‘qual ey conan evan he sae Sements, and we ote thatthe equality of wo es means that they are dental as ithe case with and B defiedcariee Formally, we cemonstae that two sax equalby sowing So far wehaveconsidered examples that ae ses of mums Its important to spate, though that we en alk of «huge varity of things tht we eam callect, ine sete, Some eceaomic examples re fellows 1 The sets prosicing particular good sly refered tthe industry 1+ The set of buyers and sellers of = good, sally refered asthe markt for Theserofqueites of gods and sevice thats consumerisphyicaly capable '* The set of buniles of goods and services that a consumer can afford t buy, 1+ The set af utpt quantities fm is tecnologicly capable prodocing ane economy giver he valle resources, usally called te production possi Set Operations ‘We are now going to define operations on sts that can be thought ofa ough slogous othe bic operations of won, subwaction, oupicaton, and d ‘sion tha we cary ot on numbers. To avoid some login proses that can aise if we continue wo sure that we ae deling with any kinds of ses whatceves ‘we take that we ave some given set of tee of some spec Kind, called the wih sable ngand sabi Figure 21. Veni of U_A Venn dlagram, shown in Ggue 21, suet device fr illustraing the ‘elton tween stand svbsts The rectangle represents the universal by collections of points such as A and B or X and Y. Note that this is purely tral not neces ax points i a pane. When we thik about he relish beeen he ses we notice difference between the ares shown (a nd (0) figure 2.1. In), X and ¥ovelp, whereas (9) 4 and B do 0 Thus the intersection isthe set of coma el WRB io eso ecco te cvh cones Toca as YW OF FUNDAMENTALS Since there reno commen cleats shared by A and B, we cn write and these two sets si tobe sl, Since sl the sts under discussion are in we have ® © U. Wecan alo think about the total of element ina number “The expression AU A is read "Whe won of A and 8." In gure 2.1, C simply const ofthe pits in A and the pins B hough of now 3 a single Neclfwetet R= X UFy then, a figure 21 (Ris te set shaped something bike 0 Noe that we mast have andi we now deine to bea proper subset of any novemty subset of U, we ean ABCC, whee C= AUB So we sce that intersection of st ar aways contained in heir unions. Example 22 Take es ur univers set the set of pastv inegers, Zs, and et X= [re Zy 14 5 Wand s/2 2.) Va (rezZ,:10s4e Mande 24) Whatare XY and X UY? Solution The simplest way fo answer this question iby enumeration. We have Kw (2,4,6,8, 10,12, 14, 16,18,20] 100, 12,1416, 18,20,22,24 ‘ber 0,¢ ke Example 23 Then XY = (10,1214, 16,18,20) KUY =(2.4.6,8,10,12,14 What are XA Zp, XU Zp NZqs PUZ, Solution XNZ.=X, XUZ=2 yoz=¥, Yuz. wT rrissuggess on immedi generalization If fortwosets Sand V webave’S ¢ The complement of st X i those element ofthe univeral et U at ae Fateeurxen) In fgues2.1 and 2 the complement of any seis simply the area ouside the area Example 24 Given Z,,X.and ¥ a defined in example 22, what are their complements? What te the complements of X MY and X UY, writen NOVY and UY? What are Example 25 The relative difference of ¥ and Y, dented X Solution Since Z, ithe universal setin this example, wehave Z = 0. Taking ourearier description of and Y, we have fre Z, x © 2ands/2 ¢ Zy, ors > 20) F250 IL 25,26 £210, 08>, o©10<4 = Mand x/2¢ 24) i € Zain < 10, oF > 20, oc 10-2 < andx/2 ¢ 2) eZ, 1x 5 ands/2¢ Ze, orx > 24) Since X12. =X,websve FAZy =. Since XUZ, =2.,.wehve OZ; These examples show thai we have aset XC U of X= [x e Us Poe so thatelemants «i X hve the property P. the the complement of X is the et Of eas dt donot pon pope Por = ee Una PC) the sets X and U. This canbe generalized to india the ciffeence between any As the Vean dagram in gure 21(b) shows, we can think of X — ¥ asthe par of| X remaining when we take ou the itrsestion of X and Y,s0 we may wie 1X = show that X— Y Example 26 a Example 27 Solution WX = then XY a XA KN = BIEN = Yothen =X = YY = HEX AY =O.thowibat X= ¥ =x Solution A partition ofthe universal set U is collection of disjoint subsets of Uthe union. fiche “Thus, fwehavem aubetsX, XiUXUMU. UR =U then these sabet form partion of U. This resus ills in igure 2, ‘S denote tis coletion of subst, and let te union them subsets be denoted by Uns Ki Then we ave sefxicu: Uxevansxinx,=0i is partion of U Example 28 Example 29 Solution By thedefniionfacomplement, weknow tat XU =U, Batak, XO = 9. Ths (X,X1 i pon of U . Do the sett X and Y of example 2.2 form a partion of 257 Solution Consider tection of subsets of Z, defined a fllovs Kos te6 2100-1 0, Fe Za) Solution ‘intuition imeciately telus hat this oleton does forma patton of 2 ‘pron goes as follows: int, we have to prove that he subsea disjoint, 50 we she X; and X, with) > ffand j >i-+ 1) Ife € X,thenx = 10! © 10 =D, andsor¢ Xylte € Xptien x > 10 ~ 1) > rand sox g Xi Thus the sobet are disjoint. To prove tat any element of 2, sin ne ofthese set fake any x € Zy and ote that either «amie of 1 or isnot. ti ot where 2, and (G/10) <1 The set =a + and iti srigtorvard dhow tas € . DMMB preset oF se iste eat sates of Xs wrinen POR). Tats Example 2.10 the power set of X= (1,23). Solution Note first that Bis subst of every set XC U. By convention, we take X tobe a subset of Ke alo fave (1) [2 (Ba the sets of pis to give x8) . Note that P(X) inthis example has exactly 2° = 8 elements, For any st X with 2 finite number no element it tn be shown tat its power set bas exactly 2 ‘ements, Inter words ast withm elements has 2” woses 2,Defne he reatonstip (, next] Oss Oar prices, and M > O Isat in adingram the ste ® Buc @ nc and iterpoteach ofthese Given wo subs X and ofa universal set U, prove that @ XUP-x0F 22 NMBERS 20 @ x-rexn? x-rexur 9. Air's production sets gvea by tne 10, Prove that for subsets X,Y, and Z ofa given universal set @) x-Yex-«nn=auN-F ) (-n-2=x-0U2 @ x-W-=a-nuanz @ (un-z=«K%-nuUY-2 © x-Wun=a-nnx-n 2.2 Numbers “They arse aturlly i counting objets of al kinds, What does it mean to count a set of objects, sy ape of dll ils? When we count dolar bil, we ake cach element inthe St of dolar il and pit with an ement of Z,, sang with | cod moving socesvely through he set, When wehave exhaosted the clement of the fst st (dol bil) the element of 2 hat we have reached inthis proces gives us the number of dollar ils Ths nunfer is called the earlnaity As we sw in seston 21, 2, hasan infinite nurber of element. Given any Positive intger, we can alway ns larger oe. We now define some propeties ‘of natural mobes an show tat ter types of numbers aise rom he opraions of dition, mulpenton,subtsin, and division (Consider the addon or mulipicaton of any two cements, «and bc Z Tesetwo operations arecosly lated, ince multiplying and simply sing «titel ines orb oie atimes. The fist thing we note i a the velo thse tetas an clement of 2, This is frmally expressed saying tht the st 2, is closed wade the operons Ts Z,-closed under the operations of subtestion and division? Cleary rt I ~beo¢z, $0 Z snot closed under subtraction. i casy toad eases where a/b is man Mecha 2 is otclosed under subcostal oth dition ofthe set of integers 2b 82. -1.0,1.23,-04 containing, say ~3 objects. Nevertcles, itis imposible in general to consider solving te simplest Kind of equation xe unless we ave negative numbers aval. Initvely we can think fe nega ‘nurber as "something owing™—a kindof sb. Is lo wseful to epresetZ a 7 infigue 2.4, Along aorzonal ine we ark intevas of equ leah che CES STITT SITS aeentmt pointe represent 20, and measure the postive neg ascnting value tthe right and negative imteges in descending vlc tothe lft (that wa<-bife> b> 0) heals clea that 2s CZ ‘The se of integers closed under ation, subraction, and matiplicson, However ser Z pr Zi elosed ener division, sine, or example ¢ 2 ifa = ~2andD~3, though both and b are in Z. "Ths means or xa We could win al ees finds € 2 sch ht 2 NUMBERS 25 sider ing This leads othe deinton ofthe et Q of ratlonal numbers o=[2:2¢z,ne 2-00} i Not that ZC , since we cout clearly choose @ = kb fr k & Z, Noe also thal we rule ot division by zro. We sy hat any expression involving zero inthe ‘demminatorsundfd. The rearonforthecanbesen fom the equation ~ a b= O,then nox exie such that be = a oranye yf Oand sorting out cvision byserorecogniesthis fat (The term rational marber” comes frm teaches qunbers re aos of integers Figure 2 shows the se of rational mares and nates tht these inloe pons between the integers. Take ey evo points o ‘hele thar pve dint atonal munbers, Theres an infinity of ether acne runbers between those points. Tose ti, cone the two rational nubs | ‘nd? and noe | +(2—1)/e with € Zy, mst bea aon umber between and 2 Bach valve of gives a diferent rational mmber, and since Z, hata Inf amber of elements, tere mus bean nite numberof aon nambers between and. Replacing bya and by b> a, where a and bare any lent Figie25 These Anmportar observations thatthe egmenrbetwee the numbers andor ven any two rational numbers) is ot etre composed of atonal number. (Otter numbers exist In gue 26 we have constted a ight-angle range with sides A and of length I and hypotense of length Lying slong the ine. From te Pybagoesn theorem we know tat the uae ofthe tance L along he ie 0 LY. The following theorem, te proof of whch was wellknown to the fncent Greeks, shows thi 92 notational number This tells us tat Qi totslosed under the operation of taking square roots Aleravely ttl that thee at be umber ter than ationl mbes These ar lratlonal nunbes wish cannot be expressed ts the ato of to iter. 28 CUSTER? _AEVIEWOF FUNDAMENTALS er ee Figure 27. Tee fel The munis VTis no radon nb has, VEE Te proof ca be found onthe website ‘The Real Numbers and Their Proper The ion ofthe sets of raonal and irational numbers she set of real numbers. We think ofthe St of real sumbers as extending along a line win each direction having no breaks o gaps, a in figure 2.7, We ree otis the “The properiesofR define he basi opertcas tht we can cary out onthe ements of Consider thes (oot tse dnc elements of Ro 0, ad ‘We ean postulate the following properties 1. Closure 1F0.8 € R, then a+ Band ab € So Ris closed unde dion and maltiticton, 2. Commutative laws Foal 6 R atbebta ant aba bo 3. Associative laws Fora a,b,c €, ‘otha th orderin which we aor mip three el numbers des not mate Distrbotivelaw Foralle, b,c eR, 5. Zero The clement ¢ Ris define as having the propery that forall € 2+0—a and a=0 6. One The clement | eR is defined as having he propery that ——————_—_——___——— ambers (1) ‘ity o(t)- Sand Example 2.11 Forsla.beRifa+8=0,show at =e dunt solution () Fora €R.ma= (=e tock The Order Propertos of R not closed under multiplication) and including zero as R,., = Bt. U {0} fei PEXIEEEEN Given anya. fe referto">" asthe set nequty and" the weak nequaliy,sne pe ritsa =. The properties of these inequalities ae stated the following theorem Theorem 22. Foranya.b. eR () Competenese Exactly on ofthe following ite asd a= o acd (0) Tranalsty 6.>0 and > c ten a> c, and if 9b ad b (i) Retexivty 0 = 0 (6) Equality Ufa > band = 0 witpe thee Dimensions of Economic Variables ponding to quanities such as cos, profit, and price ot amounts of goods and Services such as col bread; and baroats, These vrubies ae measured in par tur Kinds of unite that we refer to athe dimension of these variables, For ‘ample cot ovens, od profi wre meastrd i units of moeey (Sola) pce Isimensured in erm of ul of movey per pysical ul af «good (dllasfun arithmetic apply not only tthe variables themselves but also tothe units in which revenue measured in dollars. This is the product ofthe toa sles of physica Thus, comerponding tthe ety Revenue = pice x quanty we hve the dey in tems of dimensions Dots = “8 > ooe A equation involv ‘example, suppose that after a complicated bit of mathematical analysis we derive Since revenue ie messed in dollar and marginal ot dolar per unit, we are which cannot tere, Maybe what we sould have obtained was Marga revenue —marginal os Dimensional hie eqution i comect, wth wis of dollars pe on on each side 120 CHAPTER? REVIEW OF FUNDMENTALS not have & dimension, For example, A pore number i 2 number tat Since both prof and reveme ae messed in dll the ate of return bas di mension dollars and so pure number 11, Demonte the boundedness or unboundedoes ofthe flowing se 3,-2,-1.0,1,2,3 W) Ry =R-R,=peR:r <9 ©) SmtreR:0<2< V4) 2. We could tea “completeness property” for Q as: Every nonempty subset Of that has an upper bound hea supremum in. Show by choosing asuiable counterexample th hit statement false, agit roost 1) change in ation income = 2.x change in invesment © aaa a) taxperunitofa good = + x elasicy of demand forthe good eg in prof ‘angen mp ots OTS HD © 4, Give the dimensions ofthe following economic quant: (a) gros national product, 1) average cost of prodosng a good (arpa proensty to consume abe ) demand fora good © m ot of epitopes 5. A subset of Ras a maxim iit consis its supremum. This supremum sounded subets) that do and donot have maximo, see shove the repayment ofthe SI inversely with ime. How would you exprest a rae of ners per yar a 2.3 Some Properties of Point Sets in R ‘omber Oa infigte 28. Any point in the coordinate system formed by some examples. The two ates, which goof infinity in the four directions, can dimensional pace that we refer fo es R. Note that wo refer to these points ae ont (2,3) quite ferent fom the pont (3,2) a gue 28 kes le. Figueze © This idea canbe pt more formally as fllows, The Cartesan product of two sete X and Y,wlten X © Yt the set of ordered pair formed by aking tum each element in X and assciing with teach element in ¥. For example the Careian product ofthe sts (23) and fa, 0) 8 (0,0) = (C0, (1,8), 2.0), 2.5), Then figure 2.8 gives pictre of Bat why slop there? We an define test of ordre ples ROROR=((e,y,9:2eR VER Figue29 8 Although figures 28 and 29 exhaust the st of posible for digrmmatic prevention, we an define the genera et of ordered n-ples RORO-OR=(le.y.2.2) TERY ER ERS ot which R,R?, and? are special cases. In chapter 10 we willonsider the slgebra of ese nuples, or vecton. Here we ae inrested ony in some properties of >= sample * the closed nteral fb] = [x eR a O,y2 yO) Ilustate his set. sit loued? bounded? convex? How would you intrret 3. consumer's budget seis B=(ee.y) eR pict py sm where pr pa > Oe prices and m > 0 income, sete this set. It ‘loved bounded? convex?” Consider the set X = BC wher Cis defined in exercise 2. Sketch his et How woul you inept the ase X = eX closed? bounded? conven? 4. Aconsune's preferences over bunds of wo goods x,y arerepresentedy the smoath, convex tothe ogi ndference curves of standard economics textbooks Take the consumption bode x’) and five te bere se 3») = (ee 9) ©RE + (9) prefered oriniteent to (9 Isthis st hosed? bounded convex? Find the Bicideta distance between te following puis of plas: G@) and Sin (©) (6.2) and, —1) iE (© (5,-3,0,8) and (12, -6,3,1) in 6 Prove tat (@) an coeghbothood san open et ) an open set doesnot contin is boundary pots (oma ions 2.15, 7. Fore =0.1 and € = 10, esribe the «neighborhoods aren © MLD abe 2.4 Functions am ‘Wedetine auction alow ” The set x ical ie domaln ofthe fron, scaled he codomal, lhe ined ith range ofthe function. Denoting te yf. we can writ the funtion se lements of X by the functions called whee y soften refered to asthe image of orth vale fhe unetion fan hie Bock, we wil e lly concerned with casein which ¥is the St of real numbers, and X'G R's > J whilethe rule fia standard alpebraic expression For example, we have the fonetione veer, eR ach of which we will be examining in sme det below, However, dfstion 227 is more gear than these examples, ince i applies to ets X and Y and tes of asceation fof any kin. To emphasise this generality, we also ue the ‘erm mapping 2s a syaoaym for fenton. We refer tothe above examples then, as real-valued functions or mappings The range ofa function ca be writen asthe Image set $00 = EF y= fe) eX) thas a the enti et ofthat we obtain when we substi into the funtion teenie setofs's IE F(X) C Y, wesaythat f maps X into Y, wile fX) = Y, ‘we say that f maps X onto. Inthe fist case not every y € isan image of ah eX neh second cases ‘maybe the ete that given y may be the image of more thn one x. An extreme ease of his would be he constant mapping f(X) = 9, single element of Y- On the other hand maybe ha esch x has 3 moge a iffeen clement ‘ne-owne and eno is called a one-to-one correspondence. Crespnding each x thee isa dsinct element of Y and all the element of Yar images of funedon of), writen as x = J") Cle, hs anolyte dave ff onto ‘ne too nt) sac otherwise for ome) we wold ave more than on #83 theimge, and this condtion violates the definition of function If sne-o one ‘onto, then the domain of he inverse fonction willbe Fy and (F- Example 2.15. Findtheinverseofy ax eR Solution [As igure 2.18 shows this function dos ot poses an inverse, ines, for very onze value of y there sre two tthe pose and the negative aque rot, a a ‘We wll be concemed exclusively with real-valued function, and we 20% desert some common types of fenton encountered in esos slong with Linear Functions Figure220 Ls The reason for calling this fnction Hiner is obviously tht its eraph is 2 stag Une. The seeps ofthe line Is Gever ne hy the nent vo > wi sgh is« eof Figure 221 Linear fron with In equation (2.7) y is often refered to as the dependent variable and x as pariculreausaliynmind when wring down te eatinship between varbles, as dependent or independent variables (i.., where the causation is unknown oF tempo), we can we the equation aan empl function thee poston changes bu ot thei lope, by adding the Intercept term be B. frying b generates whole fal of paral! lines. asa general equntionforte line. Thisisthealgbricformofthe obvious geometic 46 CHAPTER? _REVIEWOF FUNDAMENTALS ily, we consierfurter the imoant concept, lead introduced in section 23; ofa convex combition of point. To sat suppose at we hae two numbeis 4° © R, with "<4" Then we can define the st of nmbers De U ae", fork eH (Cea. = 5 x", and writing fey 1@"2) “This 2 gives us the dflerence between and a «proportion ofthe entre Ineeal 2) “This idea generalies oR? Take any wo distinct pins x,y and (2. tnd define ther convex combination (2 9) 3s =A yD HOWE yD Sate ae ay Hd Hy"], AEN ‘Then a igre 2.2 lusts, the plas (2, 5)lieoa thine oining yak (2°). Infact we can think ofthe convex combination a ing a8 expression Figure 2.22 coves combintion tere yaa forthe lining wo pins. To see tis, wean show that (x,y) and leona ling, thesis the yale n hs ine coreponding oan value of. Suppose tet te lin is y ax +; ten we muse have Matipying te fist expesion by 4. and he second by (1-3 ve ts equired. This called a convex combination because the et of pois 46 (0, 1] and allow any & € R, then the expression From the fit equation we obtain which sexe the two-point characterization of ine we obtained earl, wl Quadratic Functions yearttorte eR a¥o vex form, with a > 0 it could be used to depict atypical U-shaped average or marginal-cstcurvewhileinie concave form, witha 0 could dpi pea toial-eveae ort profit crv. (Noe thi in these caplet domain of the since negative outputs reno lowed) The ‘sigue minimum (inthe convex case) or maximum (inthe concave cas) always Tha, f we want function fohave e mani postive valu of, we mas chose > 0, wil if we want function tohave minimum ata positive velveet,wemstchoose < 0 Finally ne valu of wi is psiive negate, or eo a this mex or minimum. 1 Figure 223. uit Rectangular Hyperbola A rectangular hyperbola maybe writen wn othe curve has the same area, Note tha he graph ofthe function in figure 2.24hastvo pars oneeatiey inthe positive quaatat andthe heen inthe negative quaran.Ineconomics we often eset st so only the upp ‘curveisrelevant Asx tends tozero the curve approaches te ausenymptotaly and asx tends to infinity approaches the Kane ssymptocall nceasing& shift the curve outward, while retaining the gener shape Ss... ee Power, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions When a namber a is mukiptied by ise times, we woe, whee n is cal the exponent. Ths leads othe rules of exponents i) The et tohavea ‘The power function kes the form b= =I. Te tnear function salto a special ease wih b= I. The quae may te thought fa the sm of two power Figure 225 showstwo power function fort € Ry whereb > Land < ~! take the exponen asthe vail inthe fonction, we then ithe expo trl = seu * where scaled he base of te funcio. In many appiationsthibas taken to ‘telly eo fancion betbeaumbere = 2718 For > Othe gebeal shape ofthe expen anton 50 GuriEN2 Mev! OF HUNDAMENIALS TF ib ik oF tL edgar ot xt bam 9 and ww “This expresion defines y asa logarithmic function of x. We defite the drain ‘ofthis function ote Ry, tnd we choose b> 0. Moreover, since I raised to any power is sll, we exclodeb = I. As figure 227 shows, fb 1, the funtion ‘thebase .schosea tobe eo thatx =e. The comespooding logan called ‘of exponents, we have - alle berles which mpi ta Concavity, Convexity, Quasiconcavity, Quasiconvexity ced inthe caso a concave func wat convex combinations of pin inthe domain oe nthe domain Take any e two points and" inthe domain ofthe faction an the coresponding funtion above" the ine joining these two function values. Tats the value ofthe Figure 2.28 sy Sine the poit om line joining and has the 52_OWPTER? REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTALS S Serres Severo ewes Note that he curve in igure 2.28 is sucly concave while he near fnction ‘concave bit oot sry concave By similar argument we obtsin CEE the funcion fs convert FO) S34) 4 apf") where = 2a'4 (1A) and [0,1] satiety convexifthe stitineusiy ols wien & © (0 ‘convex function “bend below” alin joining ay two furcton values. This ilstatetin gore 229. Cleary, fi ely) conven ffs scl) concave From these definitions it flows ta linear fonctions both convex ani cance buts neither, Example 2.16. Thepoin tin defritons 225 and 2.26 sa convex combination ofthe wo points X and 2" Suppose that the function is f(s) = 3°. Tht, we chose b= 04, Y= 2and.e = 5, we have we 424 0os 1@) BaF = 1444 isthe eight ofthe function tthe point ¥. This shown n gue 2.30, Now rom "he conven combinstion,wecan obtain a sts ine connecting he tw fancon OT meaner Figure 2.29. Succcomeiy aye) +0 =A) 0402) + 0.668% 166 which ste height of asap tne connecting the points 2.4) and (5,25) atx $38in gure 230. Cealy, f(a) 1" sty conven between hese two points, “Toshow generally hai f(x) = xis sly comen we need sow tat 16)

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