Work and Heat

Work and Heat
Dr. Rohit Singh Lather
Forms of Energy
Energy
Heat
Low Grade
High Grade
Macroscopic
Kinetic
Work
Microscopic
Potential
Sensible
(translational + rotational + vibrational)
Chemical
(Atomic Bonds)
Latent
(inter molecular phase change)
Atomic
(bonds within nucleolus of atoms)
Summation of all the microscopic energies is called Internal Energy
24/08/16
E= U+KE+PE (kJ)
Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics
Introduction
Temperature determines the direction of flow of thermal energy between two
bodies in thermal equilibrium
Temperature is also a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a
substance
Changes in the state of a system are produced by interactions with the
environment through heat and work
Heat and work are two different modes of energy transfer
During these interactions, equilibrium (a static or quasi-static process) is
necessary for the equations that relate system properties to one-another to be
valid
Bodies don't contain heat
Heat is identified as it comes across
system boundaries
The amount of heat needed to go from
one state to another is path dependent
24/08/16
Heat is the random motion of the

particles in the gas, i.e. a
degraded from of kinetic energy
Surroundings
Surroundings
System
System
System at higher temperature

looses energy as heat
QReleased = Negative (-)
System and surrounding at

same temperature, no energy
is transferred as heat
Surroundings
System
System at lower temperature

gains energy as heat
QAbsorbed = Positive (+)
U T
if T , U
if T = 0, U = 0
All of the energy inside a system is called INTERNAL ENERGY
When you add HEAT (Q), youDr. Rohit Singh Lather are adding energy
and the internal energy INCREASES 4
Engineering Thermodynamics
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Specific Heat
Note: It is easy to change the temperature of some things (e.g. air) and hard to change the
temperature of others (e.g. water, block of steel)
The amount of heat (Q) added into a body of mass m to change its temperature an amount is given
by
Q= m.C.T = m.C.(Tf Ti)
C is called the specific heat and depends on the material
Note: Temperature in either Kelvin or Celsius
The heat capacity C of an object is the proportionality constant between the heat Q
that the object absorbs or loses and the resulting temperature change T of the object
C=
cal J
Q
= o = o
mT g C kg C
# It is important to distinguish the heat transfer is done with constant volume or constant pressure
The specific heat is different for different processes, particular for gases
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Heat of Transformation
The amount of energy per unit mass that must be transferred as heat when a sample completely
undergoes a phase change is called the heat of transformation L (or latent heat)
When a sample of mass m completely undergoes a phase change, the total energy transferred is:
(# sublimation: transition from solid directly to gas phases)
When the phase change is between solid to liquid, the heat of transformation is called the
heat of fusion LF
When the phase change is between liquid to gas, the heat of transformation is called the
heat of vaporization LV
24/08/16
Source: Yunus A. Cengel and Michael A. Boles Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach, McGraw Hill, 8th Edition
3-31
Heat Capacities
at Constant Volume and Constant Pressure
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by one
degree is called the specific heat at constant volume Cv for a constant-volume process:
The amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit of mass of a substance by one
degree is called the specific heat at constant pressure Cp for a constant pressure process:
For ideal gases u, h, Cv, and Cp are functions of temperature alone
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Experimental apparatus used by Joule

Thermometer
Water
Air
(high pressure)
Evacuated
It has been demonstrated mathematically and experimentally (Joule, 1843) that for an ideal gas the
internal energy is a function of the temperature only. That is, u = u(T)
Joules reasoned, the internal energy is a function of temperature only and not a function of
pressure or specific volume
Later Joules showed that for gases that deviate significantly from ideal- gas behavior, the
internal energy is not a function of temperature alone
Using the definition of enthalpy and the equation of state of an ideal gas, we have is also a
function of temperature only
h = h(T)
Since u and h depend only on temperature for an ideal gas, the specific heats cv and cp also depend,
at most, on temperature only.
Therefore, at a given temperature, u, h, cv, and cp of an ideal gas have fixed values regard- less of
the specific volume or pressure
Thus, for ideal gases, the partial derivatives in Eqs. 419 and 420 can be replaced by ordinary
derivatives. Then, the differential changes in the internal energy and enthalpy of an ideal gas can be
expressed as
u = u(T)
For ideal gases, u, h, cv, and cp vary with temperature only
du = cv(T) dT
For ideal gases Cv, and Cp are related by:
Cp = Cv + R [kJ / (kg.K)]
Cp > Cv In an isobaric process system is heated and work is performed
The specific heat ratio is defined as: =
For incompressible substances (liquids and solids), both the constant-pressure and
constant-volume specific heats are identical and denoted by C:
Cp = Cv = C [kJ / (kg.K)]
CV
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CP
Monoatomic Gases
%
&
%
&
Diatomic Gases
%
&
%
&
Triatomic Gases
%
&
%
&
10
Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Conduction: (solids--mostly)
Heat transfer without mass transfer
Convection: (liquids/gas)
Heat transfer with mass
transfer due to motion
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Radiation
Heat transfer through electromagnetic waves
11
Conduction
Thickness L
TH
Hot
Reservoir
TC
Cold
Reservoir
Slab of face area A &

Thermal conductivity k
If Q be the energy that is transferred as heat through the

slab, from its hot face to its cold face, in time t, then the
conduction rate Pcond (the amount of energy transferred per
unit time) is
Here k, called the thermal conductivity, is a constant

that depends on the material of which the slab is made
We assume steady state

of heat transfer
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12
Convection
In convection, thermal energy is transferred by bulk motion of materials from regions of high to
low temperatures
This occurs when in a fluid a large temperature difference is formed within a short vertical
distance (the temperature gradient is large)
Typically very complicated
Very efficient way to transfer energy
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13
Radiation
Everything that has a temperature radiates energy
Method that energy from sun reaches the earth
In radiation, an object and its environment can exchange energy as heat via electromagnetic waves
Energy transferred in this way is called thermal radiation
The rate Prad at which an object emits energy via electromagnetic radiation depends on the
objects surface area A and the temperature T of that area in K, and is given by
StefanBoltzmann constant
5.6704 x10-8 W/m2 K4
If the rate at which an object absorbs energy via

thermal radiation from its environment is Pabs, then
the objects net rate Pnet of energy exchange due
to thermal radiation is
Emissivity
Note: if we double the temperature, the power radiated goes up by 24 =16

If we triple the temperature, the radiated power goes up by 34=81
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14
Quasi-Static Process
Arbitrarily slow process such that system always stays stays arbitrarily close to thermodynamic
equilibrium
Infinite slowness is the characteristics of a quasi-static process
It is a succession of equilibrium states
Final State
Weight
Piston
Initial State
System Boundary
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Pressure
A quasi-static process is also reversible process
Final State
Piston
Multiple
Weights
Such a process is locus of all the

equilibrium points passed through by
the system
1
Dots indicate
equilibrium states
dp
Initial State
Every state passed through by the
system will be Dr. Rohit Singh Lather an equilibriumEngineering Thermodynamics
state
dv
Volume
15
Work
Heat is a way of changing the energy of a system by virtue of a temperature
difference only
Other means for changing the energy of a system is called work
We can have push-pull work
- (e.g. in a piston-cylinder, lifting a weight)
- electric and magnetic work (e.g. an electric motor)
- chemical work, surface tension work, elastic work, etc.
In defining work, we focus on the effects that the system (e.g. an engine) has on
its surroundings
Work as being positive when the system
does work on the surroundings
(energy leaves the system)
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If work is done on the system

the work is negative
(energy added to the system)
16
Pressure
Pressure Volume Diagrams and Work Done
Changes that happen during a

thermodynamic process can usefully be
shown on a pV diagram
This area represents the work
done by the gas
(on the surroundings)
when it expands
from state A to state B
Volume
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17
Work Done by a Gas (Constant Pressure)

Thermal Reservoir
Work = force x distance

= force x x
= PAx
(Pressure = F/A so F = PA)
= pV
(Ax = V)
Pressure
PI = PF = P
V
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V1
V2
Volume
18
W = - P V
V = Positive + Work done by System
V = Negative (-) done on system
Work done by System is Negative (-)
Work done on system is Positive (+)
The negative sign in the equation for WORK is often misunderstood

Since work done by a gas has a positive volume change we must understand that the gas itself is
USING UP ENERGY or in other words, it is losing energy, thus the negative sign
When work is done ON a gas the change in volume is negative, this cancels out the negative sign in
the equation, this makes sense as some EXTERNAL agent is ADDING energy to the gas
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19
Expansion and Non-Expansion Work
Electrical work (kJ):

Boundary work (kJ):
Gravitational work (kJ):
Acceleration work (kJ) :
Shaft work (kJ):
Spring work (kJ):
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20
NEGATIVE WORK
Pressure
Pressure
POSITIVE WORK
2
W<0
W > 0
Volume
Volume
MORE WORK
Pressure
Pressure
LESS WORK
W > 0
W > 0
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Volume
Volume
21
To go from the state (Vi, Pi) by the path (a) to the state (Vf, Pf) requires a different amount of
work then by path (b).
To return to the initial point (1) requires the work to be nonzero
The work done on a system during a closed cycle can be non-zero
The work done on a system depends on the path taken in the PV diagram
CYCLIC POSITIVE NET WORK
Pressure
CONTROL WORK
Pressure
Wnet > 0
1
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Dr. Rohit Singh Lather Volume Engineering Thermodynamics
22
Volume
How do you change Internal Energy (U)
Change in Volume
Supplying Heat
Work
Thermal Reservoir
All the energies received are turned into the energy of the system: this is a form of the
energy conservation law
U = Q + W
OR
U = Q - W
AS
Won
the gas
= Wby the gas
The first law of thermodynamics (closed system) states that the change in internal energy (DU)
is the sum of the work and heat changes: it is applicable to any process that begins and ends
in equilibrium
states
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Dr. Rohit Singh Lather Engineering Thermodynamics
23
Internal Energy (U) is a state function: a property that depends only on the current
state of the system and is independent of how that state was prepared
Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed system in the form of heat or work
If the energy transfer across the boundaries of
to a temperature difference, it is heat; otherwise, it is work
24/08/16
closed
system
is
24
due
Thermodynamic Processes - Ideal Gas Processes

States of a thermodynamic system can be changed by interacting with its
surrounding through work and heat. When this change occurs in a system, it is
said that the system is undergoing a process.
A thermodynamic cycle is a sequence of different processes that begins and ends
at the same thermodynamic state.
Some sample processes:
Isothermal Process: Temperature is constant T=C

Isobaric Process: Pressure is constant, P=C
Constant Volume Process: Volume is V=C
Adiabatic Process: No heat transfer, Q=0
Isentropic Process: entropy is constant, (n = ), s=C
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25
Isothermal Process
Assumptions: Ideal gas
(closed system)
U = Q - WWork done by System

U = Q - WWork done by System
Q = WWork done by System
Pressure
T = 0, then U = 0
To keep the temperature constant both the

pressure and volume change to compensate (Volume
goes up, pressure goes down)
BOYLES LAW
Q = W
W =
W =
V1
W = mRT In
W = mRT In
Internal Energy
Does not Change
W = mRT
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Isotherm
T2 = T1
Volume
V2
V1
V2
W
26
Reversible process can be reversed by an infinitesimal change in a variable

E.g. reversible, isothermal expansion of an ideal gas
Work done is the area beneath the ideal

gas isotherm lying between the initial and
the final volumes
Pi
Pressure
P=nRT/V
Pf
w
Vi
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Vf
Volume
27
Isobaric Process
In isobaric process P = C , then U = Q W
W =
W =
U = Q - W can be used
since the in this case
Pressure
The path of an isobaric process is a

horizontal line called an isobar
T2 = T1
W = P (V2 V1)
2
Heat is added to the gas which increases the

Internal Energy (U)
V1
Q
p
V2 V1
V2
Volume
V1
V2
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P2 = P1

Work is done
W = p (V2 V1)
by the gas as it changes in 28volume
Isochoric / Isometric Process

Ideal gas assumption
(closed system)
In isobaric process V = C U = Q W
W = =
Q = m.U =
No work done
Pressure
Since, V = 0
V2
U = Q Wby
U = Q 0
V2 = V1
T2 > T1
V1 1
U = Q
Volume
Q
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V2 = V1
W=0
29
Adiabatic Process
Adiabatic process Q = 0 U = Q W
U = - W
(infinitesimal increment
of work and energy)
dW = dU
dU + PdV = 0
345
) dV = 0
6
45
+ ( 6 ) dV = 0
m.CV.dT + (
CV.dT
Cv lnT + R lnV = C
;<
(;= - 1) InV + In T = C
( - 1) In V + In T = C
InV
(- 1) +
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5&
57
Adiabat
Integrate and R = Cp - Cv
T1
2
T1 V1 (- 1) = T2 V2 (- 1)
In (T V (- 1) ) = C
TV
Loosing internal energy

T1 > T2
1
In T = C
(- 1) =
P,V, T Change
Pressure
Ideal gas assumption

(closed system)
( 1)
1
=(
)
2
Q =0
V1
V2
T2
Volume
V1
V2
Wby
30 = - U
( 1)
1
=(
)
2
5&
57
Relation of Temperature with Volume

PV= nRT
T1 V1 (- 1) = T2 V2 (- 1)
> 76 7
>&6&
(1)
V1
= ?4
?4
V2 (- 1)
P1V1 = P2V2
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T = PV/nR
Relation of Pressure with Volume
31
Polytropic Process
Polytropic" describes any reversible process on any open or closed system of gas or vapor which
involves both heat and work transfer, such that a specified combination of properties were
maintained constant throughout the process
The expression relating the properties of the system throughout the process is called
the Polytropic path
Polytropic Process: its P-V relation can be expressed as

PVn = Constant (c)
Where, n is a constant for a specific process
- Isothermal, T = constant, if the gas is an ideal gas then P.V = R.T = constant, n = 1
- Isobaric, P = constant, n = 0 (for all substances)
- Constant-volume, V = constant, V = constant(P)(1/n), n =, (for all substances)
- Adiabatic Process, n = k for an ideal gas
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32
W =
W =
Pressure
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = PVn
Isobaric
n < 1 Polytropic
W =
W =
W
B B)
(
n=0
n = 1 Isothermal
Isochoric
n = infinity
n > 1 Adiabatic
Volume
PV Diagram for various Polytropic Processes
24/08/16
33
In Summary
Process
Important Point to Remember
Gas Law that identifies it
Isothermal
Constant T, dU = 0, Q = W
Boyles Law
Isochoric
Constant V, W = 0, dU = Q
Charles Law
Isobaric
Constant P, dU = Q ( - PdV)
Gay Lussacs Law
Adiabatic
Nothing is Constant , Q = 0, dU = - W
Combined Gas Law
24/08/16
34
24/08/16
Source: http://www.learneasy.info/MDME/MEMmods/MEM23006A/thermo/gases_files/gas_equations.png
35

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Work and Heat

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather

(translational + rotational + vibrational)

(inter molecular phase change)

(bonds within nucleolus of atoms)

Summation of all the microscopic energies is called Internal Energy

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Heat is the random motion of the

System at higher temperature

System and surrounding at

System at lower temperature

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

For ideal gases u, h, Cv, and Cp are functions of temperature alone

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Experimental apparatus used by Joule

For ideal gases Cv, and Cp are related by:

Cp > Cv In an isobaric process system is heated and work is performed

The specific heat ratio is defined as: =

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Slab of face area A &

If Q be the energy that is transferred as heat through the

Here k, called the thermal conductivity, is a constant

We assume steady state

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

If the rate at which an object absorbs energy via

Note: if we double the temperature, the power radiated goes up by 24 =16

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

A quasi-static process is also reversible process

Such a process is locus of all the

If work is done on the system

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Pressure Volume Diagrams and Work Done

Changes that happen during a

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Work Done by a Gas (Constant Pressure)

Work = force x distance

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

The negative sign in the equation for WORK is often misunderstood

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Expansion and Non-Expansion Work

Electrical work (kJ):

Spring work (kJ):

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather Volume Engineering Thermodynamics

How do you change Internal Energy (U)

= Wby the gas

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Thermodynamic Processes - Ideal Gas Processes

Some sample processes:

Isothermal Process: Temperature is constant T=C

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

U = Q - WWork done by System

To keep the temperature constant both the

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

Reversible process can be reversed by an infinitesimal change in a variable

Work done is the area beneath the ideal

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics

The path of an isobaric process is a

Heat is added to the gas which increases the

Dr. Rohit Singh Lather - Engineering Thermodynamics