Quiz 1 is.

Friday, September 2, 4:30PM, CW101,102,103.

Covers voltage, batteries, capacitance, resistance,
circuits.
Review, 7:30PM Wednesday, September 30, CW102.
SAS Review, TBA.

Real batteries; internal resistance

The electrochemical processes that drive charge from
one electrode to the other in a battery also generate
heat.
A real battery acts like an ideal battery (no heat
generation) in series with a small internal resistance Rint.
When not attached to anything, the battery will produce
its design voltage V0 across its terminals, often called
EMF: Vtrue=V0=EMF (no load). When attached to a
resistance Rload, the voltage at the terminals will drop to
Vtrue=V0(1-Rint/(Rint+Rload)).
All is well as long as Rint<<Rload.
V0=EMF
Rint

An electronics example
The simple series circuit below can be implemented in a
highly useful way, as a voltage divider.
The current through the circuit as drawn is I=V/(R1+R2).
Taking the low voltage side of the battery to be 0V, the
voltage at the point Vout=VR2/(R1+R2). It is just the input
voltage divided by (1+R1/R2).
For example, if V=12V and R1=R2=104W. Then Vout=6V.
This can be used in a circuit that needs a 6V source.
Vout

Range of operation

Most electronics devices work over a certain range of

loads. In the drawing below, a gadget with an effective
resistance RLoad is plugged into the voltage divider. Pick
the condition below that assures the voltage divider will
work as intended.
A. RLoad>>R2.
B. RLoad<<R2.
C. RLoadR2.
Vout
RLoad

Limiting cases with series resistance

A.
B.
C.
D.

Ill give you 20 seconds for this question.

Both circuits below have R1=104W. The top
circuit element has R2=102W. The bottom
circuit element has R2=106W. What are the
effective resistances of the two circuits?
Top: 104W, bottom: 104W.
Top: 102W, bottom: 106W.
Top: 104W, bottom: 106W.
Top: 102W, bottom: 104W.
R1=104W

R2=102W

R1=104W

R2=106W

Limiting cases with parallel resistance

A.
B.
C.
D.

You get 20 seconds for this question. What

are the effective resistances for the circuits
below
Left: 102W, right: 104W.
Left: 104W, right: 104W.
Left: 102W, right: 106W.
Left: 104W, right: 106W.

R1=104W

R1=104W

R2=102W

R2=106W

Summary of common resistor combos

A zero (or very small) resistance in series does nothing.
An infinite (or very large) resistance in series creates an
open circuit.
A zero (or very small) resistance in parallel creates a
short circuit.
An infinite (or very large) resistance in parallel does
nothing.
The largest resistor in a series combination is most
important.
The smallest resistor in a parallel combination is most
important.

Kirchoffs Circuit rules

First, lets define a term: We solve a circuit if we can

find the current flowing through every component in the
circuit once it is connected to a voltage source.
Many purely resistive circuits can be solved by using
the parallel and series formulas.
There are circuits that need a more systematic
treatment called Kirchoffs rules:
1. The current flowing into a junction must equal the
current leaving a junction (charge conservation).
2. The sum of voltage differences around any closed loop
is zero (energy conservation).

Kirchoffs rule example

This circuit has two loops. Well find the current in each
resistor and VA-VB.
Steps: choose, draw, and label the current in each
resistor.
Keep in mind: if we go through a battery from the low V
side to the high V side, the voltage jumps.
If we go through a resistor from the high V side to the
low V side, the voltage drops.

Worked out example

The junction rule at either of the two junctions gives
I1+I2=I3.
The loop rule for loop I gives 6V-(2kW)I1-(2kW)I3=0.
The loop rule for loop II gives 12V-(1kW)I2-(2kW)I3=0.
Note: 3 unknowns, 3 equations. The problem is solved
in principle.

I
I1

I3

I2
II

Algebra
Note that if we use V and kW, our current will come out in
mA. Ill drop the units to save writing:
The three equations become I1+I2-I3=0, I1+I3=3, and
I2+2I3=12.
Substitute I1=3-I3 and I2=12-2I3 into the junction
equation: 3-I3+12-2I3-I3=015-4I3=0I3=3.75mA,
I2=4.50mA, and I1=-0.75mA.
The, since VB-VA=I2(1kW), VA-VB=-4.5V.

Some Kirchoff Tips

There are more possible loops than there are equations
you need. To avoid confusion, use a set of the smallest
loops possible.
I like to label junctions with letters, loops with Roman
numerals, and currents with numbers.
Always keep an eye out for series and parallel
combinations.
If you get a negative number for your current, it just
means you guessed wrong on the direction.

Another circuit piece: the capacitor

Suppose we connect a battery to two pieces of

conductor that do not touch. No current will flow through
this open circuit.
But something will happen: the plates will charge up.
We make the educated guess for now that the charge on
a plate is proportional to the voltage difference between
the two electrodes: Q=CV.
C is the capacitance, measured in
Coulombs/Volts=farads (F). If we use the plates for their
capacitance, we call this a capacitor.

Capacitance
Units: from Q=CV, the units for C are C/V = Farad (F).
Typical values range from 10-12F (pf or puff), to nF
(10-9F), mF (10-6F), and mF (10-3F).
In terms of capacitance units, e0= 8.85 pF/m.
A 1 mm gap 1 F PP plate capacitor would have an area of
A~(10 km)2. One farad is a huge capacitance.
We will see later that we can calculate capacitance. For
now, well assume that we know it.
A capacitor is a device that stores charge and energy.

Energy in a capacitor
If the capacitor has a voltage V, then adding a charge
dQ will result in an increase of PE of d(PE)=VdQ.
Using V=Q/C, this is the same as d(PE)=QdQ/C.
The total D(PE) of the capacitor in charging it from 0 to
the final charge Q is then U=D(PE)=QdQ/C
=Q2/2C=CV2/2.

Defibrillation
Diagnostics and
controls.

This makes the

current turn on
gradually (later).

We need a high voltage to put a large

charge on the capacitor. Well see the
transformer later.

The charge sits

here.

Capacitor test--1

A.
B.
C.
D.

What is |V2-V1| across the 0.1 mF capacitor connected to the battery

like this? Red represents copper wire.
910-7 V.
9V.
910+7 V.
Cant tell.

V1
V2

Capacitor test--2

A.
B.
C.
D.

How much charge is on the the 0.1 mF capacitor connected to the

battery like this? Red represents copper wire.
910-7 C.
9C.
910+7 C.
Cant tell.

V1
V2

Capacitor test--3
How much charge will be on the the 0.1 mF capacitor connected to
the battery like this if the wire is quickly broken at the point shown?
Red represents copper wire.
A. 910-7 C.
B. 0C.
V1
C. Cant tell.

V2

V1
V2

Capacitor test--4
How much charge will be on the the 0.1 mF capacitor connected to
the battery like this if the wire is quickly broken at the point shown?
Red represents copper wire.
A. 910-7 C.
B. 0C.
V1
C. Cant tell.

V2

V1
V2

Capacitors in series and parallel

For the parallel connection at right, both capacitors have

the same V from the battery. The total charge is
Q=Q1+Q2=C1V1+C2V2=(C1+C2)V. We can thus think of the
parallel combination as having an equivalent capacitance
CP=C1+C2.
In the series combination at right, both capacitors have the
same charge: Q1=Q2=Q. The total voltage across the
capacitors is V=V1+V2=Q/C1+Q/C2=Q(1/C1+1/C2). The
equivalent series capacitance is CS=(1/C1+1/C2)-1.

How to make high capacitance.

Take a parallel plate
geometry with d=1mm. To
make an 8.85 mf capacitor,
we would need an area of
A=103 m2. Not very
practical!
A solution is shown at right.
A large area is obtained by
wrapping a conductor in a
roll interleaved with an
insulator, or a dielectric.
The dielectric helps boost
the capacitance too.

A dielectric gap capacitor

The free charge placed on the plates by the battery pulls induced
opposite charge from the dielectric to the surface, effectively
lowering the original charge.
To maintain the same voltage, the battery must supply more free
charge. The capacitor can thus hold more charge for a given
voltage; its capacitance increases.
For many materials, the capacitance increases by a constant factor,
the dielectric constant k. CkC.

-sF

+sF

+sI

-sI

E=(sF-sI)/e0