MISTAKE-FREE GRAMMAR AND PROOFREADING

MISTAKE-FREE GRAMMAR AND PROOFREADING TRAINING
Table of Contents
1. NOUNS....2
2. PRONOUNS...........4
3. VERBS.....7
4. ADJECTIVES8
5. ADVERBS..8
6. PREPOSITIONS9
7. CONJUNCTIONS.11
8. INTERJECTIONS.13
9. ACTIVE/PASSIVE VOICE .13
10. SUBJECT/VERB AGREEMENT14
11. PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT..17
12. PUNCTUATION19
13. CAPITALIZATION.......22
14. SENTENCE FORMATION......23
15. SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION.26
16. FRAGMENTS.31
17. RUN-ON SENTENCES 32
18. PROOFREADERS MARKS AND SKILLS.......34
19. SELECTING THE RIGHT WORD 37
20. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE........41
21. HOW TO COMPOSE EFFECTIVE EMAILS....45
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NOTES
NOTES
PARTS OF SPEECH:
There are eight (8) parts of speech in the English language:
Nouns
Pronouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
Nouns:
A noun is a word for a person, place, thing, or idea. This is the most
popular part of speech. There are a few different types of nouns, but they
are all simply nouns. Here are some examples:
Common Nouns common nouns are words for a general class
of people, places, things, and ideas (examples: man, city, country,
award, week, year, month, book, keys, wallets, engines, etc.) They
are not capitalized. They can be countable, such as eggs, books,
etc., or they can be non-countable such as oxygen, air, grain, etc.
Proper Nouns proper nouns are names of specific people,
places, and things and are capitalized (examples: Joseph, Chicago,
Nobel Prize, Academy Awards, UCLA Medical Center,
Declaration of Independence.)
Collective Nouns collective nouns represent a group of things

collectively, such as jury, flock, committee, army, choir, etc.
Abstract Nouns abstract nouns are not concreteyou cannot
touch them. Examples are liberty, love, justice, sound, belief,
failure, success, persistence, etc.
Nouns in a sentence:
Marcy swam in the community pool last week. (How many nouns
in this sentence?)
My brother will be going to Brook Middle School next year. (How
many nouns in this sentence?)
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Plural Rules:
To make a noun plural, just add either an s or es.
(examples: month/months; letter/letters; actress/actresses,
phone/phones, witch/witches, box/boxes).
Possession Rules:
Possession shows ownership you possess something or you own in.
To make a noun possessive, put an apostrophe + s after the noun.

(examples: dogs tail, Bobs uniform, computers hard drive)
To show possession of a plural noun, put the apostrophe after the
s. (examples: guys night out (guys is plural + apostrophe after
the s to show possession), two actresses roles (actresses is plural
+ apostrophe after the s.)
COMMON ERROR never use an apostrophe s to make a noun plural.
Apostrophes are only used to show possession.
Correct: Some rules are confusing.
Incorrect: Some rules are confusing.
Correct: The Johnsons moved to the city.
Incorrect: The Johnsons moved to the city.
Irregular Nouns - English has many irregular nouns. To make these
plural, we cannot just add an s. We change their spelling and make them
quite different words. (Examples: child/children, foot/feet, tooth/teeth,
mouse/mice, goose/geese, etc.)
To make these irregular plural nouns possessive, just add the apostrophe
and the s.
Correct: two childrens hats (children + the apostrophe and s to
show possession)
Incorrect: two childrens hats (the plural is children, not childrens)
It can get confusing when showing plural and possession of proper nouns
that end in s, such as Mr. Hastings and Mr. Jones. If the family name
ends in an s and you want to make it plural, you must add es.
The plural of Hastings is the Hastingses. The members of the Jones

family are the Joneses. To show possession, just add the apostrophe.
Correct: the Hastingses dog (the dog is owned by the Hastingses.)
Incorrect: two childrens hats (the plural is children, not childrens)
Correct: the Joneses car (the car is owned by the Joneses.)
Incorrect: the Jones car
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NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
COMMON ERROR: Never use an apostrophe with a proper name when
you are trying to make the name plural.
Incorrect:
Correct:
we visited the Smiths

we visited the Smiths
Compound Nouns Plural and Possession

When using a singular compound noun such as brother-in-law, and you
want to make it plural (you have more than one brother-in-law), then you
form the plural by adding an s to the word brother.
Correct: brothersin-law
Incorrect: brother-in-laws
When you want to show possession of a singular compound noun such as
brother-in-law, you add an apostrophe + s at the end:
Correct: brotherin-laws coat
Incorrect: brothers-in-law coat
When you want to show possession of a plural compound noun, you add an
apostrophe + s at the end of the compound noun:
Correct: my two brothersin-laws coats
Incorrect: my two brothers-in-law coats
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun (I, me, he, she, herself,
you, it, that, they, each, few, many, who, whoever, whose, someone,
everybody, etc.).
Look at the following sentence. Joe saw Kathy, and he waved at her.
The pronouns he and her take the place of Joe and Kathy. Pronouns are
used to keep nouns from getting repetitive. Instead of repeating the nouns
again such as Joe saw Kathy, and Joe waved at Kathy, we use a pronoun
to take the place of the noun which makes the sentence more interesting.
There are four types of pronouns:
Nominative (for example, I, he) -- subjects

Objective (him) -- direct object or object of preposition
Possessive (his) show possession
Indefinite (anyone, both, all)
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Nominative Pronouns - I, you, he, she, it, they, and we
When the pronoun is the subject of the sentence, it is referred to as
Nominative Case I, you, he, she, it, they, and we.
Example: (Subject) left early to go to the beach.
You can fill in any of the nominative pronouns above. They all
qualify as the subject.
Nominative pronouns are used when they are the subject of the sentence.
And they will follow the verb to be, such as is, are, was, were, am, will
be, had been, etc.
Examples: It is he.
This is she speaking.
She and Sara went to the store. (She went to the store, and
Sara went to the store; she and Sara went -- not her and Sara.
COMMON ERROR - when we answer the phone and the caller asks for
us by name, we should say, This is she or This is he. Many of us
make the error of saying, This is her or This is him. Avoid this.
Objective Pronouns me, you, him, her, it, us, them
Objective pronouns are used everywhere else except as the subject.
They are the direct object or the indirect object of a verb; or they are
the object of a preposition.
Examples:
Jean saw him. (him is the direct object of the verb

saw You can say Jean saw who or what?
Give her the book. (her is the indirect object; the
direct object is book)
I went camping with John and him. (him is the object of
the preposition with)
Possessive Pronouns my, mine, our, ours, its, his, her, hers, their,
theirs, your, yours, whose.
Possessive pronouns are words that already show possession or ownership.
There are only a few possessive pronouns in the English language, and they
are listed above. They ALREADY show possession no apostrophe.
Examples:
Bobs mom gets along well with yours. (no apostrophe)
We shall finally have what is rightfully ours.
This dessert is hers, but I may just call it mine.
Never use the apostrophe with pronouns that are already possessive.
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NOTES

Indefinite Pronouns these pronouns replace nouns without specifying
which noun they replace. Indefinite pronouns do not refer to any specific
person, thing or amount. They can be singular and plural.
Singular Indefinite Pronouns another, anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everyone, everybody, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing,
one, other, somebody, something.
Examples: Each of the players has a doctor.
Anybody who joins the choir is considered a singer.
Everybody at work is a member of the union.
Plural Indefinite Pronouns both, many, others, several, they, few, fewer
Examples: Both of the parents are participating.
Several of the documents were filled with errors.
Both Singular and Plural Indefinite Pronouns - all, any, either, none,
some, more, most.
These are BOTH singular and plural. When these pronouns are followed
by a prepositional phrase, the pronoun must agree with the object of the
preposition. Here are two examples:
Examples: Most of the work is finished. (most is singular)
Most of the books are outdated. (most is plural)
Its and Its

The only time you use an apostrophe with the pronoun its is when you
mean it is and are using the contraction its. When in doubt, leave it out.
When you see the word its or its, ask yourself the question can I replace this
with it is? If you cannot, then do not put in an apostrophe. Use its.
Examples: Its a cold morning. (It is a cold morning.)

The thermometer reached its highest reading.
(no apostrophe because you do not mean it is.)
The horse wagged its tail. (no apostrophe because you
do not mean it is.)
Who and Whom

Who should be used to refer to the subject of a sentence.
Whom should be used to refer to the object of a sentence.
Try this simple trick: If you can replace the word with he or she use who.
If you can replace the word with him or her, use whom.
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NOTES
Two examples:
Who ate my sandwich? Did he or she eat my sandwich? Then use who.
Whom should I talk to about labeling food in the refrigerator? Should I talk to
him or to her? Then use whom.
Who vs. Whose

The only time you use an apostrophe with whos is when you mean who
is. Ask yourself can I replace this with who is? If you cannot, do not
add the apostrophe. Use whose.
Examples: He is the one whos always on time. (the one who is
always on time)
Sam is the one whose wife is French. (no apostrophe
because you do not mean who is)
Verbs
The verb is the most important part of speech. It is king in English. You
cannot form a sentence without one. The shortest sentence must have a verb.
A one-word sentence can be made with a verb -- "Stop!" The subject of this
sentence is You understood.
There are two types of verbs - Action Verbs and Linking Verbs.
Action Verbs These are easy to recognize because they demonstrate a
physical action. They may contain more than one word.
Examples:
He ran around the block. (shows action)
I went to the park yesterday to skate. (shows action)
The doctor wrote the prescription. (shows action)
Sydney tacked photos of stars all over her bedroom wall.
Linking Verbs These verbs do not show action. They connect the subject
to its predicate and offer more information about the subject. They include
all of the verb to be which are:
am, is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been
Examples:
Our trip to Yellowstone was fantastic.

There are ten pencils in my backpack.
Linking verbs include the five senses: look, feel, smell, sound, taste
Examples: Would you taste this soup for me?
She sounds like Madonna.
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NOTES
Adjectives
An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (or describes) a noun or
pronoun. It is used to create a richer experience for the reader.
An adjectives job is to describe or modify a noun (or pronoun). They are
near the noun or pronoun they describe. They can come before or after the
word they describe.
Examples:
During the weekend I enjoy a leisurely lunch with my friends.
(leisurely is an adjective describing lunch)
My wife likes a colonial house with a big yard. (colonial and
big are both adjectives describing the nouns house and yard)
It is a lovely film. (lovely is an adjective describing film)
Adjectives may come after the word they describe.
Examples:
That puppy looks cute.
The technology is sophisticated.
How many adjectives (including Articles) are in the sentence: The red car
roared around the sharp corner and hit an old oak tree.
Adverbs
An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies/describes verbs,
adjectives, or other adverbs. An adverb answers how, when, where, or to
what extend how often or how much (daily, completely).
Examples:
He speaks slowly. (slowly modifies the verb

speaks and answers the question how)
He is especially clever. (especially modifies the
adjective clever and describes to what extent
He speaks very slowly. (very describes the
adverb slowly and answers how slowly?
Many adverbs end in ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have
ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.
Examples:
She thinks quick/quickly. (quickly modifies the

verb thinks; how does she think?)
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She is a quick/quickly thinker. (quick is an
adjective describing thinker, so no ly is attached;
thinker is a noun.
She thinks fast/fastly. (fast answers the question
how, so it is an adverb, but the word fast never has ly
attached to it.
We performed bad/badly. (badly is an adverb
describing how we performed, so ly is added.)
He finished the show well. (well is an adverb
describing how he finished.)
I sometimes go there to fish. (sometimes is an
adverb describing when I go.)
The word good is an adjective, and the word well is an adverb.
Examples:
You did a good job. (good describes the job)

You did the job well. (well describes the verb did
and answers the question how, so use the adverb)
You smell good today. (good describes your
fragrance and smell is one of the senses so use the
adjective)
The word well can be used as an adjective too. When referring to

health, we use well rather than good.
Examples:
You do not look well today. (well is an adjective

since it refers to health)
I dont feel well today. (well is an adjective
referring to our health)
Prepositions
A preposition is a word that indicates location or some other relationship
between a noun or pronoun and other parts of the sentence. It is not a
preposition unless it goes with a related noun or pronoun forming a
prepositional phrase.
The following are all prepositions:
above, about, across, against, along, among, around, at, before,
behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during,
except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, since, to,
toward, through, under, until, up, upon, with and within.
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NOTES

Prepositional Phrases begin with a preposition and end with a noun or
pronoun which becomes the object of the preposition.
Examples: We drove over the mountain. (over is the preposition;
mountain is its object.)
The book is behind the chair. (behind is the
preposition; chair is its object.)
The spoon near the sink is dirty. (near is the
preposition; sink is its object.)
I wrote in the guest book. (in is the preposition;
book is the object.)
How many prepositions are in this sentence?
During the month of May we went on a trip with our friends to Canada.
COMMON ERROR --A preposition goes before its noun or pronoun.
One of the rules of English grammar is that you should never end a
sentence with a preposition. You should not use extra prepositions at
the end of the sentence when the meaning is clear without them.
Examples: Where did you get this at? vs. Where did you get this?
Where did he go to? vs. Where did he go?
Where are you at? vs. Where are you?
COMMON ERRORS -- The object of a preposition is always in

objective case (not nominative). We make a common error when we say,
Between you and I. The pronoun I is in the nominative case and is
incorrect. It should be Between you and me.
We should avoid using the preposition of when we should use the
helping verb have.
Incorrect: I should of done it.
Correct:
I should have done it.
Incorrect: You would of loved the movie.
Correct:
You would have loved the movie.
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NOTES
NOTES
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a part of speech that connects words, sentences, phrases,
or clauses. The common ones are and, or, and but.
There are three (3) types of conjunctions:
Coordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions
Correlative Conjunctions
Coordinating Conjunctions
The coordinating conjunctions join two or more items of equal
importance. They connect two independent clauses in a sentence or
two equal phrases or clauses. There are seven coordinating conjunctions
and they are all short words of three or more letters. These are easy to
memorize. Just think FANBOYS.
for -- "My uncles do not gamble or smoke, for they are Amish.
and -- "My uncles gamble, and they smoke nonstop.
nor -- "They do not gamble, nor do they smoke."
but -- "They gamble, but they don't smoke.
or -- "Every day they gamble, or they smoke.
yet -- "They gamble, yet they don't smoke."
so -- "He gambled well last night, so he smoked a cigar to celebrate.
Subordinating Conjunctions
Subordinating Conjunctions are conjunctions that join an independent
clause and a dependent clause, and also introduce adverb clauses.
The most common subordinating conjunctions include after, although, as,
as far as, as long as, as soon as, because, before, even if, even though, if,
in order that, since, so that, though, unless, until, when, whenever,
where, whereas, wherever, and while.
Subordinating conjunctions perform two important functions within a
sentence:
They show the importance of the independent clause.
They provide a transition between the independent clause and
the dependent clause - connecting the ideas in the sentence.
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Examples: Keep your hand on the wound until the nurse asks
you to take it off. (the independent clause ends with the
word wound; the dependent clause begins with the
conjunction until and does not stand alone)
Personally I'm always ready to learn, although I dont
always have the patience. (the independent clause ends with
the word learn; the dependent clause begins with
although and does not stand alone)
We can't all be heroes because someone has to cheer
them on. (the independent clause ends with the word
heroes; the dependent clause begins with the word
because and does not stand alone)
As I told you earlier, the lecture has been postponed.
(the independent clause ends with the word postponed;
the dependent clause begins with the word As and does
not stand alone)
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions work in pairs to join words and groups of words
of equal weight in a sentence. There are many different pairs of correlative
conjunctions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
either...or
neither...nor
not only...but (also)
both...and
whether...or
just as...so
Examples:
You either do your work or prepare for a trip to the office.
Not only is he handsome, but he is also brilliant.
Neither the basketball team nor the football team is doing well.
Both the tennis team and the golf team are doing well.
Whether you stay or you go, it's your decision.
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NOTES
NOTES
Interjections
Sometimes people express very strong feelings in a short exclamation that

may not be a complete sentence. These exclamations are called
interjections.
Any part of speech may be used as an interjection. It must show strong
feelings. Here are some of the common interjections:
Aha
Good grief
Wow
Awesome
Hooray
Whew
Gee
Oops
Whoops
Ouch
Hey
Oh, no
Interjections that express a very strong feeling may stand alone, either
before or after a sentence. These interjections are followed by an
exclamation mark.
Such as:
Oh, no! The art museum is closed today.
Wow! Thats a cool car.
Active/Passive Voice
OTES
The verb determines whether a sentence is in active or passive voice.

You should ask the questionIs the action of the verb being performed
by the subject (active); or Is the subject being acted upon by the verb
(passive).
Active Voice When the verb is in the active voice, the subject is always
performing the action of the verb.
Example: Kevin, the teams captain, hit the ball out of the park.
(Kevin is the subject and is performing the action.)
Example: I damaged your bicycle when I hit the wall.
(I is the subject and is performing the action.)
Example: The prison crew paved the entire highway. (Crew is the
subject and is performing the action.)
Passive Voice A verb is in the passive voice when the subject is being
acted upon by the verb.
Example: The wall was painted by the 9th grade students.
(The wall is the subject and is being acted upon by the
paintingthe wall is not doing the painting.)
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Example: The bicycle was damaged by me.
(Bicycle is the subject and is being acted upon- the bicycle is not
doing the damaging.)
Example: The entire highway was paved by the crew.
(Highway is the subject and is being acted upon by the paving
the highway is not doing the paving.)
Using active voice for the majority of your sentences will make your
meaning clearer for readers. Active voice keeps the sentences from
becoming too complicated.
Using passive voice too often can cloud the meaning of your sentences.
Subject/ Verb Agreement

Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate (verb). To find the
subject and verb, always find the verb (action) first. Then ask who or what
performed the verb. The subject is always a noun (or a pronoun).
Example: The cadet passed the physical examination. Passed is the
verb. Who or what passed? The cadet so cadet is the subject.
Example: From the chimney hung the holiday lights. The verb is
hung. Who or what hung? The lights, so lights is the subject. From
the chimney is a prepositional phrase.
The predicate always consists of the verb and words related to it
showing either the action being performed or showing state of being.
Action verbs are easy to find they show action like run, jump, drive.
State-of-being verbs are called linking verbs and are more difficult to
identify. They include all forms of the verb to be, (am, is, are, was,
were, has been, are being, might have been) plus such words as look,
feel, appear, act, go, followed by an adjective.
Examples: They seem friendly.
I am exhausted today.
He appears confident.
Any command, such as Stop! or Walk quickly, has the understood
subject you, because if we ask who is to stop or walk quickly, the
answer must be "you."
Example: (You) Bring me some coffee. Bring is the verb.
Who will bring? The subject you is understood.
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NOTES

A singular subject takes a singular verb, whereas a plural subject takes a
plural verb. The subject and verb MUST agree in number which means
the subject and verb must be either singular or plural.
Examples:
The list of items is/are on the desk. The subject is list not items;
so the verb is singular. The word items is the object of the
preposition of.
The politicians, in the election, is/are expected shortly.
Politicians is the subject and requires a plural verb.
Here are some rules to help you determine the subject of a sentence and
then decide whether the verb should be singular or plural. Dont get
confused by words that come between the subject and the verb.
Rule 1. A subject may come before a prepositional phrase beginning
with of. The prepositional phrase is not associated with the subject.
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses are a nice gift.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses is a nice gift. The subject is
bouquet not roses. Roses is the object of the preposition of.
Rule 2. Two singular subjects connected by either/or, or neither/nor
require a singular verb.
Examples: Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Jim or Casey is helping today with stage props.
Rule 3. Where one subject is singular and one is plural, the verb in an
either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closer
to the verb.
Examples: Neither the cups nor the platter is on that shelf.
Neither the platter nor the cups are on that shelf.
Rule 4. When two or more subjects are connected by the word and,
always use a plural verb.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
The curtain and the drape were short for the window.
Exceptions: When two or more subjects joined by and have a
single meaning, always use a singular verb. Such as,
The Bed and Breakfast has a complimentary lunch.
Macaroni and cheese is the favorite meal of the week.
Breaking and entering is a major crime.
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NOTES

Rule 5. With words that indicate portionsa lot, a majority, some,
all, etc. and are followed by the preposition of, we use the object
of the preposition to determine if the verb should be singular or plural.
Examples: A lot of the salad has disappeared.
A lot of the salads have disappeared.
A third of the union is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
Rule 6. Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums
of money, etc., when considered as a unit.
Examples: Two miles is too far to walk.
Ten years is referred to as a decade.
Fifty dollars is a high price to pay.
Rule 7. Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience,
etc., may take either a singular or a plural verb, depending on their use
in the sentence.
Examples: The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit.
The couple were in disagreement about scolding their child.
The couple refers to two people speaking individually.
Rule 8. The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or a
fantasysomething not real:
Example: If she were Joe, she would make an exception.
Shouldn't she be followed by was, not were, given that she is singular? The
sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express
things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory.
Examples: I wish it were Friday.
If only it were 1995 again, I could dance to the music.
If I were you, I would take the money and run.
In these examples, wishful thoughts--not facts, are being expressed;
therefore, were is used with the singular subjects.
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NOTESNOTES
NOTES
NOTESNOTES
Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement

A pronoun is a part of speech that takes the place of a noun. The
antecedent of the pronoun is the word (or noun) to which the pronoun
refers. The word antecedent means coming before something else. So,
the antecedent will always come before the pronoun. The pronoun will
refer back to the noun.
In the following examples, the antecedent is in bold and the pronoun is
italicized and underlined.
The teacher forgot her book.
Here her is the pronoun, and teacher is the antecedent. Since teacher is a
singular noun we must use the singular pronoun her.
The students were ready with their homework.
Here their is the pronoun, and students is the antecedent.
Patients must see their counselor before the end of each day.
Here their is the pronoun, and patients is the antecedent. Patients is

plural and the pronoun their must also be plural.
Pronouns and antecedents must agree: If the antecedent is singular, the
pronoun should be singular. If the antecedent is plural, the pronoun
should be plural.
Incorrect: The dogs tugged on its leash.
Correct: The dogs tugged on their leashes.
We rarely make the kind of error described above. However, many
agreement problems arise with the singular indefinite nouns
(person, student, individual, soldier, etc.) and indefinite pronouns
(someone, each, anybody, neither). These words are "indefinite" because
they do not definitely refer to males, nor do they definitely refer to
females. Because they are singular, they should be followed by the
singular pronouns "his or her," "his or hers," or "him or her," depending
on context. However, people often mistakenly use plural pronouns such
as they or theirs to refer to indefinite singular antecedents, like this:
Examples:
Everyone has their own locker.

A person can padlock their locker.
These examples are incorrect. Everyone is singular, and it must have a

singular pronoun. Person is also singular and has a singular pronoun.
Correct:
Correct:
Everyone has his or her own locker.

A person can padlock his or her locker.
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Some Other Problematic Pronoun-Antecedent Situations:
1. When antecedents are joined by or or nor the pronoun should agree with
the antecedent closer to it.
Example: Neither the chicks nor their mother would ever leave her nest.
Example: Neither the mother nor her chicks would ever leave their nest.
2. Collective nouns are nouns that refer to groups, such as class, group,
and jury. They take singular or plural pronouns depending on whether they
refer to the group acting together as one unit (singular) or to the members
of the group acting separately (plural).
Example: The jury was unanimous in its verdict. (The jury is acting as a
unit, so we treat jury as singular.)
Example: The jury disagreed in their assessment of the case. (The jury
members are acting individually, so we treat jury as plural.)
3. Indefinite Pronouns:
Four indefinite pronounsboth, few, many, severalare always plural
and are referred to with plural pronouns.
Example: Many are called, but few are chosen.
The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some may be
singular or plural depending on the word to which they refer.
Example: Most of the actors have their own personality. (Most refers
to actors, which is plural.)
Example: All of the money was counted when it changed hands. (All refers
to money, which is singular.)
WHATS WRONG WITH THE FOLLOWING?

"I did not attend the rally, which was very unpatriotic.
Last year, a wart appeared on my right foot, and I wanted it removed.
When Jims son was a year old, he decided to get married again.
Cathy was surprised she had been voted president by her classmates who
never had much self-confidence.
Lizzy told her mother that her sweater had a hole in it.
When Alexander drove the car through the garage door, he damaged it.
Although the motorcycle hit the tree, it was not damaged.
P a g e 18
NOTES

Punctuation
NOTESNOTES
An English professor wrote these words on the white board,

A woman without her man is nothing.
He asked his students to punctuate it correctly.
All of the males in the class wrote,
A woman, without her man, is nothing.
All the females in the class wrote,
A woman: without her, man is nothing.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
We will cover the major punctuation rules needed in the workplace today:
Commas:
Commas are the most frequently used punctuation marks. Commas
customarily indicate a brief pause; they are not as final as a period. Here
are some basic rules for using commas:
Rule 1. Use commas to separate words in a series of three or more items.
Example: My estate goes to my husband, son, daughter-in-law,
and nephew.
Note: The last comma in a series is sometimes optional if it
comes before and or or as shown above. Other times the last
comma is necessary in order to clarify the meaning intended.
Rule 2. Many inexperienced writers run two independent clauses
together by using a comma instead of a period. This results in
the dreaded run-on sentence.
Incorrect: He walked all the way home, he shut the door.
Correct: He walked all the way home, and he shut the door.
Rule 3. Use a comma after certain words that introduce a sentence,
such as well, yes, why, hello, hey, etc.
Examples: Why, I can't believe this!
Hey, you cannot enter through those doors!
Rule 4. Use commas to set off expressions that interrupt the sentence
flow. (after all, by the way, on the other hand, however, etc.)
Example: I am, by the way, very nervous about this.
P a g e 19

Rule 5. Use a comma to separate the day of the month from the year,
And - what most people forget - put one after the year, also.
Example: It was in The Suns June 5, 2003, edition.
No comma is necessary for just the month and year.
Example: It was in the Tribunes June 2003 article.
Rule 6. Use a comma to separate a city from its state, and remember to
put one after the state, also.
Example: I'm from the Akron, Ohio, area.
Rule 7. Use commas to enclose degrees or titles used with names.
Example: Al Mooney, M.D., is here.
Rule 8. When starting a sentence with a dependent clause, use a
comma after it.
Example: If you are not sure about this, let me know now.
Rule 9. Use commas to set off nonessential words, clauses, and
phrases that can be left out of the sentence.
Incorrect: Jill who is my sister shut the door.
Correct: Jill, who is my sister, shut the door.
Incorrect: The man knowing it was late hurried home.
Correct: The man, knowing it was late, hurried home.
Rule 10. Use commas to introduce or interrupt direct quotations.
Examples: He said, "I don't care." "Why," I asked, "don't you care?"
Rule 11. Use a comma to separate a statement from a question.
Example: I can go, can't I?
Rule 12. Use a comma before and after certain introductory words
or terms, such as namely, that is, i.e., e.g., and for instance,
when they are followed by a series of items.
Example: You may be required to bring many items, e.g.,
sleeping bags, pans, and warm clothing.
Rule 13. Commas should precede the term etc. and enclose it if it is
placed midsentence.
Example: Sleeping bags, warm socks, pillows, etc., are in the tent.
P a g e 20
NOTES
NOTES
Semicolons:
It's no accident that a semicolon is a period on top of a comma. Like
commas, semicolons indicate an audible pauseslightly longer than a
comma and slightly shorter than a period's full stop. Four rules follow:
Rule 1. A semicolon can replace a period if the writer wishes to narrow
the gap between two closely linked sentences.
Examples: Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.
We have paid our dues; we expect all the privileges
listed in the contract.
Rule 2. Use a semicolon before such words and terms as namely,
however, therefore, that is, i.e., for example, e.g., for
instance, etc., when they introduce a complete sentence. It is
also preferable to use a comma after these words and terms.
Example: Bring any two items; however, sleeping bags and
tents are in short supply.
Rule 3. Use a semicolon to separate units of a series when one or more
of the units contain commas.
Incorrect: The conference has people from Boise, Idaho, Los Angeles,
California, Memphis, Tennessee, and other places as well.
Note: with only commas, the sentence is hopeless. It mixes up cities
and states.
Correct: The conference has people from Boise, Idaho; Los Angeles,
California; Memphis, Tennessee; and other places as well.
Rule 4. A semicolon may be used between independent clauses joined
by a conjunction, such as and, but, or, nor, etc. When the
semicolon is used, the conjunction is omitted.
Example: When I finish my job here, I'll be glad to help you; I do
not expect anything in return.
P a g e 21
NOTES
Quotation Marks:
The rules set forth in this section are customary in the United States.
Great Britain and other countries use different rules for quotation marks.
Rule 1. Use double quotation marks to set off a word-for-word quotation.
Example: "When will you be here?" he asked.
Rule 2. Either quotation marks (or italics) are customary for titles of
magazines, books, plays, films, songs, poems, article titles,
chapter titles, etc.
Rule 3. Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.
Example: He said, "Dan cried, 'Do not treat me that way.' "
Rule 4. Quotation marks are often used with technical terms, or other
expressions that vary from standard usage.
Examples: It's an oil-extraction method known as "fracking."
Capitalization:
Capitalize proper nouns, names, cities, states, countries,
companies, days-of-the-week.
Races (white and black in reference to race are lower case)
Colleges, universities, planets, streets , roads
Languages
Religions and deities
The Bible is capitalized; biblical is not.
Do not capitalize; heaven, hell, the devil, an angel, satanic,
elements, foods, medical conditions, animals, the moon,
the sun, plants, vegetables and fruits, seasons, daylight saving
time, solstice.
Capitalize God and Satan
Capitalize geographical regions. Most of the West Coast is rainy
this time of year.
Do not capitalize points on the compass. The west coast of
California is experiencing drought.
Government: Congress is capitalized; congressional is not.
U.S. Constitution is capitalized; constitutional is not.
State and federal agencies are capitalized.
P a g e 22
NOTES
Sentence Formation
Sentences may be classified according to the purpose of the speaker or
writer. In the English language there are four types of sentences used in
speaking and writing. The four sentence types are as follows:
Declarative Sentences
Imperative Sentences
Interrogative Sentences
Exclamatory Sentences
Declarative Sentences
The most common sentence type in the English language is the declarative
sentence. Declarative sentences are used when you want to make a
statement or declare somethingthey are the everyday, all around, plain
sentences. The sole purpose of a declarative sentence is to give
information. And if youd like to see examples of declarative sentences,
you dont need to look any further. Every sentence in this paragraph is a
declarative sentence.
In a business situation, youll find most of your writing will contain
declarative sentences. If the purpose of your work is to give
information with statements of facts, or to state an idea, or to argue a
point, declarative sentences will do the job. They simply relay information.
They are not designed to elicit a response. Practically all of your
reports can be made almost entirely of this sentence type.
Examples of Declarative Sentences:
The presentation begins in two hours.

Memorial Day is a national holiday.
The vice-president will visit Egypt next week.
Necessity is the mother of invention.
Declarative sentences are usually formed with the subject presented first
and the verb following.
Imperative Sentences
An imperative sentence gives a command or expresses a request. It is
punctuated with a period or an exclamation mark depending on the strength
of emotion you want to express. The subject of this type of sentence is
you understood.
P a g e 23
NOTES
Examples of Imperative Sentences:
Stop!
Respond immediately.
Drop what youre doing and come celebrate with us.
Get out of my way.
Tell the truth, the whole truth, nothing but the truth.
Dont be difficult; join in the fun by going first.
Though it may be considered more polite to use the word please in

imperative sentences, its not necessary.
You wont see imperative sentences as frequently as declarative sentences.
You may see them when youre on the highway driving past billboards or
stuck in bumper-to-bumper traffic. Thats because imperative sentences
are often used as catchy slogans for ads and bumper stickers.
In advertising copy you will use imperative sentences like: Come on
down and get 50% off all items.
Have you ever seen these imperative sentences before?
Honk if you like my driving.
Dont worry, be happy.
Just do it.
Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative sentences are also easy to spot. An interrogative sentence is
one that asks a direct question and always ends in a question mark.
Examples of Interrogative Sentences:
You like Mexican food, dont you?
Is it snowing?
Do you want Coke or Pepsi?
What is your favorite color?
Notice that the interrogatives may require a simple yes/no response or are
more open ended. Each ends in a question mark.
A statement with an indirect question is a declarative sentence and not
an interrogative sentence. For example:
I wonder if I'll ever find my torch.
Sarah asked whether anybody had seen her torch.
These are declarative sentences. They are statements not questions.
P a g e 24
NOTES
NOTES
Some sentences are questions that do not expect a response. They are
called rhetorical questions and are intended to make a point. "Can't you
do anything right?" This question, when posed, is insinuating that the
person lacks the ability to do things correctly! Its sarcastic. No response
is expected.
Another example is: You don't expect me to go along with that crazy
scheme, do you? Here another point is being made in a sarcastic way.
A common way to use a rhetorical question is using humor to get
confirmation about a truth. You may ask someone to agree with a
previous point by saying, Is the sky blue? or Is the Pope Catholic?
These do not expect any response but have made a good point.
Exclamatory Sentences
Add some pizazz to your writing with exclamatory sentences. They
express some type of emotion. And how exactly do you express a strong
emotion? Its easy. Just write a declarative sentence, fill it with lots of
emotion, and use this punctuation mark (!). Voila!
Exclamatory sentences express strong emotion. Exclamatory sentences
always end in an exclamation mark, so its easy to spot them. Use
exclamatory sentences to show emotion but take care not to use them too
often. Your writing may appear to be insincere.
Examples of Exclamatory Sentences:
The river is rising!
I cant wait for the party!
Our team won the championship!
I simply adore you!
This is the best day of my life! I just won the lottery!
P a g e 25
NOTES
Sentence Classifications
The kind of sentence you write depends on how many clauses it contains as
well as what relationships the clauses bear to each other. There are four
basic sentence classifications or kinds of sentences:
Simple Sentences
Compound Sentences
Complex Sentences
Compound-complex Sentences
There are two types of clauses: independent and dependent. Independent

clauses can be considered complete sentences because they have a subject
and verb and express a complete thought. Dependent clauses, in contrast,
cannot stand alone because they do not express a complete thoughteven
though they may have a subject and a verb. Independent and dependent
clauses can be used in a number of ways to form the four basic types of
sentences.
Simple Sentence:
A simple sentence has one independent clause. A simple sentence does not
have to be short. It can contain modifying adjectives and adverbs and it may
contain prepositional phrases. There are degrees of simplicity.
Examples: I am an invisible man. (Subject is I; verb is am.)
Fred walked slowly down the hall. (Subject is
Fred; verb is walked.)
Simple sentences have one subject and one verb although the subject
can be compound or the verb can be compound (or both).
Howard Stern and Bill Handel host talk radio shows.
(Compound subject is Howard Stern and Bill Handel and the
single verb is host.)
Robert toasts and butters his bagel.
(Single subject is Robert and compound verb is toasts and
butters.)
P a g e 26
Simple sentences can have long phrases that make them appear not so
simple:
Example: During the second week of the workshop, the sculptor
made the statute with clay from the pottery class.
(In this simple sentence the subject is sculptor and
the verb is made.) (During the second week is a
prepositional phrase; with clay is a prepositional
phrase, from the pottery class is a prepositional phrase.)
Compound Sentence:
A compound sentence has at least two independent clauses. These
independent clauses can stand alone as simple sentences. They are joined
by a coordinating conjunction.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions, and they are all short words
of only two or three letters: and, or, nor, for, but, so, and yet. These are
easy to remember. Just think of the 7-letter word FANBOYS.
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Coordinating conjunctions are the simplest of all the conjunctions to
recognize and master; knowing how they work will improve your writing.
Coordinating conjunctions always come between the two independent
clauses that they join. It is always correct to place a comma before the
coordinating conjunction. Like a simple sentence, a compound sentence
cannot have any subordinate clauses.
Examples:
The soccer in the park is exciting in winter, (independent clause),
and it is even better in the heat of summer (independent clause).
(Because these are two independent clauses, they must be joined
by a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Each independent clause
stands alone as a simple sentence. When we join two or more of these
independent clauses, we must use one of the seven coordinating
conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.
P a g e 27
NOTES

Joseph wants to play for USC, but he favors UCLA.
(These are two independent clauses joined by the coordinating
conjunction but and separated by a comma. These clauses can be two
simple sentences.) They form a compound sentence.
Mushrooms grow in damp places, so they resemble little
umbrellas.
conjunction so and separated by a comma. These clauses can be two
simple sentences.) They form a compound sentence.
There was no ice cream in the freezer, nor did they have money to
go to the store.
conjunction nor and separated by a comma. These clauses can be
two simple sentences.) They form a compound sentence.
Cats are good pets, for they are clean and quiet.
conjunction for and separated by a comma. These clauses can be
I am counting my calories, yet I really want dessert.
conjunction yet and separated by a comma. These clauses can be
Another way to join two independent clauses:
In a compound sentence, the two independent clauses may be joined
by a semicolon. When you use a semicolon, you omit the conjunction.
A semicolon can be used between two closely related independent clauses,
provided they are not already joined by a conjunction.
Examples of two independent clauses joined by a semicolon:
I am happy to take your donation; any amount is appreciated.
Malls are great places to shop; I can find everything under one roof.
P a g e 28
NOTES
NOTES
NOTES
Complex Sentence:
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one
dependent (or subordinate) clause. The independent clause is called the
main clause. The other clause is called the dependent or subordinating
clause. Dependent clauses play a grammatical role in the overall sentence:
they can have a subject, direct object, etc., but they do not make a
complete thought.
Complex sentences use subordinating conjunctions to link the clauses
together. The most common are: as, because, until, though and after.
Others follow:
After
How
If
Although
In order that
Unless
When
Until
While
As much as Wherever
As though
As soon as Before
Whenever
Since
Now that
Where
So that
Provided (that) Than
Note: Of the three kinds of conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating,

and correlative, the most difficult to recognize is the subordinating
conjunction. The subordinating conjunction always introduces a
dependent or subordinate clause.
Notice how the subordinating conjunctions in these examples are used
to tie the dependent/subordinating clause to the independent one.
If it is raining, Im staying at home.
Jill came tumbling down after Jack had fallen.
Keep your hand down until the teacher asks you to raise it.
Ill never be the same since I fell for you.
Although Ive been here before, I dont remember much of it.
While we ate dinner, we talked about music and movies.
When I see you smile, my world is a happier place.
Notice that the subordinating clause cannot stand alone; but the
independent clause stands alone as a complete simple sentence.
Also notice that when a dependent or subordinating clause begins a
sentence, there is a comma between the two, indicating the beginning of
the main clause.
P a g e 29
NOTES
NOTES
Compound-Complex Sentence:
A compound-complex sentence is made up of a compound sentence and a
complex sentence. The compound part means the sentence must have
two or more independent clauses joined by one of the seven FANBOYS
coordinating conjunctions. And the complex part means that the
sentence must have at least one subordinating clause.
Examples:
1. John went to school, but James remained at home because he
had a sore throat.
(This sentence contains two independent clauses, i.e., John went
to school, and James remained at home; and it also has a
subordinate clause, because he had a sore throat, which makes it
both a compound and a complex sentence.
2. When the heat comes, the lakes dry up, and farmers know the
crops will die.
(This sentence contains two independent clauses, i.e., the lakes
dry up, and farmers know the crops will die; and it also has a
subordinate clause, When the heat comes, which makes it both a
compound and a complex sentence.
3. I planned to drive to work, but I couldnt until the mechanic
repaired my car.
(This sentence contains two independent clauses, i.e., I planned to
drive to work, and I couldnt; and it also has a subordinate
clause, until the mechanic repaired my car, which makes it both a
compound and a complex sentence.
4. Even though I lacked the basics, I took the entrance exam,
and I passed with flying colors.
(This sentence includes two independent clauses joined by the
coordinating conjunction and as well as a subordinate clause
beginning with Even though.)
Your choice of sentences depends on your audience. If your readers are
engineers you would use technical language; if you do not know about
your readers, use simple sentences and short words.
The rhythm and pacing of your writing is determined by your sentences.
Always consider your purpose for writing before you select sentence
types.
P a g e 30
NOTES
Sentence Fragments
A sentence fragment is not a complete sentence. Remember, in
order to have a complete sentence (independent clause), you must
have a subject and a verb. A fragment lacks either a subject or a verb, or
both, or contains only a dependent clause.
Examples: Three dogs and a goat (no verb)
Studying too hard on weekends (no subject)
During the war and just before the ceasefire (no subject/verb)
The fragments that most students have trouble with are dependent clauses.
They have a subject and a verb, so they look like complete sentences, but
they dont express a complete thought. They are called dependent or
subordinate because they cant stand on their own.
Look at these dependent clauses. They are clearly in need of more
information to make their thoughts complete:
Because his car was in the shop (How does this relate?)
When you finally take the test (What will happen?)
Since you asked (Will you get the answer?)
Do these examples all have subjects? Yes. Do they all have a verb? Yes.
So, what makes them incomplete? Its the first word in the fragment that
makes it incomplete. They are subordinate or dependent conjunctions:
After
How
If
Although
In order that Unless
Where
When
Until
Than
While
So that
As much as Wherever
As though Now that
As soon as Before
Whenever Since
These subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent (or subordinate)

clauses that cannot stand alone. They rely on an independent clause in
order to become complete. Fragments will be 100% eliminated if you look
for the subordinating conjunction. Here are three more examples:
1. Even though he had a better argument and was a better speaker.
This sentence fragment has a subject, he, and two verbs, had and was, but it
cant stand alone because of the dependent conjunction Even though. We
need an independent clause to complete this fragment. Such as,
Even though he had a better argument and was a better speaker, he lost
the case because he didnt understand the jury.
P a g e 31

2. Unless you have the magic touch and courage to make an attempt.
This sentence fragment has a subject, you, and a verb, have, but it cannot
stand by itself because of the subordinating conjunction Unless. We need
an independent clause to complete this fragment. Such as,
Unless you have the magic touch and courage to make an attempt, you
will be unsuccessful in cracking the code.
3. Whenever the team played at the home stadium in Anaheim.
This sentence fragment has a subject, team, and a verb, played, but it
cannot stand alone because of the subordinating conjunction Whenever.
We need an independent clause to complete this fragment. Such as,
Whenever the team played at the home stadium in Anaheim, there was
always a sell-out crowd.
Run-on Sentences
A run-on sentence is a grammatically incorrect sentence in which two or
more main or independent clauses (complete sentences) are joined
without a word to connect them or a punctuation mark to separate them.
They are squished together and are grammatically incorrect.
Example:
It is nearly dusk we cannot reach town before dinner.
(There are two independent clauses that can each stand alone. Squishing
them together will result in a run-on sentence. Correct this by adding a
conjunction between the two independent clauses, making them separate
sentences, or by adding a semicolon.)
It is nearly dusk, and we cannot reach town before dinner.
It is nearly dusk. We cannot reach town before dinner.
It is nearly dusk; we cannot reach town before dinner.
Remember that the length of a sentence does not determine whether it is a
run-on sentence. A sentence that is correctly punctuated and correctly
joined can be extremely long. A 200-word sentence can be structurally
correct.
Run-on sentences occur often in business writing. Writers forget to take a
pause or are afraid to use short, simple sentences with periods. The focus
should always be on making your point understood and not on how long
your sentences are.
P a g e 32
NOTES

Here are two more examples of sentences that lack proper punctuation and
run two independent clauses into one sentence making it a run-on.
1. This computer doesnt make sense to me it came without a manual.
(There are two independent clauses that can each stand alone and are run
together. Correct this by either adding a conjunction between the two
clauses, making them separate sentences, or by adding a semicolon.)
This computer doesnt make sense to me, and it came without a manual.
This computer doesnt make sense to me. It came without a manual.
This computer doesnt make sense to me; it came without a manual.
2. The fog was thick he could not find his way back home.
(Correct this by either adding a conjunction between the two clauses,
making them separate sentences, or by adding a semicolon.)
The fog was thick, and he could not find his way back home.
The fog was thick. He could not find his way back home.
The fog was thick; he could not find his way back home.
A run-on sentence also results from poor sentence construction and
overusing phrases and clauses in no particular order.
Example:
In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the
necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done, so with this end in
mind a staff meeting, which all group managers are expected to attend, is
scheduled for February 12.
NOTE: Writing the previous run-on sentence with several shorter
sentences is more effective.
In the event that we get the contract, we must be ready by June 1 with the
necessary personnel and equipment to get the job done. So, with this end in
mind a staff meeting is scheduled for February 12. All group managers
are expected to attend this meeting.
P a g e 33
NOTES
NOTES
Proofreaders Marks
Whether you are writing a magazine article, a college essay or an email to a
client, getting your text free of mistakes is essential. The spell checker
helps, but it is far from foolproof. That is where proofreading comes in.
Below you will find a few tips and techniques to make your proofreading
sessions more effective.
1. Concentration is Key
If youre going to spot mistakes, then you need to concentrate. That means
getting rid of distractions and potential interruptions. Switch off the cell
phone, turn off the television or radio and stay away from the email.
2. Put It on Paper
People read differently on screen and on paper, so you should print out a
copy of your writing. Put a ruler under each line as you read the text. This
stops your eye from jumping ahead to the next line.
3. Watch Out for Homonyms
Homonyms are words that share the same spelling or pronunciation, but
have different meanings.
Switching accept with except or complement with compliment could be
disastrous, so pay attention to them.
4. Watch Out for Contractions and Apostrophes
People often mix their and theyre, its and its, your and youre and so on. If
there is something that can hurt the credibility of your text, it is a similar
mistake. Also, remember that the apostrophe is never used to form plurals.
5. Check the Punctuation
Focusing on the words is good, but do not neglect the punctuation. Pay
attention to capitalized words, missing or extra commas, periods used
incorrectly and so on. Do not edit the material only correct mistakes that
are clearly mistakes.
6. Read it Backwards
When writing we usually become blind to our own mistakes since the brain
automatically corrects wrong words inside sentences. In order to break
this pattern you can read the text backwards, word by word.
P a g e 34
NOTES
7. Check the Numbers and Facts

Stating that the value of an acquisition was $10,000 instead of $100,000 is
definitely not the same thing. What about the population of China, is it 1.2
million or 1.2 billion? Pay close attention to names, people, places, books,
movies, addresses, titles, and dates. A common mistake is to mismatch
days with dates. Example: saying Monday, October 5, when in fact it is
Tuesday, October 5.
8. Get Someone Else to Proofread It
After checking all the previous points, do not forget to have a co-worker
proofread it for you. You will be amazed at the mistakes youve missed. A
second person will also be in a better position to evaluate whether the
sentences make sense or not.
9. Check Format Last
Every document has format, even an email, whether its paragraph spacing,
text wrap, indentations, spaces above and below a bullet list or between
subheadings and text, etc. Leave this for the end because contents may
shift during proofreading and format may change.
10. Let Some Time Pass
After printing out your material, take a break before proofreading. This is
great way to look at your work with fresh eyes. Even if its only 30
minutes, it gives us some time to look at our work more objectively..
11. Who, What, When, Where, and Why
Much of our writing includes invitations and/or information about future
events. Remember to ask yourself if you covered the five Ws Who is
the event for, What is the event, When does it happen, Where does it
take place, and Why is it happening.
P a g e 35
P a g e 36

Selecting the Right Word
NOTESNOTES
One big problem with language today is that the way we speak is quite
different from the way we write.
In speaking we often run words together which are unnoticed, such as
would of, could of, should of, and then when we try to write, we end up
using these same words. What we really mean is could have, would have
and should have.
The following are examples of commonly misused words:
affect or effect - Affect is a verb meaning to influence.

Effect is a noun meaning the result of.
Carpooling can affect the environment positively.
Vitamins can have an instant effect on your mood.
ensure or insure -Ensure is a verb to make certain.
Insure is a verb to purchase insurance.
It is the responsibility of the agents to read,
understand and ensure/insure that they understand
the policy.
compliment or complement - Compliment is a verb to give praise or
give a flattering remark.
Compliment is an adjective meaning free.
Complement is a verb meaning to complete
something or match it well.
He flattered her with compliments about her style.
The brunch includes a complimentary glass of wine.
Her shoes and purse complement her entire outfit.
farther or further Farther is an adverb referring to a greater distance.
Further is an adverb meaning additional or more.
We need to have further discussion on this.
From L.A., Reno is farther away than Las Vegas.
fewer or less Fewer means a smaller number and is used only with
countable numbers, i.e., I have fewer ideas than you.
There are fewer books on the shelf today.
Less is used with uncountable nouns that are abstract,
such as money, debt, snow, belief, etc., i.e., She has less
debt than her brother. We had less snow this year.
P a g e 37

lose or loose Lose is a verb to fail to win. He will surely lose the bet.
Loose is an adjective meaning free from anything that
restrains it, i.e., Your shoelaces are loose.
principal or principle:
principal is a noun and has three meanings:
1) it means main or most important such as,
The principal goal of the project is to reduce youth crime.
The train is intended to ease congestion between the
states two principal cities.
2) it names a person of authority such as,
As the principal of a small school, I know education law.

All the principals in the cast delivered vivid performances.
3) it can also refer to a sum of money lent or invested, on
which interest is paid, such as,
She was assured that there would be no risk to her principal.
In the first years you pay back your loan, the majority
of the payment goes towards interest rather than principal.
principle is a noun meaning a fundamental idea or rule that is
used as a basis for a system of belief.
It is a basic principle of criminal law that we are innocent
until proven guilty.
The school offers students coursework in the fundamental
principles of accounting.
This idea has been the guiding principle of Three Strikes.
I do not intend to ban anyone because its against my

moral principles.
He declined, on principle, to act as the repo man.
regardless or irregardless - regardless is an adjective or adverb
meaning in spite of. Irregardless is not a
word but many people misuse it.
Regardless of the circumstances, she won
the cash prize.
P a g e 38
NOTESNOTES

their, there, or theyre Their is a pronoun which shows possession.
There is an adverb meaning a place.
Theyre is a contraction meaning they are.
After searching for days, we found their canoes.
Place your jackets there in the closet.
Theyre willing to volunteer their time.
your or youre Your is a pronoun meaning belonging to you.

Youre is a contraction of you are.
We found your dream house!
Youre going to be very happy in that house.
capital or capitol Capital refers to a city that is the seat of government

in a state. It also refers to wealth or resources.
Capitol refers to the building where lawmakers meet.
Boise is the capital of Idaho.
We need lots of capital to develop the arena.
The capitol building is in need of repairs.
who or that Who refers to people.

That refers to things, a group, or a class of people.
He is the man who (not that) trained the animals.

It was the cotton machine that became famous.
a lot or alot A lot means many.

Alot is a misspelling of a lot.
It means a lot to me that you are attending the event.
all right or alright All right is correct.
Alright is a common misspelling.
It is all right to voice your opinion at the town hall.
cite or site Cite means to make reference to or to quote. Its from the
word citation.
Site is a piece of land on which something is located.
He was cited for his outstanding achievements
A good site for the school is at the corner.
P a g e 39
NOTES

figuratively or literally Figuratively means hypothetically.
Literally means actually.
Figuratively speaking, they are still in the same boat.
People can literally drown in their own body fluids.

hanged or hung Hanged is the past tense of hang and refers to
someone who is executed.
Hung means to suspend from above with no support.
The man sentenced to die on Monday has been
found hanged in his cell.
For many years, the painting hung in the
museum lobby for all to see
i.e. or e.g. -- i.e. is an abbreviation of a Latin phrase id est, meaning
that is. or in other words. e.g. is the abbreviation of a
Latin phrase exempligratia, meaning for example.
After work I walk to the Thunderdome, i.e., the new sports
arena on the west side.
I love holiday-related beverages, e.g., hot chocolate, apple
cider, etc.
past or passed - Past refers to time gone by.
Passed is the past tense of the verb pass.
This past year has been difficult for my family.
The birds flew passed her, and they were flapping wildly.
advice or advise - Advice is a noun referring to guidance and
assistance given.
Advise is a verb meaning recommend or instruct.
The advice I received from attorney saved my project.
My attorney advised me to take the offer.
Problem Phrases:
Supposed to: Do not omit the d. The correct phrase is supposed to.
Used to: Do not omit the d. The correct phrase is used to.
Toward: There is no s at the end of this word.
Anyway: There is no s at the end of this word.
Couldnt care less: Be sure to make it negative by saying
couldnt. Do not say I could care less.
For intents and purposes: Do not say intensive purposes
P a g e 40
NOTES

Business Correspondence vs. Informal Writing and Formats
Parts of a Business Letter
We are often required to write business letters either at work or for

personal reasons. At work we use company letterhead and usually follow
the company format. Here are the basic components to a business letter:
1. The Heading of the Sender with Address - This is the company
letterhead which bears the address, phone, website, etc. Personal letters
would include sender name, address, phone, and email centered at the top.
2. Date - Date of writing. The month should be spelled out and the year
written with all four digits October 12, 2014. Line up at the left margin.
3. The Inside Address - Include the recipient's name, company, address.
city, state and postal code. Double check that you have the correct
spelling of the recipients name. Line up at the left margin about four or
five lines below the date.
4. The Salutation - Also called the greeting. It normally begins with the
word "Dear" and usually includes the person's last name. Use every
resource possible to address your letter to an actual person. If you do not
know the name or the gender of your receiver, then use Dear Madam/Sir.
The salutation ends with a colon (if its a very personal friend then it may
end with a comma.)
5. The Subject Line (optional) - It helps the recipient in dealing
successfully with the aims of your letter. Subject line may be emphasized
by underlining, using bold font, capitalizing all letters. It is usually placed
one line below the greeting.
6. The Body Paragraphs - The body is where you explain why youre
writing. Its the main part of the letter and includes at least three or
paragraphs. Make sure the receiver knows who you are and why you are
writing but avoid starting with "I". Use a new paragraph when you
introduce a new idea into your letter. Skip a line between paragraphs.
7. The Complimentary Close - This short, polite closing always ends
with a comma. It is commonplace to use Sincerely yours, or Cordially
yours, and note that the second word of the closing is NOT capitalized.
8. Signature and Writers identification - The signature is the last part
of the letter. You should sign your first and last names unless you
personally know the reader and chose to use only your first name. The
signature line may include a second line for a title, if appropriate.
9. Enclosures, Copies - If you include other material in the letter, put
'Enclosure' or Enc. as appropriate, two lines below the last entry.
cc means a copy or copies are sent to someone else.
P a g e 41
NOTES
NOTES
Style and Format:
Most organizations have their own style and format. The most common
layout is call Block Format. The entire letter is justified to the left and
single spaced, except between paragraphs.
LETTERHEAD OR HEADING (centered)
DATE
INSIDE ADDRESS
SALUTATION/GREETING
RE: OR SUBJECT (OPTIONAL)
BODY (3 PARAGRAPHS MINIMUM)
COMPLEMENTARY CLOSE
SIGNATURE (complimentary closing)
ENCLOSURES
Internal Announcements/Interoffice Memos

An interoffice memo is a document that is used as a communications tool
between the employees and employer and can be written by anyone. It is
widely used to circulate important information within an organization. It is
just like a business letter except that it is used only internally, whereas a
business letter is used for outside communications.
Interoffice memos are used daily for the following purposes:
Respond to routine requests

Make announcements
Revise policies and procedures
Schedule meetings and provide agendas
Announce special events
Distribute problem fixes
Today, interoffice memos are sent via emails. Standard format follows:
To:
(Recipients who must be notified)
cc:
(Anyone who should be copied)
From:
(Senders email)
Date:
(Date the communication is sent)
Subject:
(Purpose of the memo. Try to keep to 5 words)
P a g e 42
NOTES
Composing Your Message
Your email/memo should begin with a sentence that ties to why you are
writing. If you previously had a phone conversation and you were following
up, you might say, It was good talking with you yesterday. I am happy to
hear everything is going smoothly. As we discussed, we are sending the
information you requested about the camera you purchased.
In the first paragraph never begin your memo or letter with the word I.
Its okay to use I once you have opened the letter or memo, but not the
first word. Always start with you if possible or another phrase to get the
memo opened. The second sentence can include the I word. The first
paragraph is considered an introductory paragraph or sentence and will not
include the message.
In the second paragraph you start your message, which may take a few
paragraphs. When you start your message, put yourself in the readers
shoes and provide the sort of info that you would like to receive. If the
receiver is unaware of the topic or issue you are relaying, make an effort to
educate him/her about what took place to bring you to the present time.
One technique used to help reduce a lengthy memo, is to use bullets or
numbers. This way you can bullet-point ideas, items, phrases, etc. This
breaks up a long paragraph which is tedious to read. It is more appealing to
the reader to see bulleted items than single-spaced paragraphs.
Keep your paragraphs as short as possible. Move to the next paragraph
when you are bringing up another topic, thought, idea, etc.
Make sure the body of the memo is no more than one page; otherwise your
message may be more suitable as a short report.
Use action words and active voice. There are lots of action words that are
commonly used in the business world and the use of such words can make
your memo more understandable. Try to use simple words instead of $10
words that not many readers will understand.
After completing your email memo, proofread it to eliminate any spelling
errors or grammar errors.
P a g e 43

Business Proposals
NOTES
Format is not the only consideration when creating and submitting a

business proposal. Presenting high quality ideas is essential. It's also
important to include the right types of information and to ensure it is wellwritten. Proofread for content, clarity, grammar and spelling before
finalizing your proposal and submitting to the final recipient.
Business proposals typically include the following information:
Name of company and/or individual submitting proposal

Date of submission
Executive Summary
Statement of circumstances under which proposal is being submitted
(i.e., in response to a request or as a follow-up to a meeting)
Description of products or services offered
Charts and graphs as appropriate
Time frame for delivery
Information about limitations or exclusions
Detailed pricing information
Procedure for requesting additional information
Deadline for response (if applicable)
Executive Summary Format

Your executive summary is your pitch. Youve heard of an elevator
speech. Write your business executive summary like its an elevator speech
that youve had the time to edit to perfection. It should introduce you, your
business, and your product, but the purpose of writing an executive summary
is also to deliver a hard sell. Convince your reader here that you have a great
idea they should invest their time and money in.
Write it last. Even though the executive summary is at the beginning of a
finished proposal, many experienced entrepreneurs choose to write the
executive summary after theyve written everything else. Ideally the executive
summary is shortjust a pageand highlights the points youve made in
your proposal, so if you save it for the end, it will be quick and easy.
The first paragraph of your executive summary should generally include your
businesss name, its location, what product or service you sell, and the
purpose of proposal. The one-page summary should provide an overview of
your proposal. The reason we make the Executive Summary only one page is
because it is generally the only document the recipient will read! So make
sure it includes everything you want the recipient to know!
P a g e 44

How to Compose Effective Emails
NOTES
Some professionals get scores of emails a day. It is difficult to answer them

all in a timely manner, but in order to maintain a professional image for our
company, we must answer our emails.
Follow these email etiquette tips to help you write effective emails and get
your recipients to respond accordingly.
1. Write a meaningful subject line (keep to five words or less).
2. Keep the message focusedstick to the subject in the subject line.
3. Avoid attachments when possiblepeople dont like opening them.
4. Identify yourself clearly.
5. Be kind dont shout with capital letters.
6. Proofread.
7. Dont assume privacyemails can go viral.
8. Distinguish between formal and informal situations.
9. Respond promptly.
10. Show respect and restraint.
1. Write a meaningful subject line.
Before you hit send, take a moment to write a subject line that accurately
describes the content, giving your reader a good reason to open the message.
Email is different from text messaging. In a text message conversation, two
parties expect to engage in multiple, rapid back-and-forth exchanges. But
email is part of most peoples work routine. Most professionals who get 50
or 200 emails a day do not want to engage in a leisurely back-and-forth;
they want to clear out their inbox and move on to their next task.
Remember your message is not the only one in your recipients mailbox.
A clear subject line will help the reader to decide that your email is worthy.
2. Keep the message focused.
Why are you writing? Are you responding to a request? Explain in the first
sentence/paragraph why you are writing. Do not begin with the word I
at least not in the very first sentence. Remember, its not all about you its
about the recipient!
3. Avoid attachments
When possible try to avoid attachments and instead include within the bod
of the email. People dont like opening attachments.
4. Identify yourself clearly
If this is a first email, make sure you introduce yourself clearly and explain
how you were given the persons contact information.
P a g e 45

5. Be kind dont shout with capital letters.
NOTES
6. Proofread we have said plenty on this subject.

7. Dont assume privacy
Know that emails get shared knowingly and unknowingly.
8. Distinguish between formal and informal situations
If the email is work-related, try to keep it professional. You are
representing your employer in every email you send.
9. Respond promptly
10. Show respect and restraint you are representing your employer!
Bad News Messages

Communicating negative news is a fact of life for all staff members. From
rejecting job applicants, telling customers that orders are late, turning down
personal time off, etc., bad news responses are routine tasks in the
workplace. Bad news messages are challenging to write because we know
our readers will not be happy when receiving them. These messages say
"no" to the reader:
No, you will not get your sick time.
No, you aren't being hired.
No, you didn't get the promotion.
No, you may not take vacation in August.
No, I can't give a donation.
No.
So how do we give bad news without destroying our work relationship?
When you must deliver bad news, you should focus on three goals:
1. gaining acceptance for the bad news
2. maintaining as much goodwill as possible
3. maintaining a good image for the organization
A bad news message begins with a neutral or positive statement known as a
buffer before introducing the negative information.
It is much worse to receive bad news through the written word than by
somebody simply telling you. When somebody tells you bad news, you
hear it once, and thats the end of it. But when bad news is written down,
each time you read it, you feel as if you are receiving the bad news again
and again.
P a g e 46

The body of a bad-news message should follow this style:
The first paragraph provides a buffer to cushion the bad news to follow.
This buffer is in the form of a positive statement. You can make a positive
statement about previous work together, about the recipients work, etc.
The second paragraph will deliver the bad news in the body of the
paragraph. State it clearly and concisely, and explain the reasons briefly
and unemotionally. Avoid apologies; they weaken your explanation and
position. Try to insert it in a subordinate clause of a sentence. The purpose
is not to conceal the bad news, but to soften its impact.
The closing of a message containing negative news should be courteous
and helpful. The purpose of the closing is to maintain or rebuild good will
and protect the company reputation. It should have a sincere tone. Avoid
overused closings such as If you have any questions, please don't hesitate
to call. You really dont want the person to call, so dont say it.
P a g e 47
NOTES

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