Surveying 1

Distance measurement

Eng. Anas Al-Hares

Zarqa University
Engineering and Technology
Civil Engineering

Introduction
In plane surveying the distance between two points means the
horizontal distance.
If the points are at different elevations, the distance is the horizontal
length between vertical lines at the point.
The distance may be specified in different units (kilometer, meter,
centimeter, millimeter, mile ...etc.).

Introduction
Two principles of measuring distance:
It takes two points to form a line.

The shortest distance between two points is a straight line.

Distance measurement
Linear measurements can be taken using several different methods:

Direct measurements :

Pacing
Odometer readings
Taping
Tachometry (stadia)

Direct measurements :
Electronic Distance Measuring
(EDM).
Satellite system, and others.

Factors affecting distance measurements

Environment

Topography

Use of the data

Client specifications

Equipment available

Regulations

Expertise of individuals

Standard practice

Personal preference
The most important factor is the intended use of the data.

Pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of steps, or paces, in a
required distance.
The length of an individuals pace must first be determined.

Pacing
Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple.

Topography affects accuracy.

Low tech.

Requires practice to take a

consistent pace.

No specialized equipment

Must be able to traverse the

distance.

Only measures slope distance

Accuracy is about 2% of distance paced.

Distance measuring wheel

Distance measuring wheel

An odometer is a mechanical revolution counter.
An odometer wheel is a wheel which uses an odometer to
count revolutions of the wheel.
The gear ratio of the odometer is usually designed to provide a
measurement of the distance in standard units (feet, decimal
feet, feet and inches and/or meters).

Distance measuring wheel

Advantages
Easy to use

Disadvantages
Accuracy is influenced by
surface conditions.

Low tech
Must be able to traverse
distance.
Only measures slope distance.

Accuracy is about 1% of distance.

Taping
Measurement of horizontal distances by taping consists of
applying the known length of a graduated tape directly to a
line a number of times

EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES

Taping
Advantages

Disadvantages

High precision.

Multiple people.

Relatively, High accuracy.

Must have a clear, travelable

route.

Can be used to measure

horizontal distances.

Accuracy 0.1% of distance.

High precision requires

temperature and tension
correction.

Sources of error in taping

There are three fundamental sources of error in taping

Instrumental errors.

Natural errors.

Personal errors.

Sources of error in taping

Instrumental errors: A tape may differ in actual length from
its nominal graduated length because of a defected in
manufacture or repair as a result of kinks.
Natural errors: The horizontal distance between end
graduations of a tape varies because of the effects of
temperature, wind, and weight of the tape itself.
Personal errors: Tape persons may be careless in setting pins,
reading the tape, or manipulating the equipment.

Sources of error in taping

Incorrect length of tape.
o A systematic error occurs when incorrect length of a tape is used.
o The true length of a tape can be obtained by comparing it with a
standard tape or distance.

o An error caused by incorrect length of a tape occurs each time the

tape is used.
o If the true length, known by standardization, is not exactly equal to
its nominal value, the correction can be determined.

Sources of error in taping

=

. ( )

: the correction to be applied to the measured (recorded) length of a

line to obtain the true length.

: the actual tape length.

: the nominal tape length.
: the measured (recorded) length of line.

Sources of error in taping

Temperature other than standard
Steel tapes are standardized for 20C in the United States. A
temperature higher or lower than this value causes a change in
length that must be considered.
Steel expands and contracts at fixed rate dependent upon the
temperature.

Sources of error in taping

The temperature correction for a steel tape is:
= 1

: is the correction in the length of a line caused by nonstandard

temperature.
: the coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction of the tape.
1 : the tape temperature at the time of measurement.
: the tape temperature when it has standard length.
: the observed (recorded) length of line.

Sources of error in taping

Inconsistent Pull
When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its standard
pull (the tension at which it is calibrated), the tape will stretch and
become longer than its standard length.
Conversely, if less than standard pull is used, the tape will be shorter
than its standard length.
The factor of elasticity of the tape regulates the amount that it
stretches.

Sources of error in taping

The correction for pull can be computed and applied using
the following equation:

= (1 )

= the total elongation in tape length due to pull.

1 = the pull applied to the tape at the time of the
measurement (kg)
= the standard pull of the tape (kg).
= line length or tape length (ft. or m).
= the cross sectional area of the tape (cm^2)
E = = the factor of elasticity of steel(kg per cm^2).

Sources of error in taping

Sag
A steel tape not supported along its entire length sags in the form of a
catenary curve.
A good example being the cable between two power poles.
Because of sag, the horizontal distance is less than the graduated
distance between tape ends, as illustrated

Sources of error in taping

The following formula is used to compute the sag correction:
2 3
=
242
= the correction for sag (difference between length of curved
tape and straight line from one support to the next).

= the weight of the tape per meter of length in kg.

= the unsupported length of the tape in meters

= the pull on the tape in kg.

Sources of error in taping

Summary of errors

Sources of error in taping

Example
A 30-m steel tape standardized at 20C and supported throughout under
a tension of 5.45 kg was found to be 30.012 m long. The tape had a

cross-sectional area of 0.050 cm2

and a weight of 0.03967 kg/m. This tape was held horizontal,
supported at the ends only, with a constant tension of 9.09 kg, to
measure a line from A to B in three segments. The data listed in the
following table were recorded.
Apply corrections for tape length, temperature, pull, and sag to
determine the correct length of the line.

Sources of error in taping

Solution :
The tape length correction by Equation

Temperature corrections :
(Note: separate corrections are required for distances observed at
different temperatures.)

Sources of error in taping

The pull correction:

Sources of error in taping

The sag corrections:
(Note: separate corrections are required for the two suspended
lengths.)

Finally, corrected distance AB is obtained by adding all

corrections to the measured distance, or