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Aircraft structures, being extremely flexible, are prone to distortion under load. When
these loads are caused by aerodynamic forces, which themselves depend on the geometry
of the structure and the orientation of the various structural components to the
surrounding airflow, then structural distortion results in changes in aerodynamic load,
leading to further distortion and so on. The interaction of aerodynamic and elastic forces
is known as aero elasticity
Types of problems
Two distinct types of aero elastic problem occur. One involves the interaction of
aerodynamic and elastic forces of the type described above. Such interactions may
exhibit divergent tendencies in a too flexible structure, leading to failure, or, in an
adequately stiff structure, converge until a condition of stable equilibrium is reached. In
this type of problem static or steady state systems of aerodynamic and elastic forces
produce such aero elastic phenomena as divergence and control reversal. The second
class of problem involves the inertia of the structure as well as aerodynamic and elastic
forces. Dynamic loading systems, of which gusts are of primary importance, induce
oscillations of structural components. If the natural or resonant frequency of the
component is in the region of the frequency of the applied loads then the amplitude of the
oscillations may diverge, causing failure. Also, as we observed in Chapter 15, the
presence of fluctuating loads is a fatigue hazard. For obvious reasons we refer to these
problems as dynamic. Included in this group are flutter, buffeting and dynamic response.

In this chapter we shall concentrate on the purely structural aspects of aero elasticity;
its effect on aircraft static and dynamic stability is treated in books devoted primarily
to aircraft stability and control.
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Load distribution and divergence

Redistribution of aerodynamic loads and divergence are closely related aero elastic
phenomena; we shall therefore consider them simultaneously. It is essential in the design
of structural components that the aerodynamic load distribution on the component is
known. Wing distortion, for example, may produce significant changes in lift distribution
from that calculated on the assumption of a rigid wing, especially in instances of
high wing loadings such as those experienced in maneuvers and gusts. To estimate
actual lift distributions the aerodynamicist requires to know the incidence of the wing
at all stations along its span. Obviously this is affected by any twisting of the wing
which may be present.
Let us consider the case of a simple straight wing with the centre of twist behind
the aerodynamic centre. The moment of the lift vector about the centre of twist causes an
increase in wing incidence which produces a further increase in lift, leading to another
increase in incidence and so on. At speeds below a critical value, called the divergence
speed, the increments in lift converge to a condition of stable equilibrium in which the
torsional moment of the aerodynamic forces about the centre of twist is balanced by the
torsional rigidity of the wing. The calculation of lift distribution then proceeds from a
knowledge of the distribution of twist along the wing. For a straight wing the
redistribution of lift usually causes an outward span wise movement of the centre of
pressure, resulting in greater bending moments at the wing root. In the case of a swept
wing a reduction in streamwise incidence of the outboard sections due to bending
deflections causes a movement of the centre of pressure towards the wing root. All
aerodynamic surfaces of the aircraft suffer similar load redistribution due to distortion.
Wing torsional divergence (two-dimensional case)
The most common divergence problem is the torsional divergence of a wing. It is
useful, initially, to consider the case of a wing of area S without ailerons and in a

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We see from Eq. that Vd may be increased either by stiffening the wing (increasing K) or
by reducing the distance ec between the aerodynamic and flexural centers. The former
approach involves weight and cost penalties so that designers usually prefer to design a
wing structure with the flexural centre as far forward as possible. If the aerodynamic
centre coincides with or is aft of the flexural centre then the wing is stable at all speeds.
Wing torsional divergence (finite wing)
We shall consider the simple case of a straight wing having its flexural axis nearly
perpendicular to the aircrafts plane of symmetry (Fig. 28.3(a)). We shall also assume
that wing cross-sections remain undistorted under the loading. Applying strip theory

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Mathematical solutions of the type given in Eq. rarely apply with any accuracy to actual
wing or tail surfaces. However, they do give an indication of the order of the divergence
speed, Vd. In fact, when the two-dimensional lift-curve slope, c1/, is used they lead to
conservative estimates of Vd. It has been shown that when c1/ is replaced by the
three-dimensional lift-curve slope of the finite wing, values of Vd become very close to
those determined from more sophisticated aerodynamic and aero elastic theory. The lift
distribution on a straight wing, accounting for the elastic twist, is found by introducing a
relationship between incidence and lift distribution from aerodynamic theory. In the case
of simple strip theory the local wing lift coefficient, c1, is given by

Swept wing divergence

In the calculation of divergence speeds of straight wings the flexural axis was taken
to be nearly perpendicular to the aircrafts plane of symmetry. Bending of such wings
has no influence on divergence, this being entirely dependent on the twisting of the

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wing about its flexural axis. This is no longer the case for a swept wing where the
span wise axes are inclined to the aircrafts plane of symmetry. Let us consider the
swept wing of Fig. 28.4. The wing lift distribution causes the wing to bend in an
upward direction. Points A and B on a line perpendicular to the reference axis will
deflect by approximately the same amount, but this will be greater than the deflection
of A which means that bending reduces the stream wise incidence of the wing. The
corresponding negative increment of lift opposes the elastic twist, thereby reducing the
possibility of wing divergence. In fact, the divergence speed of swept wings is so high
that it poses no problems for the designer. Diederich and Budiansky in 1948 showed
that wings with moderate or large sweepback cannot diverge. The opposite of course
is true for swept-forward wings where bending deflections have a destabilizing effect
and divergence speeds are extremely low.
Aileron effectiveness and reversal (two-dimensional case)

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Aileron effectiveness and reversal (finite wing)

We shall again apply strip theory to investigate the aero elastic effects of aileron
deflection on a finite wing. In Fig. 28.6(a) the deflection of the aileron through an angle
produces a rolling velocity p rad/s, having the sense shown. The wing incidence at any
section z is thus reduced due to p by an amount pz/V. The downward aileron deflection
shown here coincides with an upward deflection on the opposite wing, thereby
contributing to the rolling velocity p. The incidence of the opposite wing is therefore
increased by this direction of roll. Since we are concerned with aileron effects we
consider the anti symmetric lift and pitching moment produced by aileron deflection.
Thus, in Fig. 28.6(b), the forces and moments are changes from the level flight condition.

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Introduction to flutter
We have previously defined flutter as the dynamic instability of an elastic body in an
airstream. It is found most frequently in aircraft structures subjected to large aerodynamic
loads such as wings, tail units and control surfaces. Flutter occurs at a critical or flutter
speed Vf which in turn is defined as the lowest airspeed at which a given structure will
oscillate with sustained simple harmonic motion. Flight at speeds below and above the
flutter speed represents conditions of stable and unstable (that is divergent) structural
oscillation, respectively. Generally, an elastic system having just one degree of freedom
cannot be unstable unless some peculiar mechanical characteristic exists such as a
negative spring force or a negative damping force. However, it is possible for systems
with two or more degrees of freedom to be unstable without possessing unusual
characteristics. The forces associated with each individual degree of freedom can interact,
causing divergent oscillations for certain phase differences. The flutter of a wing in which
the flexural and torsional modes are coupled is an important example of this type of
instability. Some indication of the physical nature of wing-bendingtorsion-flutter may be
had from an examination of aerodynamic and inertia forces during a combined bending
and torsional oscillation in which the individual motions are 90 out of phase. In a pure
bending or pure torsional oscillation the aerodynamic forces produced by the effective
wing incidence oppose the motion; the geometric incidence in pure bending remains
constant and therefore does not affect the aerodynamic damping force, while in pure
torsion the geometric incidence produces aerodynamic forces which oppose the motion
during one-half of the cycle but assist it during the other half so that the overall effect is
nil. Thus, pure bending or pure torsional oscillations are quickly damped out. This is not
the case in the combined oscillation when the maximum twist occurs at zero bending and
vice versa; i.e. a 90 phase difference. Consider the wing shown in Fig. 28.7 in various
stages of a bendingtorsion oscillation. At the position of zero bending the twisting of the
wing causes a positive geometric incidence and therefore an aerodynamic force in the
same direction as the motion of the wing. A similar but reversed situation exists as the
wing moves in a downward direction; the negative geometric incidence due to wing twist
causes a downward aerodynamic force. It follows that, although the effective wing
incidence produces aerodynamic forces which oppose the motion at all stages, the
aerodynamic forces associated with the geometric incidence have a destabilizing effect.
At a certain speed the flutter speed Vf this destabilization action becomes greater than
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the stabilizing forces and the oscillations diverge. In practical cases the bending and
torsional oscillations would not be as much as 90 out of phase; however, the same basic
principles apply. The type of flutter described above, in which two distinctly different
types of oscillating motion interact such that the resultant motion is divergent, is known
as classical flutter. Other types of flutter, non-classical flutter, may involve only one type
of motion.

For example, stalling flutter of a wing occurs at a high incidence where, for particular
positions of the span wise axis of twist, self-excited twisting oscillations occur which,
above a critical speed, diverge. Another non-classical form of flutter, aileron buzz, occurs
at high subsonic speeds and is associated with the shock wave on the wing forward of the
aileron. If the aileron oscillates downwards the flow over the upper surface of the wing
accelerates, intensifying the shock and resulting in a reduction in pressure in the
boundary layer behind the shock. The aileron, therefore, tends to be sucked back to its
neutral position. When the aileron rises the shock intensity reduces and the pressure in the
boundary layer increases, tending to push the aileron back to its neutral position. At low
frequencies these pressure changes are approximately 180 out of phase with the aileron
deflection and therefore become aerodynamic damping forces. At higher frequencies a
component of pressure appears in phase with the aileron velocity which excites the
oscillation. If this is greater than all other damping actions on the aileron a high
frequency oscillation results in which only one type of motion, rotation of the aileron
about its hinge, is present, i.e. aileron buzz. Aileron buzz may be prevented by employing
control jacks of sufficient stiffness to ensure that the natural frequency of aileron rotation
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is high. Buffeting is produced most commonly in a tail plane by eddies caused by poor
airflow in the wing wake striking the tail plane at a frequency equal to its natural
frequency; a resonant oscillation having one degree of freedom could then occur. The
problem may be alleviated by proper positioning of the tai plane and clean aerodynamic
design.

Determination of critical flutter speed

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PREVENTION OF FLUTTER

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