Chapter 7

Strengthening of Steel Structures

7.1

Introduction

The use of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials in the reinforcement

of concrete structures has shown important results. These interventions are based on
the application of carbon fiber, glass, or aramid impregnated with thermosetting
polymers. The effectiveness of these interventions is demonstrated both by extensive research in the laboratory and by applications to existing structures.
Even metal structures may require an intervention of reinforcement due to
changes in land uses, increases in loads, corrosion, or issues related to the phenomenon of fatigue. Currently, reinforcement methods used to restore the capacity of
metal structures are based on the application of steel plates to the original structure.
These types of interventions have negative aspects, such as new loads on the structures and oxidation phenomena.
The use of welding is not recommended, considering the possible occurrence of
the phenomenon of fatigue due to any welding defects.
The problems related to the use of these traditional methods are outdated in the
interventions that are characterized by the use of FRP composite materials. The
fibers have superior mechanical and physical characteristics, and are distinguished
by their considerable tensile strength.
The advantages of the use of FRP compared to the use of steel concern two fundamental aspects. From an economic point of view, the high strength and stiffness
compared to the weight allows handling them with great ease and, for this reason,
the restoration requires a shorter time. From the point of view of the effectiveness
of the intervention, in the case of adjustment or recovery of the bearing capacity, the
significant tensile strength of the fiber allows tension decrease agents in the section,
favoring the duration of the construction detail against fatigue.
Reinforcement for steel structures with FRP can be realized using fabrics or
pultruded laminates, and, usually, high-modulus carbon fiber is used because its
value of the modulus of elasticity is close to that of steel. In this case, it is necessary,
however, to intervene in the coupling between the two materials with an element
D. Brigante, New Composite Materials: Selection, Design, and Application,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01637-5_7, Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014

119

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Strengthening of Steel Structures

Fig. 7.1 Steel beam

reinforced with CFRP

that has the function of insulating the carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) from
the steel in order to avoid the occurrence of the phenomenon of galvanic corrosion.
In all cases, special attention should be given to the effective bonding at the interface between the substrate and the composite. The quality of the application depends
on the surface preparation and the type of resin that is used (Fig. 7.1).
The surface of the steel element plays an important role in promoting the adhesion of the FRP laminate to the substrate metal. The preparation of the substrate can
be achieved by sandblasting or by abrasion of the surface to remove all traces of rust
and paint. In any case, the surface must be as smooth and flat as possible to ensure
a linear arrangement of the fibers.
Before applying the first layer of resin, the surface can be treated with a primer
that has the task of promoting adherence. This first layer also creates a barrier
against the penetration of humidity and ensures the durability of the reinforcement
system in the case of galvanized steel or stainless steel; the oxides formed on the
surface must be removed with an appropriate surface treatment.

7.2

Applications

Since the use of FRP in steel structures is not as developed as in the case of concrete,
attention is mainly focused on several issues. We distinguish the following main
areas of interest related to many aspects that characterize metal structures: the intervention on nodes that can significantly reduce the growth of injury due to fatigue,
the intervention of tended elements, and compression that allows to greatly decrease
the tension in the original structure.

7.3

Technical Standards

121

Fig. 7.2 Section of steel

beam reinforced with CFRP

The intervention categories are distinguished as repair and reinforcement. The

first category includes interventions that target the extension of the fatigue life of the
structure, and the second category of interventions target the reinforcement elements subject to axial forces, bending moments, and increased stiffness of the structure. These interventions are required since structural steel or iron is compromised
by extensive corrosion that results in a decrease of the resistant section or injury due
to fatigue in correspondence with riveted connections (Fig. 7.2).
The use of FRP is convenient also in older metal constructions, since the mechanical properties of composite materials are well suited to the structural features of
buildings employing cast iron. The exceptional tensile strength of the fibers makes up
for the low resistance of the cast iron and the corrosion resistance of both materials
makes the intervention durable. The traditional techniques that rely on welding are
unfavorable because they require the complete disassembly of the work, along with
an inevitable increase of costs and time consumption. It demonstrated, moreover, the
effectiveness of the application of FRP in improving the brittle behavior of cast iron.

7.3

Technical Standards

An important technical standard for the design of steel structures reinforced with FRP
is CNR-DT 202/2005Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Externally
Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening Existing StructuresMetallic Structures.

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Strengthening of Steel Structures

Another interesting field of application of FRP in steel structures is the reinforcement of pipelines, and some of the most important technical standards are:
Pipeline Safety: Gas and Hazardous Liquid Pipeline Repair, Issued by Research
and Special Programs Administration (DOTUSA)
ASME PCC-2-2008 Repair of Pressure Equipment and Piping, Issued by the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers

7.4

Repair of Steel Pipes

The repair of steel pipes can be necessary because of the following defects:

Plain dents (wide deformed region)

Gouges (scratches or cuts)
Mechanical damage
Rock dents
Failures (static overload or fatigue failure) (Figs. 7.3 and 7.4)

The standard repair procedure of a damaged pipe can be summarized as

follows:

Inspection of damage
Grinding of damaged area
Check by dye penetrant
Fill in dented area with epoxy putty
Wrap the area with an appropriate number of layers

Fig. 7.3 Gouges

7.4

Repair of Steel Pipes

123

Fig. 7.4 Reinforced pipe

In order to achieve the correct dimensioning of FRP, reinforcement is necessary

beforehand in order to conduct an appropriate analysis of the materials.
The materials should demonstrate that they can perform adequately in repairing
corroded pipelines. This involves strength in burst mode, but also involves ensuring
that the repair does not degrade with time or cyclic pressure service. Experimental
testing must be conducted to address this issue. In addressing the effects of cyclic
operating pressures, the service conditions in actual operating lines should be considered. Testing should be conducted to address creep of the material under dead
weight loading.
Ideally, a battery of tests should be conducted using weights as a percentage of
the lower bound failure load for the given material. Creep testing should also be
conducted over several different loading time periods.
Lap shear testing should be conducted to ensure that an adequate bond exists
between the pipe and the wrap. For composite repair methods that are not monolithic, these tests should also include compositecomposite test samples as well as
the compositesteel test coupons. The compositecomposite sample is used to
assess the bond strength between the layers, while the compositesteel samples are
used to determine the lap shear strength at the interface between the pipe material
and the composite.
Relating to the adhesive bond between the pipe and the composite, the most
effective method for evaluating this interface is by using lap shear samples. In this
application, the lap shear testing method uses either steel or composite adherends to
test the adhesive bond.
Testing should be conducted to address cathodic disbondment and the system
should meet the requirements as set forth in ASTM G8 or similar technical
standards.
Testing should be conducted to address water penetration into the system using
test method ASTM G9 or similar technical standards.

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Strengthening of Steel Structures

Fig. 7.5 Verification

scheme for a pipe reinforced
with FRP

A field monitoring program should be conducted to assess the performance of

the wrap over several years. This involves inspection of the buried line at least 1
year after installation. The repair should be inspected for soundness and any possible signs of degradation. Strain gages should be installed beneath the wrap to determine any changes in the pipe strain that occur with time.
Figure 7.5 shows a verification scheme that can be used for the analysis of a pipe
reinforced with FRP.

7.5

Reinforcement of Steel Structures

for Telecommunications

Several sites built to house telecommunication stations, where the antennas, satellite
aerials, and all the equipment required for the broadcasting of signals are located on

7.5

Reinforcement of Steel Structures for Telecommunications

125

Fig. 7.6 Steel structures for

telecommunications

lifted structural elements at often very great heights in order to enhance the signal
coverage of the site. The pile structures can be strengthened with composite materials (Fig. 7.6).
Following the increase of loads of each structure and fixed by sharing agreements between providers or by the needs of each single provider of increasing the
number of broadcasting units located on a single site, an increase of the expected
stresses on support structures has been determined. The strengthening of these
structures with the use of CFRP materials offers several advantages, as described
below:
Absence of new loads on the structures with a reduction of overall costs of operation due to the absence of strengthening of the foundations
No geometric impact on the structure with a consequent reduction of the time
needed to obtain the authorizations required for the works
Reduction of work execution periods
High mechanical characteristics of the reinforcement
Corrosion resistance (Fig. 7.7)

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Fig. 7.7 Reinforcement
of steel structures for
telecommunications

Strengthening of Steel Structures