Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion

Basic Principles of
Ship Propulsion
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................. 5
Scope of this Paper ..................................................................................... 5
Chapter 1..................................................................................................... 6
Ship Definitions and Hull Resistance.............................................................. 6
Ship types............................................................................................... 6
A ships load lines.................................................................................... 6
Indication of a ships size......................................................................... 7
Description of hull forms.......................................................................... 7
Ships resistance...................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2................................................................................................... 13
Propeller Propulsion.................................................................................... 13
Propeller types....................................................................................... 13
Flow conditions around the propeller...................................................... 14
Efficiencies............................................................................................ 15
Propeller dimensions.............................................................................. 17
Operating conditions of a propeller......................................................... 19
Chapter 3................................................................................................... 25
Engine Layout and Load Diagrams.............................................................. 25
Power functions and logarithmic scales.................................................. 25
Propulsion and engine running points..................................................... 25
Engine layout diagram........................................................................... 27
Load diagram........................................................................................ 28
Use of layout and load diagrams - examples.......................................... 32
Influence on engine running of different types of ship resistance
plant with FP-propeller........................................................................... 34
Influence of ship resistance on combinator curves
plant with CP-propeller.......................................................................... 36
Closing Remarks......................................................................................... 37
References................................................................................................. 37
MAN B&W Diesel

Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Introduction
Scope of this Paper
The operating conditions of a propel-
For the purpose of this paper, the term
This paper is divided into three chap-
ler according to the propeller law valid
ship is used to denote a vehicle em-
ters which, in principle, may be con-
for a propeller with fixed pitch are de-
ployed to transport goods and persons
sidered as three separate papers but
scribed for free sailing in calm weather,
from one point to another over water.
which also, with advantage, may be
and followed up by the relative heavy/
Ship propulsion normally occurs with
read in close connection to each other.
light running conditions which apply
the help of a propeller, which is the
Therefore, some important information
when the ship is sailing and subject to
term most widely used in English, al-
mentioned in one chapter may well ap-
different types of extra resistance, like
though the word screw is sometimes
pear in another chapter, too.
fouling, heavy sea against, etc.
Chapter 1, describes the most elemen-
Chapter 3, elucidates the importance
tary terms used to define ship sizes
of choosing the correct specified MCR
Today, the primary source of propel-
and hull forms such as, for example,
and optimising point of the main en-
ler power is the diesel engine, and
the ships displacement, deadweight,
gine, and thereby the engines load
the power requirement and rate of
design draught, length between per-
diagram in consideration to the propel-
revolution very much depend on the
pendiculars,
etc.
lers design point. The construction of
ships hull form and the propeller de-
Other ship terms described include the
the relevant load diagram lines is de-
sign. Therefore, in order to arrive at a
effective towing resistance, consisting
scribed in detail by means of several
solution that is as optimal as possible,
of frictional, residual and air resistance,
examples. Fig. 24 shows, for a ship
some general knowledge is essential
and the influence of these resistances
with fixed pitch propeller, by means of
as to the principal ship and diesel en-
in service.
a load diagram, the important influence
seen, inter alia in combinations such as

a twin-screw propulsion plant.
block
coefficient,
gine parameters that influence the propulsion system.
of different types of ship resistance on

Chapter 2, deals with ship propulsion
the engines continuous service rating.
and the flow conditions around the

This paper will, in particular, attempt to
propeller(s). In this connection, the
explain some of the most elementary
wake fraction coefficient and thrust de-
terms used regarding ship types, ships
duction coefficient, etc. are mentioned.
dimensions and hull forms and clarify

some of the parameters pertaining to
The total power needed for the propel-
hull resistance, propeller conditions
ler is found based on the above effec-
and the diesel engines load diagram.
tive towing resistance and various propeller and hull dependent efficiencies
On the other hand, it is considered be-
which are also described. A summary
yond the scope of this publication to
of the propulsion theory is shown in
give an explanation of how propulsion
Fig. 6.
calculations as such are carried out, as

the calculation procedure is extremely
complex. The reader is referred to the
specialised literature on this subject,
for example as stated in References.
MAN B&W Diesel

Chapter 1
Examples of ship types
Ship Definitions and Hull Resistance
Category
Class
Type
Tanker
Oil tanker
Crude (oil) Carrier

Very Large Crude Carrier
Ultra Large Crude Carrier
Product Tanker
CC
VLCC
ULCC
Gas tanker
Chemical tanker
Liquefied Natural Gas carrier

Liquefied Petroleum Gas carrier
LNG
LPG
OBO
Oil/Bulk/Ore carier
OBO
Ship types
Depending on the nature of their cargo,
and sometimes also the way the cargo
is loaded/unloaded, ships can be divided into different categories, classes,
and types, some of which are mentioned in Table 1.
The three largest categories of ships
Bulk carrier
Bulk carrier
are container ships, bulk carriers (for
Container ship
Container ship
bulk goods such as grain, coal, ores,
General cargo ship
General cargo
Coaster
divided into more precisely defined
Reefer
Reefer
Refrigerated cargo vessel
classes and types. Thus, tankers can
Passenger ship
Ferry
Cruise vessel
etc.) and tankers, which again can be
be divided into oil tankers, gas tankers and chemical tankers, but there are
Table 1
also combinations, e.g. oil/chemical

tankers.
rules, the summer freeboard draught
The winter freeboard draught is less
for seawater is equal to the Scantling
than that valid for summer because of
Table 1 provides only a rough outline.
draught, which is the term applied to
the risk of bad weather whereas, on the
In reality there are many other combi-
the ships draught when dimensioning
other hand, the freeboard draught for
nations, such as Multipurpose bulk
the hull.
tropical seas is somewhat higher than
container carriers, to mention just one
the summer freeboard draught.
example.
A ships load lines
Painted halfway along the ships side
is the Plimsoll Mark, see Fig. 1. The
lines and letters of the Plimsoll Mark,
which conform to the freeboard rules

laid down by the IMO (International
Maritime Organisation) and local au-
Freeboard deck
D: Freeboard draught
thorities, indicate the depth to which

the vessel may be safely loaded (the
TF
depth varies according to the season

and the salinity of the water).
There are, e.g. load lines for sailing in
freshwater and seawater, respectively,
with further divisions for tropical condi-
Danish load mark

Freshwater
tions and summer and winter sailing.

According to the international freeboard
Fig. 1: Load lines freeboard draught
T
S
W
WNA
Tropical
Summer
Winter
Winter - the North Atlantic
Seawater
Indication of a ships size

Displacement and deadweight
When a ship in loaded condition floats
AM
at an arbitrary water line, its displacement is equal to the relevant mass of
BWL
water displaced by the ship. Displacement is thus equal to the total weight,
all told, of the relevant loaded ship, normally in seawater with a mass density
DF
DA
of 1.025 t/m3.
LPP
LWL
Displacement comprises the ships
LOA
light weight and its deadweight, where
Length between perpendiculars:

Length on waterline:
Length overall:
Breadth on waterline
Draught:
Midship section area:
the deadweight is equal to the ships

loaded capacity, including bunkers and
other supplies necessary for the ships
propulsion. The deadweight at any time
thus represents the difference between
LPP
LWL
LOA
BWL
D = (DF + DA)
Am
Fig. 2: Hull dimensions
the actual displacement and the ships

light weight, all given in tons:
(summer freeboard/ scantling draught)
These measurements express the size
deadweight = displacement light weight.
and light weight.
of the internal volume of the ship in ac-
Incidentally, the word ton does not
A ships displacement can also be ex-
measurements, and are extensively
always express the same amount of
pressed as the volume of displaced
used for calculating harbour and canal
weight. Besides the metric ton (1,000
water , i.e. in m3.
dues/charges.
which is also called the long ton. A
Gross register tons
Description of hull forms
short ton is approx. 907 kg.
Without going into detail, it should be
It is evident that the part of the ship
mentioned that there are also such
which is of significance for its propul-
The light weight of a ship is not nor-
measurements as Gross Register Tons
sion is the part of the ships hull which
mally used to indicate the size of a ship,
(GRT), and Net Register Tons (NRT)
is under the water line. The dimensions
whereas the deadweight tonnage (dwt),
where 1 register ton = 100 English cu-
below describing the hull form refer to
based on the ships loading capacity,
bic feet, or 2.83 m3.
the design draught, which is less than,
cordance with the given rules for such
kg), there is the English ton (1,016 kg),
including fuel and lube oils etc. for op-
or equal to, the scantling draught. The
eration of the ship, measured in tons at
Examples of relationship between
choice of the design draught depends
scantling draught, often is.
displacement, deadweight ton-
on the degree of load, i.e. whether, in
nage and light weight
service, the ship will be lightly or heavily
Sometimes, the deadweight tonnage
Ship type
dwt/light
weight ratio
Displ./dwt
ratio
Tanker and
Bulk carrier
1.17
Container
ship
2.5-3.0
1.33-1.4
may also refer to the design draught

of the ship but, if so, this will be mentioned. Table 2 indicates the rule-ofthumb relationship between the ships
displacement,
deadweight
MAN B&W Diesel
tonnage
loaded. Generally, the most frequently

occurring draught between the fullyloaded and the ballast draught is used.
Ships lengths LOA, LWL, and LPP
The overall length of the ship LOA is nor-
Table 2
mally of no consequence when calculating the hulls water resistance. The

factors used are the length of the wa-
AM
Waterline plane
terline LWL and the socalled length be-
AWL
tween perpendiculars LPP. The dimensions referred to are shown in Fig. 2.
L PP
L WL
The length between perpendiculars is
BW
the length between the foremost perpendicular, i.e. usually a vertical line
Volume of displacement
Waterline area
: A WL
Block coefficient, LWL based
: CB =
slightly less than the waterline length,
Midship section coefficient
: CM =
and is often expressed as:
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient
: CP =
LPP = 0.97 LWL
Waterplane area coefficient
: CWL =
through the stems intersection with

the waterline, and the aftmost perpendicular which, normally, coincides with
the rudder axis. Generally, this length is
Draught D
LWL x BWL x D
AM
BWL x D
AM x LWL
AWL
LWL x BWL
Fig. 3: Hull coefficients of a ship
The ships draught D (often T is used

in literature) is defined as the vertical distance from the waterline to that
CB =
Examples of block coefficinets
LWL BWL D
point of the hull which is deepest in the

Ship type
Block
coefficient
CB
Approximate ship
speed V
in knots
length between perpendiculars, LPP, in
Lighter
0.90
5 10
which case the block coefficient will,
Bulk carrier
0.80 0.85
12 17
Another important factor is the hulls
as a rule, be slightly larger because, as
Tanker
0.80 0.85
12 16
largest breadth on the waterline BWL,
previously mentioned, LPP is normally
13 22
slightly less than LWL.
General
cargo
0.55 0.75
see Figs. 2 and 3.
Container
ship
0.50 0.70
14 26
Ferry boat
0.50 0.70
15 26
water, see Figs. 2 and 3. The foremost
In the case cited above, the block coef-
draught DF and aftmost draught DA are
ficient refers to the length on waterline
normally the same when the ship is in
LWL. However, shipbuilders often use
the loaded condition.
block coefficient CB,
Breadth on waterline BWL
Block coefficient CB
Various form coefficients are used to
CB, PP =
PP
based on the
LPP BWL D
express the shape of the hull. The most
Table 3
important of these coefficients is the
A small block coefficient means less
block coefficient CB, which is defined
resistance and, consequently, the pos-
ficients correspond to low speeds and
as the ratio between the displacement
sibility of attaining higher speeds.
vice versa.
dimensions LWL BWL D, see Fig. 3,
Table 3 shows some examples of block
Water plane area coefficient CWL
i.e.:
coefficient sizes, and the pertaining
The water plane area coefficient CWL
service speeds, on different types of
expresses the ratio between the ves-
ships. It shows that large block coef-
sels waterline area AWL and the prod-
volume and the volume of a box with
uct of the length LWL and the breadth

BWL of the ship on the waterline, see

C
CWL =
=
= B

Am LWL CM BWL D LWL CM
correct propeller and in the subsequent
As can be seen, CP is not an independ-
General
ent form coefficient, but is entirely de-
A ships resistance is particularly in-
pendent on the block coefficient CB and
fluenced by its speed, displacement,
the midship section coefficient CM.
and hull form. The total resistance RT,
choice of main engine.
Fig. 3, i.e.:
CWL =
AWL
LWL BWL
Generally, the waterplane area coef-
consists of many source-resistances R
ficient is some 0.10 higher than the
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy LCB
which can be divided into three main
block coefficient, i.e.:
The Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy
groups, viz.:
(LCB) expresses the position of the

CWL CB + 0.10.
centre of buoyancy and is defined as
1. Frictional resistance
the distance between the centre of
2. Residual resistance
This difference will be slightly larger
buoyancy and the mid-point between
3. Air resistance
on fast vessels with small block coeffi-
the ships foremost and aftmost per-
cients where the stern is also partly im-
pendiculars. The distance is normally
The influence of frictional and residual
mersed in the water and thus becomes
stated as a percentage of the length
resistances depends on how much of
part of the waterplane area.
between the perpendiculars, and is
the hull is below the waterline, while the
positive if the centre of buoyancy is lo-
influence of air resistance depends on
Midship section coefficient CM
cated to the fore of the mid-point be-
how much of the ship is above the wa-
A further description of the hull form is
tween the perpendiculars, and negative
terline. In view of this, air resistance will
provided by the midship section coef-
if located to the aft of the mid-point. For
have a certain effect on container ships
ficient CM, which expresses the ratio
a ship designed for high speeds, e.g.
which carry a large number of contain-
between the immersed midship section
container ships, the LCB will, normally,
ers on the deck.
area AM (midway between the fore-
be negative, whereas for slow-speed
most and the aftmost perpendiculars)
ships, such as tankers and bulk carri-
Water with a speed of V and a den-
and the product of the ships breadth
ers, it will normally be positive. The LCB
sity of r has a dynamic pressure of:
BWL and draught D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
is generally between -3% and +3%.

2
r V (Bernoullis law)
CM =
Am
BWL D
Fineness ratio CLD

The length/displacement ratio or fine-
Thus, if water is being completely
ness ratio, CLD, is defined as the ratio
stopped by a body, the water will react
For bulkers and tankers, this coeffi-
between the ships waterline length LWL,
on the surface of the body with the dy-
cient is in the order of 0.98-0.99, and
and the length of a cube with a volume
namic pressure, resulting in a dynamic
for container ships in the order of 0.97-
equal to the displacement volume, i.e.:
force on the body.
0.98.
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient CP
The longitudinal prismatic coefficient CP
CLD =
LWL
3
This relationship is used as a basis

when calculating or measuring the
source-resistances R of a ships hull,
expresses the ratio between displace-
Ships resistance
by means of dimensionless resistance
ment volume and the product of the
To move a ship, it is first necessary
coefficients C. Thus, C is related to the
midship frame section area AM and the
to overcome resistance, i.e. the force
reference force K, defined as the force
length of the waterline LWL, see also Fig.
working against its propulsion. The
which the dynamic pressure of water
3, i.e.:
calculation of this resistance R plays
with the ships speed V exerts on a sur-
a significant role in the selection of the
face which is equal to the hulls wetted
MAN B&W Diesel
area AS. The rudders surface is also in-
When the ship is propelled through the
resistance refers to the energy loss
cluded in the wetted area. The general
water, the frictional resistance increas-
caused by waves created by the vessel
data for resistance calculations is thus:
es at a rate that is virtually equal to
during its propulsion through the water,
the square of the vessels speed. Fric-
while eddy resistance refers to the loss
Reference force: K = r V AS
tional resistance represents a consider-
caused by flow separation which cre-
and source resistances: R = C K
able part of the ships resistance, often
ates eddies, particularly at the aft end
some 70-90% of the ships total resist-
of the ship.
On the basis of many experimental tank
ance for low-speed ships (bulk carriers
tests, and with the help of pertaining di-
and tankers), and sometimes less than
Wave resistance at low speeds is pro-
mensionless hull parameters, some of
40% for high-speed ships (cruise liners
portional to the square of the speed,
which have already been discussed,
and passenger ships) [1]. The frictional
but increases much faster at higher
methods have been established for
resistance is found as follows:
speeds. In principle, this means that
calculating all the necessary resistance
a speed barrier is imposed, so that a
coefficients C and, thus, the pertaining
further increase of the ships propulsion
RF = CF K
source-resistances R. In practice, the
power will not result in a higher speed
calculation of a particular ships resist-
Residual resistance RR
as all the power will be converted into
ance can be verified by testing a model
Residual resistance RR comprises wave
wave energy. The residual resistance
of the relevant ship in a towing tank.
resistance and eddy resistance. Wave
normally represents 8-25% of the total
Frictional resistance RF
The frictional resistance RF of the hull
Type of resistance
depends on the size of the hulls wetted
% of RT
High Low
speed speed
ship ship
area AS, and on the specific frictional

resistance coefficient CF. The friction
RF
RW
RE
RA
increases with fouling of the hull, i.e. by

the growth of, i.a. algae, sea grass and
barnacles.
= Friction
= Wave
= Eddy
= Air
RA
An attempt to avoid fouling is made

by the use of anti-fouling hull paints to
prevent the hull from becoming longhaired, i.e. these paints reduce the
possibility of the hull becoming fouled
by living organisms. The paints containShip speed V
ing TBT (tributyl tin) as their principal
RW
biocide, which is very toxic, have dominated the market for decades, but the
IMO ban of TBT for new appli-cations
from 1 January, 2003, and a full ban
from 1 January, 2008, may involve the
use of new (and maybe not as effective)
alternatives, probably copper-based
RE
V
RF
anti-fouling paints.
Fig. 4: Total ship towing resistance RT = RF + RW + RE + RA
10 Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
resistance for low-speed ships, and up

to 40-60% for high-speed ships [1].
Incidentally, shallow waters can also
kW Propulsion power
8,000
"Wave wall"
have great influence on the residual resistance, as the displaced water under
the ship will have greater difficulty in
6,000
New service point
moving aftwards.
The procedure for calculating the spe-
4,000
cific residual resistance coefficient CR
Normal service point
is described in specialised literature [2]

and the residual resistance is found as
2,000
follows:
RR = CR K
0
10
Air resistance RA
In calm weather, air resistance is, in
principle, proportional to the square
15
20 knots
Ship speed
Power and speed relationship for a 600 TEU container ship
of the ships speed, and proportional

to the cross-sectional area of the ship
Fig. 5: The "wave wall " ship speed barrier
above the waterline. Air resistance normally represents about 2% of the total
resistance.
RT = RF + RR + RA
into wave and eddy resistance, as earlier described, the distribution of the to-
For container ships in head wind, the
The corresponding effective (towing)
tal ship towing resistance RT could also,
air resistance can be as much as 10%.
power, PE, necessary to move the ship
as a guideline, be stated as shown in
The air resistance can, similar to the
through the water, i.e. to tow the ship at
Fig. 4.
foregoing resistances, be expressed as
the speed V, is then:
RA = CA K, but is sometimes based

on 90% of the dynamic pressure of air
The right column is valid for low-speed

PE = V RT
with a speed of V, i.e.:
ships like bulk carriers and tankers, and

the left column is valid for very high-
RA = 0.90 rair V Aair
The power delivered to the propeller,
speed ships like cruise liners and fer-
PD, in order to move the ship at speed
ries. Container ships may be placed in
V is, however, somewhat larger. This is
between the two columns.
where rair is the density of the air, and
due, in particular, to the flow conditions
Aair is the cross-sectional area of the
around the propeller and the propeller
The main reason for the difference be-
vessel above the water [1].
efficiency itself, the influences of which
tween the two columns is, as earlier
are discussed in the next chapter which
mentioned, the wave resistance. Thus,
deals with Propeller Propulsion.
in general all the resistances are pro-
Towing resistance RT and effective (towing)

power PE
portional to the square of the speed,
The ships total towing resistance RT is
Total ship resistance in general
but for higher speeds the wave resist-
thus found as:
When dividing the residual resistance
ance increases much faster, involving a
MAN B&W Diesel
higher part of the total resistance.
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion 11
This tendency is also shown in Fig. 5 for
reduction of the ship speed as the con-
creased resistance (sea margin) can
a 600 teu container ship, originally de-
sequence.
reach extreme values up to 220%, with
signed for the ship speed of 15 knots.
an average of about 100%.
Without any change to the hull design,
Furthermore, in general [4] for every
the ship speed for a sister ship was re-
25 m (25/1000 mm) increase of the
Unfortunately, no data have been pub-
quested to be increased to about 17.6
average hull roughness, the result will
lished on increased resistance as a
knots. However, this would lead to a
be a power increase of 2-3%, or a ship
function of type and size of vessel. The
relatively high wave resistance, requir-
speed reduction of about 1%.
larger the ship, the less the relative in-
ing a doubling of the necessary propulsion power.
crease of resistance due to the sea. On

Resistance will also increase because
the other hand, the frictional resistance
of sea, wind and current, as shown
of the large, full-bodied ships will very
A further increase of the propulsion
in Table 4 for different main routes of
easily be changed in the course of time
power may only result in a minor ship
ships. The resistance when navigating
because of fouling.
speed increase, as most of the ex-
in head-on sea could, in general, in-
tra power will be converted into wave
crease by as much as 50-100% of the
In practice, the increase of resistance
energy, i.e. a ship speed barrier valid
total ship resistance in calm weather.
caused by heavy weather depends on
for the given hull design is imposed by
the current, the wind, as well as the
what we could call a wave wall, see
On the North Atlantic routes, the first
wave size, where the latter factor may
Fig. 5. A modification of the hull lines,
percentage corresponds to summer
have great influence. Thus, if the wave
suiting the higher ship speed, is neces-
navigation and the second percentage
size is relatively high, the ship speed will
sary.
to winter navigation.
be somewhat reduced even when sailing in fair seas.
Increase of ship resistance in service, Ref.
However, analysis of trading conditions
[3], page 244
for a typical 140,000 dwt bulk carrier
In principle, the increased resistance
During the operation of the ship, the
shows that on some routes, especially
caused by heavy weather could be re-
paint film on the hull will break down.
Japan-Canada when loaded, the in-
lated to:
Erosion will start, and marine plants and

barnacles, etc. will grow on the surface
of the hull. Bad weather, perhaps in
connection with an inappropriate distribution of the cargo, can be a reason
for buckled bottom plates. The hull has
Estimates of average increase in resistence for ships navigating the main

routes:
North Atlantic route, navigation westward
25-35%
been fouled and will no longer have a
20-25%
technically smooth surface, which
Europe-Australia
20-25%
means that the frictional resistance will
Europe-East Asia
20-25%
be greater. It must also be considered
The Pacific routes
20-30%
rough and fouled. The total resistance,

caused by fouling, may increase by 2550% throughout the lifetime of a ship.
Experience [4] shows that hull fouling
with barnacles and tube worms may
cause an increase in drag (ship resistance) of up to 40%, with a drastical
Table 4: Main routes of ships
b) heavy waves,
but in practice it will be difficult to distinguish between these factors.
North Atlantic route, navigation eastward
that the propeller surface can become
a) wind and current against, and
Chapter 2
Propeller Propulsion
The traditional agent employed to
move a ship is a propeller, sometimes
two and, in very rare cases, more than
two. The necessary propeller thrust T
required to move the ship at speed V
is normally greater than the pertaining
towing resistance RT, and the flow-
Velocities
Ships speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : V
Arriving water velocity to propeller. : VA
(Speed of advance of propeller)
Effective wake velocity. . . . . . . . . . : VW = V _ VA
V _ VA
Wake fraction coefficient. . . . . . . . : w =
V
Power
Effective (Towing) power. . . . . . . : PE = RT x V
Thrust power delivered
by the propeller to water . . . . . . : PT = PE /
Efficiencies
Forces
Towing resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . : RT
Thrust force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : T
Thrust deduction fraction . . . . . . . : F = T _ RT
_
Thrust deduction coefficient . . . . . : t = T RT
T
related reasons are, amongst other

reasons, explained in this chapter. See
Hull efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
Relative rotative efficiency . . . . . :
Propeller efficiency open water :
Propeller efficiency behind hull :
Propulsive efficiency . . . . . . . . . :
Shaft efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
VW VA
force, power and efficiency parameters
PE PE PT PD
=
= x x =
PB PT PD PB
Bx
B
S
1_t
1_w
R
0
B
D
=
=
Total efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . :
also Fig. 6, where all relevant velocity,
Power delivered to propeller. . . . : PD = PT /

Brake power of main engine . . . : PB = PD /
are shown.
Propeller types
V
Propellers may be divided into the following two main groups, see also Fig. 7:
Fixed pitch propeller (FP-propeller)
Controllable pitch propeller (CP-propeller)
RT
PT PD
PE
PB
Fig. 6: The propulsion of a ship - theory
Propellers of the FP-type are cast in

one block and normally made of a copper alloy. The position of the blades,
Fixed pitch propeller

(FPPropeller)
Controllable pitch propeller

(CPPropeller)
and thereby the propeller pitch, is once

and for all fixed, with a given pitch that
cannot be changed in operation. This
means that when operating in, for example, heavy weather conditions, the
propeller performance curves, i.e. the
combination of power and speed (r/
min) points, will change according to
the physical laws, and the actual propeller curve cannot be changed by the
Monobloc with
fixed propeller
blades
(copper alloy)
Hub with a
mechanism for
control of the
pitch of the blades
(hydraulically activated)
crew. Most ships which do not need a

particularly good manoeuvrability are
Fig. 7: Propeller types
equipped with an FP-propeller.

Propellers of the CP-type have a relatively larger hub compared with the
MAN B&W Diesel

FP-propellers because the hub has to
means that there will be a certain wake
the ratio d/LWL, the lower w will be. The
have space for a hydraulically actuated
velocity caused by the friction along the
wake fraction coefficient w increases
mechanism for control of the pitch (an-
sides of the hull. Additionally, the ships
when the hull is fouled.
gle) of the blades. The CP-propeller is
displacement of water will also cause
relatively expensive, maybe up to 3-4
wake waves both fore and aft. All this
For ships with one propeller, the wake
times as expensive as a corresponding
involves that the propeller behind the
fraction coefficient w is normally in the
FP-propeller. Furthermore, because of
hull will be working in a wake field.
region of 0.20 to 0.45, corresponding
the relatively larger hub, the propeller

efficiency is slightly lower.
to a flow velocity to the propeller VA of

Therefore, and mainly originating from
0.80 to 0.55 of the ships speed V. The
the friction wake, the water at the pro-
larger the block coefficient, the larger is
CP-propellers are mostly used for Ro-
peller will have an effective wake ve-
the wake fraction coefficient. On ships
Ro ships, shuttle tankers and simi-
locity Vw which has the same direction
with two propellers and a conventional
lar ships that require a high degree of
as the ships speed V, see Fig. 6. This
aftbody form of the hull, the propellers
manoeuvrability. For ordinary ships like
means that the velocity of arriving water
will normally be positioned outside the
container ships, bulk carriers and crude
VA at the propeller, (equal to the speed
friction belt, for which reason the wake
oil tankers sailing for a long time in nor-
of advance of the propeller) given as
fraction coefficient w will, in this case,
mal sea service at a given ship speed,
the average velocity over the propellers
be a great deal lower. However, for a
it will, in general, be a waste of money
disk area is Vw lower than the ships
twin-skeg ship with two propellers, the
to install an expensive CP-propeller in-
speed V.
coefficient w will be almost unchanged
stead of an FP-propeller. Furthermore,
(or maybe slightly lower) compared with
a CP-propeller is more complicated,
The effective wake velocity at the pro-
involving a higher risk of problems in
peller is therefore equal to Vw = V VA
service.
and may be expressed in dimension-
Incidentally, a large wake fraction co-
less form by means of the wake fraction
efficient increases the risk of propeller
Flow conditions around the propeller
coefficient w. The normally used wake
cavitation, as the distribution of the wa-
Wake fraction coefficient w
fraction coefficient w given by Taylor is
ter velocity around the propeller is gen-
When the ship is moving, the friction of
defined as:
erally very inhomogeneous under such
manoeuvrability.
For ordinary
shipsfriction
like
the hull will create
a so-called
VW V V A
container
ships,
bulk
carriers
and
crude
w=
=
belt or boundary layer of water around
V
V
oil tankers sailing for a long time in nor
VA
the
hull.
In
this
friction
belt
the
velocity
mal sea service at a given ship speed,
( you get
=1 w )
it will,ofinthegeneral,
bethe
a waste
V
water on
surfaceofofmoney
the hull is
to install
an expensive CPpropeller in
equal to that of the ship, but is reduced
The value of the wake fraction coeffistead of an FPpropeller. Furthermore, a The value of the wake fraction coefficient
with its distance
the surface
of the depends
cient depends
the shape
CPpropeller
is morefrom
complicated,
invol
largely largely
on theon
shape
of the of
ving hull.
a higher
of problems
service.
theonpropellers
location
At a risk
certain
distance in
from
the hull hull,
thebut
hull,also
but on
also
the propellers
loand
size,
and
has
great
influence
on
and, per definition, equal to the outer
cation and size, and has great influence
the propellers efficiency.
surface
of
the
friction
belt,
the
water
on the propellers efficiency.
Flow conditions around the propeller
velocity is equal to zero.
The propeller diameter or, even better,
the
ratio
between
the propeller
diameter
Wake fraction coefficient w
The
propeller
diameter
or, even
better,
When the ship is moving, the friction of d and the ships length LWL has some
The will
thickness
the friction
belt in- influence
the ratio on
between
the propeller
the wake
fraction diameter
coeffi
the hull
create aofsocalled
friction
creases
with
its
distance
from
the
fore
d
and
the
ships
length
LWL hasindication
some incient,
as
d/L
gives
a
rough
belt or boundary layer of water around
WL
the degree
which
the propeller
the hull.
In the
thishull.
friction
thebelt
velocity
end of
The belt
friction
is there- offluence
on thetowake
fraction
coefficient,
of the water on the surface of the hull is works in the hulls wake field. Thus, the
fore
thickest
at
the
aft
end
of
the
hull
as
d/L
gives
a
rough
indication
the
WL ratio d/L , the lower wof
will
equal to that of the ship, but is reduced larger the
WL
this thickness
nearly
proportional
degree
to which
the propeller
works
in
The wake
fraction
coefficient
w in
with and
its distance
from isthe
surface
of the be.
when
thefield.
hull is
fouled.
hull. to
At the
a certain
from
the[5].
hull
length distance
of the ship,
Ref.
This creases
the hulls
wake
Thus,
the larger
and, per definition, equal to the outer
surface of the friction belt, the water
For ships with one propeller, the wake
velocity is equal to zero.
fraction coefficient w is normally in the
region of 0.20 to 0.45, corresponding
The thickness
of the friction belt increases to a flow velocity to the propeller VA of
0.80 to 0.55 of the ships speed V. The
with its distance from the fore end of
the single-propeller case.
Thrust deduction coefficient t

conditions.
The rotation of the propeller causes the

water in front of it to be sucked back
Atowards
more homogeneous
field forin an
the propeller. wake
This results
extra
resistance
the hull normally
the
propeller,
alsooninvolving
a higher
called augment of resistance or, if re
speed of advance VA of the propeller,
lated to the total required thrust force T
may
sometimes
be thrust
neededdeduction
and can befrac
on the
propeller,
tion F, see
Fig. 6.ways,
This means
obtained
in several
e.g. by that
hav-the
thrust force T on the propeller has to
ing the propellers arranged in nozzles,
overcome both the ships resistance RT
below
shields,
Obviously,
and this
lossetc.
of thrust
F. the best
method is to ensure, already at the de-
Thestage,
thrustthat
deduction
fraction
may
sign
the aft end
of theFhull
is be
expressed in dimensionless form by
shaped
a way that
the optimum
meansinofsuch
the thrust
deduction
coeffi
cientfield
t, which
is defined as:
wake
is obtained.
F T RT
T
T
The rotation of the propeller
R T causes the
( you
= 1 t )back
water in front
of itget
to beTsucked
Thrust deduction coefficient
t= = t
The thrust deduction coefficient t can

be calculated by using calculation
models set up on the basis of research
carried out on different models.
efficient
f the
ocation
e on
better,
ameter
some
oeffi
dication
eller
hus, the
w will
t w in
e wake
in the
onding
r VA of
d V. The
arger is
n ships
entional
pellers
de the
e wake
case,
, for a
ers, the
hanged
red
ion co
ropeller
of the
peller is
under
d for
gher
peller,
can be
y hav
ozzles,
he best
the de
he hull is
opti
towards the propeller. This results in an
Thrust deduction coefficient t

resistance
on the hull
normally
Theextra
rotation
of the propeller
causes
the
called
augment
of be
resistance
if rewater
in front
of it to
suckedor,back
towards
the
This thrust
resultsforce
in an
lated to
thepropeller.
total required
T
extra resistance on the hull normally
on the
propeller,ofthrust
deduction
called
augment
resistance
or, iffracre
tion
F,
see
Fig.
6.
This
means
lated to the total required thrust that
forcethe
T
on thrust
the propeller,
thrust
deductionhas
frac
force T on
the propeller
to
tion F, see Fig. 6. This means that the
overcome
the propeller
ships resistance
thrust
force Tboth
on the
has to RT
and this both
loss the
of thrust
overcome
shipsF.resistance RT
and this loss of thrust F.
thrust deduction fraction F may be
TheThe
thrust
deduction fraction F may be
expressed
in dimensionless
form
expressed in dimensionless
form
by by
means
of
the
thrust
deduction
coeffi
means of the thrust deduction coefficient t, which is defined as:
cient t, which is defined as:
Efficiencies
Hull efficiency H
aftbody form of the hull, the hull effi-
The hull efficiency H is defined as the
ciency H is approx. 0.95 to 1.05, again
ratio between the effective (towing)
with the high value for a high block co-
power PE= RT V, and the thrust pow-
efficient. However, for a twin-skeg ship
er which the propeller delivers to the
with two propellers, the hull coefficient
whichPT
the=propeller
delivers to the water H will be almost unchanged compared
water
T VA, i.e.:
PT = T VA, i.e.:
Propeller
with the single-propeller
case. Large tankers
>150,000 DWT
efficiency
H =
PE RT V RT / T
1 t
=
=
=
PT T V A V A / V
1 w
For
ship with
with one
one propeller,
propeller, the
For aa ship
the hull
hull
is usually
usually in
in the
the range
range of
of
efficiency HH is
efficiency
o
Open water propeller
efficiency O
0.7
Propeller efficiency O is related to

working in open water, i.e. the propeller works in 0.6
a homogeneous wake field
1.1 to
to 1.4,
1.4,with
withthe
thehigh
highvalue
value
ships with no hull in front of it.
1.1
forfor
ships
with high block coefficients. For ships
with
block coefficients.
For ships
with high
two propellers
and a conventional
F T RT
t= =
T
T
RT
( you get
=1 t )
T
The thrust deduction coefficient t can
Thebethrust
deduction
t can
calculated
by coefficient
using calculation
be calculated by using calculation
models
thebasis
basisofofresearch
research
models
setset
upup
ononthe
carried
outout
onon
different
carried
differentmodels.
models.
In general, the size of the thrust deduc

general, thet increases
size of the when
thrust deductionIncoefficient
the
wake
coefficient
w increases.
tionfraction
coefficient
t increases
when the
Thewake
shape
of thecoefficient
hull may have
a sig
fraction
w increases.
nificant influence, e.g. a bulbous stem
The
shape
of thecircumstances
hull may have a(low
sigcan,
under
certain
ship
speeds),
reducee.g.
t. a bulbous stem
nificant
influence,
can, under certain circumstances (low
The size of the thrust deduction coeffi

ship
speeds),
t. propeller is,
cient
t for
a shipreduce
with one
normally, in the range of 0.12 to 0.30,
as The
a ship
with
a large
block
coefficient
size
of the
thrust
deduction
coefhas a large thrust deduction coefficient.
for atwo
shippropellers
with one propeller
Forficient
shipst with
and a is,
normally, inaftbody
the range
of of
0.12
0.30,
conventional
form
thetohull,
theas
thrust
deduction
coefficient
t
will
be
a ship with a large block coefficient
much less as the propellers sucking
has afurther
large thrust
occurs
awaydeduction
from the coefficient.
hull.
For ships
two propellers
and
However,
for with
a twinskeg
ship with
twoa
propellers,
the coefficient
t will be
conventional
aftbody form
of almost
the hull,
unchanged (or maybe slightly lower)
the thrust
coefficient case.
t will
compared
withdeduction
the singlepropeller
be much less as the propellers sucking occurs further away from the hull.
Efficiencies
However, for a twin-skeg ship with two
thecoefficient t will be almost

Hullpropellers,
efficiency
H
Theunchanged
hull efficiency
is defined
as lower)
the
(or maybe
slightly
H
ratio
between
the
effective
(towing)
compared with the single-propeller case.
power PE = RT V, and the thrust power
MAN B&W Diesel
11
aftbody form of the hull, the hull effi

with the high value for a high block co
efficient. However, for a twinskeg ship
H will be almost unchanged compared
with
the singlepropeller
case.
Propelle
r
Large
tanker s
ef ficiency
>150,000 DWT
Open water propeller efficiency O
0
Propeller
efficiency O is related to
working
0.7 in open water, i.e. the propel
ler works in a homogeneous wake field
with no hull in front of it.
0.6
The propeller efficiency depends, es
pecially, on the speed of advance VA,
n ( revs./s
)
thrust force T, rate
of revolution
n, di
0.5
1.66
ameter d and, moreover, i.a. on the de
sign of the propeller, i.e. the number of
2.00 and pitch/diam
blades, disk area ratio,
eter 0.4
ratio which will be discussed
later in this chapter. The propeller effi
ciency O can vary between approx.
0.350.3
and 0.75, with the high value be
ing valid for propellers with a high
speed of advance VA, Ref. [3].
0.2
Fig. 8 shows the obtainable propeller
efficiency O shown as a function of the
speed of advance VA, which is given in
0.1
dimensionless
form as:
n ( revs./s )
1.66
0.5
2.00
0.4
Small tanker s
20,000 DWT
0.3
Reefer s
Container ships
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
Fig. 8: Obtainable propeller efficiency open wat
affected by the R factor called the

propellers relative rotative efficiency.
On ships with a single propeller the

rotative efficiency R is, normally, around
1.0 to 1.07, in other words, the rotation
of the water has a beneficial effect. The
rotative efficiency R on a ship with a
VA
0
J=
conventional hull shape and with two
n d
0
0.6normally
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 propellers
0.5 will
0.7 be less, approx.
V A ship with
0.98, whereas for a twinskeg
Advance
number
=
two
propellers,
the Jrotative
R
where J is the advance number of the
n xefficiency
d
will be almost unchanged.
propeller.
Fig.8 Obtainable propeller efficiency - open water, Ref. [3], page 213
Relative rotative efficiency R

The actual velocity of the water flowing
to the propeller behind the hull is nei
ther constant nor at right angles to the
propellers disk area, but has a kind of
0.4
In combination with w and t, R is prob

ably often being used to adjust the re
sults Basic
of model
tank tests to the theory.
Principles of Ship Propulsion 15
Propeller efficiency B working behind
te
er
ef
b
P
Th
m
w
th
p
d
sf
al
ips
ps
ain
nal
o
hip
gain
nt
co
ed
hip
ent
red
l
eld
el
eld
de
,
A
iof
m
de
r of
i
am
e
fi
r
he
erin
the
in
he
ng
he
ng
of
he
of
d is
n
y is
0.6
0.5
n ( revs./s )
1.66
For a ship with one propeller, the hull

n ( revs./s )
2.00in the range of
efficiency H is usually
1.66
0.5
1.1 to0.4
1.4, with the high value for ships
with high block coefficients.
For ships
2.00
0.4form of the hull, the hull effi
aftbody
0.3
with the high value for a high block co
0.3
efficient.
0.2 However, for a twinskeg ship
H will be almost unchanged compared
0.2singlepropeller case.
with the
0.1
0.6
n ( revs./s )
1.66
As can be seen, the propulsive efficiency Propeller

D is equal to the product of the hull
efficiency H, the open water propeller
Propeller d
2.00
efficiency O, and the relative rotative
With a view
0.4
Asefficiency
can be seen,
the propulsive
efficiency
Propeller
R, although
the latter
has
possible di
p
D less
is equal
to the product of the hull
significance.
largest pos
Propeller
dia
will, norma
efficiency
O, and the one
relative
With
a view st
0.3
In this connection,
canrotative
be led to
however,
efficiency
R, although
thegiving
latter ahas
possible
pro
believe that
a hull form
high
sidered.
Fo
less
significance.
wake
fraction coefficient w, and hence largest
of thepossi
hull c
Open water propeller efficiency O
0.2
normally
a high hull efficiency H, will also provide will,
type
of ship
Propeller
O is related
to es- In combination with w and t,R is probIn the
thispropulsive
connection,
oneefficiency
can
be led
sp
The 0.1
propeller
efficiency
depends,
efficiency
D will
not,
gener- however,
best
propulsive
D. to
the necess
0 efficiency
working in
open water, i.e. the propel
believe
that
a hull form
giving a high
sidered.
Forp
0.7to adjust the re0.6 used
0.3 V ,0.4 ably 0.5
tip
of
the
pecially,0 on the0.1speed 0.2
of advance
often
being
ally,
improve
with
increasing
w,
quite
A
ler works in a homogeneous wake field
wake
fractionascoefficient
w, andpropeller
hence
VA
of pend
the hulloncan
0.1
th
However,
the open water
Advance
number
J = to the
thrust
forceinT,front
rateofofit.revolution n, disults
of model
tank tests
often
the
opposite
effect
isdependent
obtained.
with
no 0hull
a high
hull efficiency
,
will
also
provide
type
of
ship
a
n x dtheory.
efficiency
is
also
greatly
H
O
0
0.7
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
theonbest
efficiency
. Fig. 8, theFor
necessar
ameter d and, moreover, i.a. on the dethe propulsive
speed of advance
VA, Dcf.
bulkers
VA
Advance
J=
The
propeller efficiency depends, es
0 number
tipsailing
of the inpro
is decreasing
with
increased
w,
b
Propeller
efficiency
n x d the that
sign of the propeller, i.e. the number of
R working behind
Generally,
the best
propulsive
efficiency
0
0.7 not,
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4 as the
0.5efficiency
0.6
pecially,
on
the
speed
of
advance
V
,
pend
on
the
However,
open
water
propeller
the
propulsive
will
A
frequent
d
D
Fig. 8:blades,
Obtainable
efficiency
open water,
Ref. [3], page 213
ship
V in
diskT,propeller
area
and pitch/diamis achieved
when
the propeller
works
thrust force
rateratio,
of revolution
n, di
efficiency
O improve
isAdvance
also
greatly
dependent
generally,
with
increasing
shall be fu
number
J = w,A
n
x d For bulkers a
ameter
d and,
moreover,
i.a. on the
de The ratio between the thrust power
onquite
the
speed
of opposite
advance
Vfield.
, cf.is Fig.
8,
eter ratio
which
will be discussed
later
a homogeneous
wakeeffect
often the
obtained.
dition, givin
A
Fig.sign
8: Obtainable
propelleri.e.
efficiency
openofwater, Ref. [3], page 213
of the propeller,
the number
that is decreasing with increased w,
sailing
ball
pellerinsize.
in this chapter. The propeller efficiency
PT, which the propeller delivers to the
blades, disk area ratio, and pitch/diam
theGenerally,
propulsive
efficiency
will
not,
frequent
dem
the best propulsive
efficiency is not parti
D
O ratio
can vary
between
approx.
0.35 and
water, and the power PD, which is deShaft efficiency
S
eter
which
will be
discussed
improve
w, in shall
be as
fullyth
8: the
Obtainable
open
water,
Ref.
[3],with
pageincreasing
213
ships
is achieved
when
the
propeller
works
affected
by the
R factor
ter,Fig.
and
power propeller
PD, whichefficiency
called
the
is delivgenerally,
later
in with
this
chapter.
Theefficiency.
propeller
quite
oftenshaft
the opposite
effect
obtained.i.a. dition,
0.75,
the high
value
being valideffi
for ered
livered
to the
propeller,
propelThe
efficiency
S is
depends,
tion. giving
All the
a homogeneous
wake
field.
propellers
relative
rotative
to the
propeller,
i.e.i.e.
thethe
propeller
ciency
can
vary
between of
approx.
size.
T
exact
prope
B for
propeller
working
propellers
with
afactor
high speed
advance
ler and
efficiency
a
a ,propeller
on the alignment and lubrication of the peller
B for P
affected
byO 0.75,
the
Rwith
ter,
the
power
called
the be efficiency
which
isworking
delivGenerally,
D
0.35
and
the high
value
is
not
particu
the bestpropulsive
efficiency
ratio
d/D
c
behind
the
ship,
is
defined
as:
Shaft
efficiency
On
ships
with
a
single
propeller
the
S
propellers
relative
rotative
efficiency.
ered
to the
i.e. the
VAvalid
, Ref.for
[3].propellers
behind
the propeller,
ship, is defined
as:propeller
shaft bearings,
on theworks
reduction
ing
with
aaround
high
ships
as they
is The
achieved
when
theand
propeller
in
a
ruleofth
shaft
efficiency
depends,
i.a.
on
rotative
efficiency
R is, normally,
S
efficiency
forthe
a propeller
B
speed
of advance
VA, Ref.the
[3].
affectedby
ter,
and and
the
power
factor working
called the
tion.
All the a
a homogeneous
wake
field.PD, which
if installed.
approxima
thegear,
alignment
lubrication
of the is deliv
R
1.0
1.07,
in other
words,
PisTdefined
behind
theship,
On to
ships
with
a single
propellerrotation
the
propellers
relative
efficiency.shaft bearings,
ered to the
propeller,
i.e. the propeller
exact
propelle
o as:
= rotative
draught
ra
and
on
the
reduction
ofrotative
theFig.
water
has
a
beneficial
effect.
The
B =
R
8
shows
the
obtainable
propeller
efficiency
R obtainable
is, normally,propeller
around
PD
Fig.
8
shows
the
efficiency
for
a
propeller
working
ratio
d/D
can
Shaft
efficiency
and a large
gear,
if
installed.
rotative
efficiency
on
a
ship
with
a
S B
R
1.0efficiency
to 1.07, inOother
words,
the rotation
efficiency
shown
as aa function
function
of
Shaft
efficiency
is
to thei.a.
ratio
T
shown
as
ofthe
the On ships with aPsingle
behind
the ship,
is defined
as:
theThe shaft
efficiency
Sequal
depends,
onbe- a ruleofthu
result in a
O
conventional
hull
shape
and with
twoThe
B =
= o propeller
R
of speed
the
water
has
a beneficial
effect.
of
advance
V
,
which
is
given
in
rotative
efficiency
is,
normally,
around
Propulsive
efficiency
speed
of
advance
V
,
which
is
given
in
tween
the
power
P
delivered
to
the approximatio
the
alignment
and
lubrication
of
the
PD R D
Abe
A
D to the ratio be
propellers
will
normally
less,
approx.
Shaft
efficiency
is
equal
Propulsive
efficiency
D
rotative
efficiencyform
R onas:
a ship with a
dimensionless
draught
ratio
1.0
to
1.07, in
other
words,
rotation
shaft
bearings,
and
on
thePTreduction
Bulk carrie
0.98,
whereashull
for shape
aform
twinskeg
shiptwo
with The
tween
the power
delivered
propulsive
efficiency
D, which
The
propulsive
efficiency
D,thewhich
dimensionless
as:
propeller
and
theP
brake
powertoPBthe
D
conventional
and with
brake
deliv= o P
deliv
and
a
large
d
of
the
water
has
a
beneficial
effect.
The
gear,
if
installed.
B =
R
two
propellers,
the
rotative
efficiency
propeller
and
the
power
must
notnot
bebe
confused
with
thethe
open
PD i.e.: B
R
propellers will normallyVbe less, approx.
must
confused
with
open
ered by the main engine,
Propulsive
efficiency
D a ship with a
result in d/D
a low
rotative
efficiency
R on
will
be
almost
unchanged.
ered
by
the
main
engine,
i.e.
water
propeller
efficiency
,
is
equal
to
A
O , which
0.98, whereas for
a twinskeg ship with The
propulsive
efficiency
J=
D, is equal
conventional
hull
with two
water
propeller
efficiency
Oand
to
Shaft efficiency is equal to the ratio be
ratio
between
theshape
effective
(towing)
n d efficiency R the
two propellers, the rotative
must
not
be
confused
with
open
propellers
will
normally
bethe
less,
approx.
Bulk
carrier a
tween the
power PD efficiency
delivered
to
Propulsive
D the
Inwill
combination
with
w
and
t,
is
prob
Container
PD
power
P
and
the
necessary
power
the
ratio
between
the
effective
(towing)
E
be almost unchanged. R
water
efficiency
O, is equal
to
0.98,propeller
whereas
for a twinskeg
shippropeller
with The
andpropulsive
the brake
power PB deliv
S efficiency
,
which
ably where
often being
used
to
adjust
the
re
delivered
to
the
propeller
P
,
i.e.:
D
D power
theadvance
advancenumber
number of
of the
the the
power
Pbetween
necessary
dePBi.e. with the open d/D <
ratio
the
effective
(towing)
E and the the
two
propellers,
rotative
efficiency
Rby the
ered
main
where
J Jisisthe
must
not engine,
be confused
sults
of model
tank
tests to the theory.
d/D
In propeller.
combination
Pto
and
theunchanged.
necessary
power
Ealmost
will be
propeller. with w and t, R is prob power
livered
the
propeller
P
,
i.e.:
water propeller efficiency O, is equal to
Pthe
PE PT D P , i.e.:
E
ably often being used to adjust the re
delivered
to
propeller
D
the
ratio
between
effective
(towing)
Container
sh
PisD normally
D =
=
For streng
Propeller
efficiency
B working
shaft
efficiency
is the
normally
around
TheThe
shaft
efficiency
around
sults
of model
tank efficiency
tests
to thebehind
theory.
PD Pwith
Pw

T
D and t, is prob
In
combination
power
P
and
the
necessary
power
Relative
rotative
the
propel
R
the ship
ESvaryPbetween 0.96 and
R
0.985,
butbut
cancan
Relative rotative efficiency R
0.985,
vary
PE PEused
P
B between 0.96 and
ably often
The
actual
velocity
the water
flowing
d/D 10
<
The
ratio
between
theof
thrust
power
PT,
=H TtoOadjust
R the re
== being
0.995.delivered to the propeller PD, i.e.: exceed
H = B
Propeller
efficiency
working
behind
D model
B of the hull
actual
velocity
water
flowsults of
toThe
the
propeller
behind
is
nei
PD tank
PT tests
PD to the theory. 0.995.
put of abo
which
the
propeller
delivers
to
the
wa
thether
ship
For
strengthp
constant
nor at right
angles
to the
PE Paround
The
shaft
efficiencyTisPEnormally
diameter
ing
the propeller
behind
the hull
is
T
Total
efficiency
The
ratiotobetween
the thrust
power
PT,of
O R behind
H B = H working
vary
= between
=
0.96 and
theis propeller
Propeller= efficiency
propellers
disk area,
but has
a kind
0.985,
but
can
of 11.0 m
D
B
The
total
efficiency
,
which
is
equal
to
neither
constant delivers
nor at right
angles
Total efficiency T PD T PT PD
which
the propeller
to
the
wa to
10.0
the ship
rotational
flow. Therefore,
compared
0.995.
blades.
the ratio between the effective (towing) exceed
the when
propellers
disk area,isbut
has a kind
The
total
efficiency
,
which
is
equal
put
of
about
The ratio between the thrust power P
,
with
the propeller
working
in
T
T
H
B
H
O
R
power PE, and the necessary brake
which
theseen,
propeller
delivers to
the Total
wa
open
water, the
propellers
Numberpro
o
efficiency
T by the main
of rotational
flow.
Therefore,efficiency
comparedis As
can be
the propulsive
efficiento
the
between
effective
(tow- diameter
power
PB ratio
delivered
engine,
is
of 11.0 me
Propellers
The
total
efficiency
,
which
is
equal
to
be power
expressed
Tthus:
with when the propeller is working in
cy D is equal to the product of the hull caning)
PE, and
the necessary brake blades.
3, 4, 5 or 6
the ratio between the effective (towing)
open water, the propellers efficiency
PB delivered
by the brake
main engine, ber of blad
powerpower
PE, and
the necessary
P
P
P
E
E
D
12
of pw
efficiency
powercan
PBbe
delivered
the
=
= by thus:
main engine, Number
T expressed
is affected by the R factor called the
efficiency O, and the relative rotative
P
P
P
Propellers
ca
B thus:
D
B
of strength
can
be
expressed
propellers relative rotative efficiency.
efficiency R, although the latter has
3, subjected
4, 5 or 6 b
= D S = H O R S ber of blades
On ships with a single propeller the roless significance.
manufactu
PE PE PD
efficiency
T =
=
blades. wil
tative efficiency R is, normally, around
PB PD PB
of strength, p
1.0 to 1.07, in other words, the rotation
In this connection, one can be led to
subjected to
= D S = H O R S
manufacture
of the water has a beneficial effect. The
believe that a hull form giving a high
blades.
rotative efficiency on a ship with a
wake fraction coefficient w, and hence
0.5
conventional hull shape and with two
a high hull efficiency H, will also pro-
propellers will normally be less, approx.
vide the best propulsive efficiency D.
0.98, whereas for a twin-skeg ship with

two propellers, the rotative efficiency R
However, as the open water propeller
will be almost unchanged.
efficiency O is also greatly dependent

on the speed of advance VA, cf. Fig. 8,
that is decreasing with increased w, the
Propeller dimensions
Number of propeller blades
Pitch diameter ratio p/d
Propeller diameter d
Propellers can be manufactured with
The pitch diameter ratio p/d, expresses
With a view to obtaining the highest
2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 blades. The fewer the
the ratio between the propellers pitch
possible propulsive efficiency D, the
number of blades, the higher the pro-
p and its diameter d, see Fig. 10. The
largest possible propeller diameter d
peller efficiency will be. However, for
pitch p is the distance the propeller
will, normally, be preferred. There are,
reasons of strength, propellers which
screws itself forward through the wa-
however, special conditions to be con-
are to be subjected to heavy loads can-
ter per revolution, providing that there
sidered. For one thing, the aftbody form
not be manufactured with only two or
is no slip see also the next section
of the hull can vary greatly depending
three blades.
and Fig. 10. As the pitch can vary along
on type of ship and ship design, for
the blades radius, the ratio is normally
another, the necessary clearance be-
Two-bladed propellers are used on
related to the pitch at 0.7 r, where r =
tween the tip of the propeller and the
small ships, and 4, 5 and 6-bladed pro-
d/2 is the propellers radius.
hull will depend on the type of propeller.
pellers are used on large ships. Ships

using the MAN B&W two-stroke en-
To achieve the best propulsive effi-
For bulkers and tankers, which are often
gines are normally large-type vessels
ciency for a given propeller diameter,
sailing in ballast condition, there are fre-
which use 4-bladed propellers. Ships
an optimum pitch/diameter ratio is to
quent demands that the propeller shall
with a relatively large power require-
be found, which again corresponds
be fully immersed also in this condition,
ment and heavily loaded propellers,
to a particular design rate of revolu-
giving some limitation to the propeller
e.g. container ships, may need 5 or
tion. If, for instance, a lower design
size. This propeller size limitation is not
6-bladed propellers. For vibrational rea-
rate of revolution is desired, the pitch/
particularly valid for container ships as
sons, propellers with certain numbers
diameter ratio has to be increased, and
they rarely sail in ballast condition. All
of blades may be avoided in individual
vice versa, at the cost of efficiency. On
the above factors mean that an exact
cases in order not to give rise to the
the other hand, if a lower design rate
propeller diameter/design draught ra-
excitation of natural frequencies in the
of revolution is desired, and the ships
tio d/D cannot be given here but, as
ships hull or superstructure, Ref. [5].
draught permits, the choice of a larger
a rule-of-thumb, the below mentioned
propeller diame ter may permit such
approximations of the diameter/design
Disk area coefficient
a lower design rate of revolution and
draught ratio d/D can be presented,
The disk area coefficient referred to in
even, at the same time, increase the
and a large diameter d will, normally,
older literature as expanded blade area
propulsive efficiency.
result in a low rate of revolution n.
ratio defines the developed surface

area of the propeller in relation to its
Propeller coefficients J, KT and KQ
Bulk carrier and tanker:
disk area. A factor of 0.55 is consid-
Propeller theory is based on models,
d/D < approximately 0.65
ered as being good. The disk area coef-
but to facilitate the general use of this
ficient of traditional 4-bladed propellers
theory, certain dimensionless propel-
Container ship:
is of little significance, as a higher value
ler coefficients have been introduced
d/D < approximately 0.74
will only lead to extra resistance on the
in relation to the diameter d, the rate
propeller itself and, thus, have little ef-
of revolution n, and the waters mass
fect on the final result.
density r. The three most important of
For strength and production reasons,

the propeller diameter will generally not
these coefficients are mentioned below.
exceed 10.0 metres and a power out-
For ships with particularly heavy-load-
put of about 90,000 kW. The largestdi-
ed propellers, often 5 and 6-bladed
The advance number of the propeller J
ameter propeller manufactured so far is
propellers, the coefficient may have a
is, as earlier mentioned, a dimension-
of 11.0 metres and has four propeller
higher value. On warships it can be as
less expression of the propellers speed
blades.
high as 1.2.
ofadvance VA.
MAN B&W Diesel

However,
it is
recommended
to
ler
accuracy
However,
it III,
is
not
recommended
accuracy
use
class
asnot
this
class
has
a ato
too
Propeller
coefficients
J,J,KTKand
K
accuracy
use
class
III,
as
this
class
has
too
Propeller
coefficients
and
ler
lerler
T
use
class
III,
as
this
class
has
aa
too
ler
Propeller
coefficients
J,J,
KKon
and
KKQQQKQ
use
class
III,
as
this
class
has
too
Propeller
coefficients
and
use
class
III,
as
this
class
has
a
too
Tand
Propeller
coefficients
J,
K
K
T models,
high
tolerance.
This
again
means
that
Propeller
theory
is
based
T
Q
+/
0.5
%
S
Very
high
accuracy
high
tolerance.
This
again
means
that
Propeller
theory
isbased
based
on
models,
+/
0.5
Very
high
accuracy+/
high
tolerance.
This
again
means
that
Propeller
theory
isis
based
on
models,
high
tolerance.
This
again
means
that
Propeller
theory
on
models,
0.5
%
SS S Very
Very
high
accuracy
+/
0.5
%% high
Very
high
accuracy
tolerance.
This
again
means
that
Propeller
theory
is
based
on
models,
+/
0.5
%
S
high
accuracy
the
mean
pitch
tolerance
should
nor
but
to
facilitate
the
general
use
of
this
the
mean
pitch
tolerance
should
nor
but
to
facilitate
the
general
use
of
this
I
High
accuracy
+/
0.75
%
the
mean
pitch
tolerance
should
nor
but
to
facilitate
the
general
use
of
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I
High
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+/
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%
the
mean
pitch
tolerance
should
nor
but
facilitate
the
general
use
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this
mean
pitch
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should
but
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facilitate
the
general
use
of
this
High
accuracy
+/
0.75
mally
bebe
less
than
+/
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%. nor
theory,
certain
dimensionless
propeller
High
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+/
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% the
I I III
High
accuracy
+/
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%%
mally
less
than
+/
1.0
theory,
certain
dimensionless
propeller
mally
be
less
than
+/
1.0
%.
theory,
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dimensionless
propeller
+/
1.00
%% mally
Medium
accuracy
mally
be
less
than
+/
1.0
%.%.
theory,
certain
dimensionless
propeller
be
less
than
+/
1.0
%.
theory,
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dimensionless
propeller
+/
1.00
II
Medium
accuracy
coefficients
have
been
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in
re
+/
1.00
%
II
Medium
accuracy
Medium
accuracy +/
+/
1.00
coefficients
have
been
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inre
re II II
1.00
%%
accuracy
coefficients
have
been
introduced
re
coefficients
have
been
introduced
in
Wide
tolerances
+/
3.00
%
III III Medium
coefficients
have
been
introduced
in
re
The
manufacturing
accuracy
tolerance
lation
totothe
diameter
d,
the
rate
ofinof
rev
Wide
tolerances +/
+/
3.00
The
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lation
the
diameter
d,
the
rate
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Wide
tolerances
3.00
Wide
tolerances
+/
3.00
%% The
The
manufacturing
accuracy
tolerance
lation
to
the
diameter
d,
the
rate
of
rev
Wide
tolerances
+/
3.00
%%
The
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accuracy
tolerance
lation
to
the
diameter
d,
the
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of
rev
manufacturing
tolerance
lation
to
the
diameter
d,
the
rate
of
rev
corresponds
totoa aaccuracy
propeller
speed
toler
olution
n,
and
the
waters
mass
density
corresponds
propeller
speed
toler
olution
n,
and
the
waters
mass
density
corresponds
to
aa
propeller
speed
toler
olution
n,
and
the
waters
mass
density
corresponds
to
propeller
speed
toler
olution
n,
and
the
waters
mass
density
corresponds
to
a
propeller
speed
toler
olution
n,
and
the
waters
mass
density
ance
of
max.
+/
1.0
%.
When
also
inin
three
most
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of
these
..The
ance
of
max.
+/
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%.
When
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The
three
most
important
of
these
Table
5:
Manufacturing
accuracy
classes
ance
of
max.
+/
1.0
%.
When
also
in
The
three
most
important
of
these
.
ance
max.
+/
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When
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The
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these
.
Table
5:
Manufacturing
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classes ance
ofof
max.
+/
1.0
%.%.
When
also
inin
The
three
most
important
of
these
.coefficients
corporating
the
influence
of
the
tolerance
are
mentioned
below.
Table
5:
Manufacturing
accuracy
classes
Table
5:
Manufacturing
accuracy
classes
corporating
the
influence
of
the
tolerance
coefficients
are
mentioned
below.
Table
5:
Manufacturing
accuracy
classes
ofofa apropeller
corporating
the
influence
the
tolerance
coefficients
are
mentioned
below.
corporating
the
influence
of
the
tolerance
coefficients
are
mentioned
below.
propeller
corporating
the
influence
ofof
the
tolerance
coefficients
are
mentioned
below.
ononthe
wake
field
ofofthe
hull,
the
total
apropeller
propeller
the
wake
field
the
hull,
the
total
ofofof
aapropeller
on
the
wake
field
of
the
hull,
the
total
on
the
wake
field
of
the
hull,
the
total
on
the
wake
field
of
the
hull,
the
total
propeller
tolerance
on
the
rate
of
revo
The
advance
number
of
the
propeller
J
propeller
tolerance
on
the
rate
of
revo
The
advance
number
of
the
propeller
J
propeller
tolerance
on
the
rate
of
revo
The
advance
number
of
the
propeller
J
propeller
tolerance
on
the
rate
of
revo
The
advance
number
the
propeller
tolerance
on
the
rate
ofThis
revo
The
number
ofof
propeller
J J Manufacturing accuracy of the propeller propeller
lution
can
bebeupupto
+/
2.0
%.
tol
is,is,advance
asas
earlier
mentioned,
athe
dimensionless
lution
can
to
+/
2.0
%.
This
tol
earlier
mentioned,
adimensionless
dimensionless
Manufacturing
accuracy
of
the
propeller
lution
can
be
up
to
+/
2.0
%.
This
tol
is,
as
earlier
mentioned,
a
dimensionless
lution
can
be
up
to
+/
2.0
%.
This
tol
is,
as
earlier
mentioned,
a
lution
can
be
up
to
+/
2.0
%.
This
tol
Manufacturing
accuracy
of
the
propeller
is,expression
as
earlier
mentioned,
a
dimensionless
Manufacturing
accuracy
of
the
propeller
erance
has
also
to
be
borne
in
mind
of
the
propellers
speed
of
Manufacturing
accuracy
of
the
propeller
erance
has
also
to
be
borne
in
mind
Before
the
manufacturing
of
the
propeller,
expression
of
the
propellers
speed
of
Before
the
manufacturing
ofthe
the
propeller,erance
erance
has
also
be
borne
mind
expression
erance
has
also
to
be
borne
mind
expression
ofthe
thepropellers
propellersspeed
speedofof Before
has
also
toto
be
borne
ininin
mind
Before
the
manufacturing
ofof
the
propeller,
expression
Before
the
manufacturing
propeller,
when
considering
the
operating
condi
advance
VofAof
the
manufacturing
ofclass
the
propeller,
when
considering
the
operating
condi
the
desired
accuracy
class
standard
ofof when
advance
V. the
. propellers speed of
the
desired
accuracy
standard
considering
the
operating
condi
advance
when
considering
the
operating
condi
advance
when
considering
the
operating
condi
the
desired
accuracy
class
standard
of
advance
VVAV.A.A. A
the
desired
accuracy
class
standard
of
tions
of
the
propeller
in
heavy
weather.
the
desired
accuracy
class
standard
of
tions
of
the
propeller
in
heavy
weather.
the
propeller
must
be
chosen
by
the
the
propeller
must
be
chosen
by
the tions
tions
the
propeller
heavy
weather.
tions
the
propeller
heavy
weather.
ofofof
the
propeller
ininin
heavy
weather.
the
propeller
must
be
chosen
by
the
the
propeller
must
be
chosen
by
the
the
propeller
must
chosen
by
the
V AV
customer.
Such
abe
standard
is,
for
ex
customer.
Such
a
standard
is,
for
ex
Shaft
power
A
80,000
dwt
crude
oil
tanker
V
customer.
Such
a
standard
is,
for
ex
V
customer.
Such
is,
ex
J =V AA
Influence
ofofpropeller
diameter
and
customer.
Such
aa
standard
is,(CE),
forfor
ex
ample,
ISO
484/1
standard
1981
(CE),
which
Influence
propeller
diameter
and
ample,
ISO
484/1
1981
1981
which
Influence
propeller
diameter
and
d
J=J= =nA n
Design
draught
= 12.2
m
Influence
of
propeller
diameter
and
JJ=
ample,
ISO
484/1
1981
(CE),
which
Influence
ofof
propeller
diameter
and
kW ISO
ample,
ISO
484/1
1981
(CE),
which
pitch/diameter
ratio
on
propulsive
ample,
484/1
(CE),
which
has
four
different
Accuracy
classes,
dd d
pitch/diameter
ratio
on
propulsive
nnnd
has
four
different
Accuracy
classes,
Ship classes,
speed
= 14.5
kn
pitch/diameter
ratio
on
propulsive
pitch/diameter
ratio
on
propulsive
has
four
different
Accuracy
pitch/diameter
on
propulsive
9,500
has
four
different
Accuracy
classes,
efficiency
has
four
different
classes,
see
Table
5.5. Accuracy
efficiency D. ..Dratio
.
see
Table
efficiency
efficiency
see
Table
5.
see
Table
5.
efficiency
.
D
D
see Table 5.
The
thrust
force
T,T,isisexpressed
AsAsalready
the
highest
pos
D mentioned,
p/d
The
thrust
force
expressed
already
mentioned,
the
highest
pos
9,400
As
already
mentioned,
the
highest
pos
The
thrust
force
T,T,
expressed
The
thrust
force
T,
isthe
expressed
dimenThe
thrust
force
expressed
As
already
mentioned,
the
highest
pos
d = Propeller diameter
The
thrust
force
T,with
isisis
expressed
As
already
mentioned,
the
highest
pos
dimensionless,
help
ofofthe
sible
propulsive
efficiency
required
toto
Each
of
the
classes,
among
other
de
d
dimensionless,
with
the
help
the
sible
propulsive
efficiency
required
Each
of
the
classes,
among
other
de
0.50
dimensionless,
with
the
help
of
the
p/d
=
rati
o
Pitch/diameter
sible
propulsive
efficiency
required
to
dimensionless,
with
the
help
of
the
sible
propulsive
efficiency
required
to
Each
the
classes,
among
other
de
Each
of
the
classes,
among
other
de sible
dimensionless,
of thrust
the co- Each
propulsive
required
to
sionless,
withwith
theKthe
help
of the
thrust
coefficient
, as
ofof
the
classes,
among
other
de
provide
a agiven
ship
isisobtained
p/d speed
p/d
tails,
specifies
the
maximum
allowable
9,300
6.6
mefficiency
thrust
coefficient
, help
as
provide
given
ship
speed
obtained
tails,
specifies
the
maximum
allowable
Tas
thrust
coefficient
KKT,TK,as
provide
aa
given
ship
speed
isis
obtained
thrust
coefficient
tails,
specifies
the
maximum
allowable
provide
given
ship
speed
obtained
tails,
specifies
the
maximum
allowable
thrust
coefficient
provide
a
given
ship
speed
is
obtained
tails,
specifies
the
maximum
allowable
0.67
with
the
largest
possible
propeller
dia
tolerance
on
the
mean
design
pitch
of
efficient
KT, as KT, Tas
with
the
largest
possible
propeller
dia
tolerance
on
the
mean
design
pitch
1.00
with
the
largest
possible
propeller
dia
tolerance
on
the
mean
design
pitch
ofofof with
with
the
largest
possible
propeller
dia
tolerance
on
the
mean
design
pitch
9,200
the
largest
possible
propeller
dia
tolerance
on
the
mean
design
pitch
of
TT
the
manufactured
propeller,
and
meter
d,
in
combination
with
the
corre
the
manufactured
propeller,
and
meter
d,
in
combination
with
the
corre
T
the
manufactured
propeller,
and
meter
d,
in
combination
with
the
corre
= = T 2T 2 4 4
KK
the
manufactured
propeller,
and
meter
d,
combination
with
the
corre
6.8d,m
the
manufactured
propeller,
and
in in
combination
with
the
corre
T
thereby
the
tolerance
ononthe
correspond
sponding,
optimum
pitch/diameter
ra
0.95 on
thereby
the
tolerance
the
correspond meter

2n2 2n
d4
sponding,
optimum
pitch/diameter
ra
0.68
9,100
KKTKT=T =T=
thereby
the
tolerance
the
correspond
sponding,
optimum
pitch/diameter
ra
thereby
the
tolerance
on
the
correspond
sponding,
optimum
pitch/diameter
ra
thereby
the
tolerance
on
the
correspond
sponding,
optimum
pitch/diameter
ra
d4d d4
0.55
ing
propeller
speed
(rate
of
revolution).
tio
p/d.

nnnd
ing
propeller
speed
(rate
of
revolution).
tio
p/d.
ing
propeller
speed
(rate
revolution).
ing
propeller
speed
(rate
revolution). tio
tio
p/d.
tio
p/d.
ing
propeller
speed
(rate
ofofof
revolution).
0.90
p/d.
9,000
7.0 m
Power and speed curve
0.69
and
the
propeller
torque
and
the
propeller
torque
0.85
and
the
propeller
torque
and
the
propeller
torque
0.60 for the given pr opelle r
and
the
propeller
torque
8,900
and
the
propeller
torque
diameter d = 7.2 m with
7.2 m
0.80
different p/d
PDP
8,800
0.75
0.65
D
0.70 oil tanker
PD
QQ
= =PP
Shaft
power
80,000
dwt
crude
D D
Shaft
power
80,000
dwt
crude
oil
tanker
nn
2
Shaft
power
80,000
dwt
crude
tanker
Shaft
power
QQQ
===2
80,000
dwt
crude
oil
tanker
2nn
Shaft
power
80,000
crude
tanker
7.4
mdwt
Design
draught
=oiloil
12.2
mm
8,700
kW
Design
draught
=
12.2
22
n
and speed curve
kW
0.71
Design
draught
= 12.2
m Power
expressed
dimensionlesswith
with
the
isisis
expressed
dimensionless
the
expressed
dimensionless
with
the
is
expressed
dimensionless
with
the
is
expressed
dimensionless
with
the
is help
expressed
dimensionless
withKQQK
the
helpofof
ofthe
the
torque
coefficient
, as
as
torque
coefficient
help
the
torque
coefficient
, as
Qas
help
the
torque
coefficient
help
the
torque
coefficient
,as
help
ofofof
the
torque
coefficient
KKQK,QQ,as
QQ
KK
= = QQQ
2
5
Q
2
5
Q
K
=

d5d
n
K
=
K Q Q=
5
n2n2 2n
Q

n dd5d
The propeller efficiency can be cal-
The
propeller
efficiency
bebecal
Ocan
The
propeller
efficiency
canbe
cal
culated
with
the
helpOof
aboveOthebe
The
propeller
efficiency
can
cal
The
propeller
efficiency
can
cal
The
propeller
efficiency
can
be
cal
O abovemen
culated
with
the
help
of
the
O
culated
with
the
help
of
the
abovemen
culated
with
the
help
of
the
abovemen
culated
with
the
help
of
the
abovemen
mentioned
coefficients,
because,
as
culated
with
the
help
ofbecause,
the
abovemen
tioned
coefficients,
because,
asaspreviously
tioned
coefficients,
previously
tioned
coefficients,
because,
as
previously
tioned
coefficients,
because,
as
previously
tioned
coefficients,
because,
as
previously
mentioned,
the
propeller
efficiency
is

previously
mentioned,
the
propeller
efO is
mentioned,
the
propeller
efficiency
O
mentioned,
the
propeller
efficiency
isis
mentioned,
the
propeller
efficiency
mentioned,
the
propeller
efficiency
OOis
O
defined
as:
defined
as:
ficiency
o is defined as:
defined
as:
defined
as:
defined as:
P
T T
V AV
KT
J
T JJ J
PT TPT= =TTT
KTK
=PP
J
VVAVAA A =KK
=
T= T
T T

== PD=P== QQ
2
n=n= KK
=
2
Q
2 n=
2

PD D QQ222
PP
n n KKQKQQ Q222
D D Q
Design
draught =
12.2
kW
Design
draught
mm
kW
Ship
speed
==
14.5
knfor
kW
Ship
speed = 12.2
14.5
knvarious pr opelle r
9,500
dShip
Ship
speed
kn
9,500
speed ==14.5
=14.5
14.5
kndiameters d with
8,600
Ship
speed
kn
p/d
9,500
9,500
9,500
p/d
optimum p/d
p/d
9,400
p/d
9,400
p/d
dd
diameter
==
Propeller
8,500
p/d
9,400
diameter
Propeller
9,400
d
9,400
d
diameter
=
Propeller
0.50
d Propeller
diameter
= Pitch/diameter
Propeller
d
d p/d
diameter
=
0.50
p/d
=
ratio
= Pitch/diameter
ratio
0.50
ddd p/d
0.50
p/d
9,300
6.6
m
p/d
ratio
p/d 0.50
p/d
p/d
=Pitch/diameter
ratio
Pitch/diameter
9,300
6.6
m p/d
90
100
110
120
p/d
==Pitch/diameter
ratio
p/d
p/d130 r/min
9,300
6.6
p/d80
9,30070
6.6
p/d
p/d
9,300
6.6
mmm 0.67
0.67
1.00
0.67
Propeller
0.67 speed
1.00
0.67
9,200
1.00
1.00
9,200
1.00
9,200
9,200
9,200
6.8
mm
6.8
6.8
6.8
9,100
0.95 of diameter and pitch
Fig.9:
Propeller design0.95
-0.95
influence
6.8
mmm 0.68
0.68
9,100
0.95
0.68
9,100
0.68 0.55
0.95
9,100
0.68
0.55
9,100
0.55
0.55
0.55
0.90
9,000
0.90
9,000
7.0
m
0.90
0.90
7.0 m 0.69
9,000
Power
and
speed
curve
0.90
9,000
9,000
Power
and
speed
curve
7.0
7.0
0.69
7.0
mmm 0.69
Power
and
speed
curve
0.85
Power
and
speed
curve
Power
and
speed
curve
0.69 0.60
0.85
forfor
the
given
propeller
0.69
8,900
the
given
propeller
0.60
0.85
0.85
8,900
for
the
given
0.60
for
the
given
propeller
m
0.60accuracy
Manufacturing
accuracy0.85
of the0.80
propeller 7.2
8,900
8,900
for
the
given
0.60
The
tolerance
diameter
dpropeller
=propeller
7.2
mm
with
7.2
m manufacturing
8,900
0.80 7.2
diameter
d
=
7.2
with
7.2
7.2
0.80
diameter
dp/d
with
mmm
0.80
diameter
d=7.2
=7.2
7.2
with
0.80
diameter
d
=
mmm
with
8,800
different
0.75
0.65
8,800
different
p/d
0.70
Before
the
manufacturing
of
the
propelcorresponds
to
a
propeller
speed
tol0.75
0.65
8,800
different
p/d
0.70 0.65
8,800
0.75
different
p/d
0.75
0.65
8,800
different
p/d
0.70
0.75
0.70 0.65
0.70
7.4
mm
ler,8,700
the
desired accuracy class standard
erance of max.
+/
1.0
%. When
also
7.4
8,700
Power
and
speed
curve
7.4
0.71
8,700
Power
and
speed
curve
7.4
8,700
7.4
mmm 0.71
0.71
8,700
Power
and
speed
curve
Power
and
speed
curve
Power
and
speed
curve
0.71 incorporating
forfor
various
propeller
d by the
of 8,600
the propeller must be chosen
the
influence
of the toler0.71
various
propeller
for
various
propeller
d d p/d
for
various
8,600
for
various
propeller
p/d
diameters
dpropeller
with
8,600
8,600 Such a standard dis,d for
p/d
diameters
d
with
p/d
8,600
customer.
exance
on
the
wake
field
of
the
hull, the
p/d
diameters
dwith
diameters
dwith
with
diameters
dp/d
optimum
8,500
optimum
p/d Propeller speed
8,500
optimum
p/d
optimum
p/d
Propeller
speed
8,500
optimum
p/d
ample,
total propeller
tolerance
on
the
ratespeed
of
8,500ISO 484/1 1981 (CE), which
Propeller
speed
8,500
Propeller
speed
Propeller
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
r/min
has four70
different
Accuracy
classes,
revolution
can
be
up
to
+/
2.0
%.
This
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
r/min
80
90
100
110
120
130
r/min
80
90
100
110
120
130
r/min
7070
80
90
100
110
120
130
r/min
With
the
help
ofofspecial
and
very
com
With
the
help
special
and
very
com
With
the
help
special
and
very
com
With
the
help
and
very
com
With
the
help
ofofof
special
and
very
com
plicated
propeller
diagrams,
which
With
the
help
ofspecial
special
and
very
complicated
propeller
diagrams,
which
plicated
propeller
diagrams,
which
plicated
propeller
diagrams,
which
plicated
propeller
whichit itisis
contain,
i.a.
J,J,Kdiagrams,
and
KQKcurves,
T
contain,
i.a.
Kand
and
curves,
plicated
propeller
diagrams,
see Table 5.
tolerance has also to be borne in mind
T
Q
contain,
i.a.
J,J,
curves,
isis
contain,
i.a.
and
curves,
itwhich
contain,
i.a.
J,find/calculate
KKTKTand
KKQKQcurves,
ititis
T
Q the propellers
possible
to
possible
to
find/calculate
the
propellers
possible
to
find/calculate
the
propellers
contain,
i.a.
J,
K
and
K
curves,
it
is
when
considering
the operating condipossible
to
find/calculate
the
propellers
possible
to find/calculate
the
T
Qpropellers
dimensions,
efficiency,
thrust,
power,
etc.
Fig.
9:9:Propeller
design
influence
ofofdiameter
and
pitch
dimensions,
efficiency,
thrust,
power,
etc. Fig.
Fig.
Propeller
design
influence
diameter
and
pitch
dimensions,
efficiency,
thrust,
power,
etc.
9:
Propeller
design
influence
of
diameter
and
pitch
dimensions,
efficiency,
thrust,
power,
etc.
Fig.
9:
Propeller
design
influence
of
diameter
and
pitch
dimensions,
thrust,the
power,
etc. Fig.
9: Propeller
design among
influence
of diameter
and of
pitch
possible efficiency,
to find/calculate
propellers
Each
of the classes,
other
detions
the propeller in heavy weather.
dimensions, efficiency, thrust, power,
14etc.
14
1414
14
tails, specifies the maximum allowable

tolerance on the mean design pitch of
Influence of propeller diameter and pitch/
the manufactured propeller, and there-
diameter ratio on propulsive efficiency D.
by the tolerance on the corresponding
As already mentioned, the highest pos-
Class Manufacturing
accuracy

Mean pitch
for propeller
propeller speed (rate of revolution).
sible propulsive efficiency required to
Very high accuracy
+/ 0.5 %
The price of the propeller, of course,
with the largest possible propeller di-
High accuracy
+/ 0.75 %
depends on the selected accuracy
ameter d, in combination with the cor-
II
Medium accuracy
+/ 1.00 %
class, with the lowest price for class
responding, optimum pitch/diameter
III
Wide tolerances
+/ 3.00 %
III. However, it is not recommended to
ratio p/d.
ISO 484/1 1981 (CE)
Table 5: Manufacturing accuracy

classes of a propeller
provide a given ship speed is obtained
use class III, as this class has a too high

tolerance. This again means that the
As an example for an 80,000 dwt crude
mean pitch tolerance should normally
oil tanker, with a service ship speed of
be less than +/ 1.0 %.
14.5 knots and a maximum possible
propeller diameter of 7.2 m, this influ-
Pitch p
ence is shown in Fig. 9.
Slip
According to the blue curve, the maximum possible propeller diameter of 7.2
m may have the optimum pitch/diameter ratio of 0.70, and the lowest possible shaft power of 8,820 kW at 100
r/min. If the pitch for this diameter is
0.7 x r
d
r
changed, the propulsive efficiency will

be reduced, i.e. the necessary shaft
power will increase, see the red curve.
Sxpxn
V or VA
The blue curve shows that if a bigger
pxn
propeller diameter of 7.4 m is possible,

the necessary shaft power will be re-
pxn_V
V
=1_
pxn
pxn
p x n _ VA
VA
: SR =
=1_
pxn
pxn
The apparent slip ratio : SA =
duced to 8,690 kW at 94 r/min, i.e. the

bigger the propeller, the lower the opti-
The real slip ratio
mum propeller speed.
Fig.10: Movement of a ships propeller, with pitch p ang slip ratio S
The red curve also shows that propulsion-wise it will always be an advantage
to choose the largest possible propel-
Velocity of corkscrew: V = p x n
Pitch p
ler diameter, even though the optimum

pitch/diameter ratio would involve a
too low propeller speed (in relation to
the required main engine speed). Thus,
when using a somewhat lower pitch/
diameter ratio, compared with the opti-
mum ratio, the propeller/ engine speed
may be increased and will only cause a

minor extra power increase.
Operating conditions of a propeller
Slip ratio S
Corkscrew
Cork
Wine bottle
If the propeller had no slip, i.e. if the

water which the propeller screws it-
Fig.11: Movement of a corkscrew, without slip
self through did not yield (i.e. if the water did not accelerate aft), the propeller
The similar situation is shown in Fig. 11
yield (i.e. accelerate aft), the propellers
would move forward at a speed of V =
for a cork screw, and because the cork
apparent speed forward decreases with
p n, where n is the propellers rate of
is a solid material, the slip is zero and,
its slip and becomes equal to the ships
revolution, see Fig. 10.
therefore, the cork screw always moves
speed V, and its apparent slip can thus
forward at a speed of V = p n. How-
be expressed as p n V.
ever, as the water is a fluid and does
MAN B&W Diesel

pxn
e
i
he
1
rk
pxn_V
V
=1_
pxn
pxn
p x n _ VA
VA
: SR =
=1_
pxn
pxn
The apparent slip ratio : SA =

The real slip ratio
a
.
Sxpxn
V or VA
e,
Fig. 10: Movement of a ships propeller, with pitch p and slip ratio S
The apparent slip ratio SA, which is

dimensionless, is defined as:
The apparent slip ratio SA, which is cal

culated by the crew, provides useful
knowledge as it gives an impression of
a ship
equipped
a fixedunder
pitch
theFor
loads
applied
to thewith
propeller
different
operating
propeller,
i.e. aconditions.
propeller The
with ap
unparent slip ratio increases when the
A ship with a fouled hull will, conse-
changeable pitch, the ship speed V will
which will give rise to a heavy propel-
The apparent slip ratio SA, which is di-
be proportional to the rate of revolution
ler condition, i.e. at the same propel-
mensionless, is defined as:
n, thus: P = c
ler power, the rate of revolution will be
SA =
p nV
V
=1
p n
p n
The apparent
ratio SA,Vwhich
Velocity ofslip
corkscrew:
= p x nis cal-
n3
Pitch p
quently, be subject to extra resistance
lower. The propeller law now applies to
culated by the crew, provides useful
which precisely expresses the propeller
another and heavier propeller curve
knowledge as it gives an impression of
law, which states that the necessary
than that applying to the clean hull, pro-
the loads applied to the propeller un-
power delivered to the propeller is pro-
peller curve, Ref. [3], page 243.
der different operating conditions. The
portional to the rate of revolution to the
apparent slip ratio increases when the
power of three.
vessel sails against the wind or waves,
V for esti
sonable relationship to be used
and heavy weather). These diagrams us
Actual
measurements
that the
against
the current,
strong
wind,lines
mations
in the normalshow
ship speed
rangeseaing
logarithmic
scalesa and
straight
could be
follows:
described
detailalso
in Chapter
3.
power
andasengine
speedn relationship
andare
heavy
waves, in
where
the heavy
vessel sails against the wind or waves,

shallow
waters,
when
ininshallow
waters,
when
thethe
hull hull
is is
fouled,
fouled,and
andwhen
whenthe
the ship
ship accelerates.
accelerates.
Under increased resistance, this in
Under increased resistance, this involves that the propeller speed (rate of
volves thathas
thetopropeller
speed in
(rate
of
revolution)
be increased
order
torevolution)
maintain the
ship speed.
has required
to be increased
in order
The same relative considerations apply when the ship is sailing in a heavy
for a given weather condition is fairly
waves in tail wind may give rise to a
reasonable,
whereas
tainer vessels:
P =the
c power
V 4.5 and
heavier
propeller
than when
increased
shiprunning
resistance
For large highspeed ships like con
ship speed relationship is often seen
Propeller performance in general at
The difference
between
running
in calm weather.
Onthe
theabovemen
other
tioned light and heavy running propeller

hand, if the ship is sailing in ballast
curves may be explained by an exam
The real slip ratio will be greater than
ships like feeder container ships,
relationship
to beetc.:
usedPfor
a lower
ple, seei.e.
Fig.with
12, for
a shipdisplaceusing, as ref
the apparent slip ratio because the real sonable
reefers,
RoRo ships,
= cesti V 4.0 condition,
erence,
15
knots
and
100%
propulsion
speed
of advance
of
the
propeller
is,
mations
in
the
normal
ship
speed
range
ment,
the
propeller
law
now
applies
to
The real
slip ratio Vwill
be
greater
than
A
power
when
running
with
a
clean
hull in
as
previously
mentioned,
less
than
the
For
lowspeed
ships
like
tankers
and
Fig. 11:
a corkscrew,
without
slip could be as follows:
a lighter propeller curve, i.e. at the
theMovement
apparent of
slip
ratio because
the real
calm weather conditions. With 15% more
ships speed V.
bulk carriers, and small feeder con
same
propeller
power, the propeller
speed of advance SA, of the propeller
power,
the corresponding
ship speed
tainer ships, etc.: P = c V 3.5
increasewill
from
to 15.6 knots.
The
slip ratio Smentioned,
a truer
For large high-speed ships like
ratemay
of revolution
be15.0
higher.
is, real
as previously
less
than
R, which gives
picture
of the
propellers
function, is:
Propeller
for heavy
4.5
containerlawvessels:
P running
= c propeller
V15
the ships
speed
V.
As described in Chapter 3, and com
The propeller law, of course, can only
As mentioned
for shipsconditions,
with
pared withpreviously,
the calm weather
VA
V (1 w )
be applied to identical ship running
SR =1
=1
it
is
normal
to
incorporate
an
extra
conditions.
For medium-sized,
medium-speed
a
fixed
pitch
propeller,
the
propeller
law
When, for example, the
p n
p n
power
margin,
the
socalled
sea
ships
hull
after
some
time
in
service
ships like feeder container ships,
is extensively used at part load run-mar
gin, which is often chosen to be 15%.
has become fouled and thus become
realtrials
slip ratio
SR,which
givesspeed
a trueris more
reefers,
RoRo
= cbe
different
V 4.0
ning.
It is
therefore
alsocorresponds
used in MANto ex
This
power
margin
rough,
theships,
wakeetc.:
field Pwill
AtThe
quay
where
the ships
traDiesels
resistance
on the
shipand
caused
of the
function,
is:
engine
layout
load by
from that of the smooth ship (clean hull) B&W
V picture
= 0, both
slip propellers
ratios are 1.0.
Incidentally,
the weather
conditions.
However,
at trial trip conditions.
slip ratios are often given in percentages. valid
For low-speed ships like tankers and
diagrams
to specify
the engines
op- for
very rough weather conditions the influ
At quay trials where the ships speed is
and small
feeder
conerational
light running
ence curves
may beformuch
greater,condias de
A bulk
ship carriers,
with a fouled
hull will,
conse
Propeller
law in general
3.5
scribed
in
Chapter
1.
V
=
0,
both
slip
ratios
are
1.0.
Incidentainer
ships,
etc.:
P
=
c
V
tions
(i.e.
clean
hull
and
calm weather)
quently, be subject to extra resistance
As discussed in Chapter 1, the resis
which will give rise to a heavy propeller and heavy running conditions (i.e. for
tance
forratios
lowerare
ship
speeds
tally, Rslip
often
givenisinpro
perIn Fig. 12a, the propulsion power is
condition,
i.e.heavy
at the
same
propeller
portional to the square of the ships
Propeller
law for
running
propeller
centages.
hull as
anda heavy
weather).
These
shown
function
of the ship
speed.
power, the rate of revolution will be lower. fouled
speed
V, i.e.:
When using
the resistance
increases
to a
The propeller law, of course, can only
diagrams
logarithmic
scales and
level lines
which
15%
Theapplied
propeller
now applies
to an straight
Propeller lawRin=general
c V2
be
to law
identical
ship running
arerequires
described
in extra
detail power
in
to maintain a ship speed of 15 knots,
other and heavier propeller curve
As discussed in Chapter 1, the resistconditions. When, for example, the
Chapter
3.
the operating
point A will move towards
than that applying to the clean hull,
where c is a constant. The necessary
point
B.
ance
R
for
lower
ship
speeds
is
proporships
hull
after
some
time
in
service
propeller curve, Ref. [3], page 243.
power requirement P is thus propor
Propeller performance in general at intional
theships
power
of
tionaltotothe
thespeed
squareVoftothe
speed
has become fouled and thus become
In Fig.
12b the propulsion power is
2
The same relative considerations apply creased
three,
thus:
ship resistance
V, i.e.: R = c V
more rough, the wake field will be differnow shown as a function of the propeller
when the ship is sailing in a heavy sea
ent
from that
of the smooth
shipwind,
(cleanand Thespeed.
difference
between
As a first
guess itthe
will aboveoften be as
against
the current,
a strong
P = R V = c V3
sumed that
moverunning
towards B
heavy
waves,
also the heavy
where c is a constant. The necessary
hull)
valid
at trial where
trip conditions.
mentioned
lightpoint
andA will
heavy
because an unchanged propeller speed
waves in tail wind may give rise to a
For
a
ship
equipped
with
a
fixed
pitch
power requirement P is thus proporpropeller
mayunchanged
be explained
by the
impliescurves
that, with
pitch,
heavier propeller running than when
propeller, i.e. a propeller with unchange
tional
to
the
speed
V
to
the
power
of
an
example,
see
Fig.
12,
for
a
ship
uspropeller will move through the water
running in calm weather. On the other
able pitch, the ship speed V will be pro
at an unchanged speed.
hand, if the ship is sailing in ballast
portional
to the
rate
three, thus:
P=
R ofVrevolution
= c V3 n, thus:
condition, i.e. with a lower displace
If the propeller was a corkscrew moving
ment, the propeller law now applies to
P = c n3
through cork, this assumption would
a lighter propeller curve, i.e. at the
be correct. However, water is not solid
same
propeller
power,
the
propeller
which precisely expresses the propeller
as cork but will yield, and the propeller
rate of revolution will be higher.
law, which states that the necessary
to maintain
the required ship speed.
Corkscrew
Cork
For
mediumsized,
mediumspeed
with
a higher
power than
three. A reaWine bottle
Power
15.0 knots
115% power
B
Power
15.0 knots
115% power
Slip
Slip
D
B
15.6 knots
115% power
15.6 knots
115% power
15% Sea
margin
Propeller curve for clean

hull and calm weather
15.0 knots
100% power
A
(Logarithmic scales)
Propeller curve
for clean hull and
calm weather
15.0 knots
100% power
Ship speed
A
Propeller speed
Power
15.0 knots
100% power
15%
Sea
margin
12.3 knots
100% power
Propeller curve
for fouled hull
and heavy
seas
Propeller curve
for clean hull and
calm weather
10.0 knots
50% power
HR
LR
12.3 knots
C 50% power
HR = Heavy running
LR = Light running Propeller speed
Fig. 12a: Ship speed performance at 15% sea
Fig. 12b: Propeller speed performance at 15%
Fig. 12c: Propeller speed performance at large
margin
sea margin
extra ship resistance
ing, as reference, 15 knots and 100%
In Fig. 12b the propulsion power is now
sponding to an extra power demand of
propulsion power when running with a
shown as a function of the propeller
the magnitude of 100% or even higher.
clean hull in calm weather conditions.
speed. As a first guess it will often be
An example is shown in Fig. 12c.
With 15% more power, the correspond-
assumed that point A will move towards
ing ship speed may increase from 15.0
B because an unchanged propeller
In this example, where 100% power
to 15.6 knots.
speed implies that, with unchanged
will give a ship speed of 15.0 knots,
pitch, the propeller will move through
point A, a ship speed of, for instance,
the water at an unchanged speed.
12.3 knots at clean hull and in calm
As described in Chapter 3, and compared with the calm weather condi-
weather conditions, point C, will require
tions, it is normal to incorporate an
If the propeller was a corkscrew moving
about 50% propulsion power but, at
extra power margin, the so-called sea
through cork, this assumption would
the above-mentioned heavy running
margin, which is often chosen to be
be correct. However, water is not solid
conditions, it might only be possible to
15%. This power margin corresponds
as cork but will yield, and the propel-
obtain the 12.3 knots by 100% propul-
to extra resistance on the ship caused
ler will have a slip that will increase with
sion power, i.e. for 100% power going
by the weather conditions. However,
increased thrust caused by increased
from point A to D. Running point D may
for very rough weather conditions the
hull resistance. Therefore, point A will
now be placed relatively far to the left of
influence may be much greater, as de-
move towards B which, in fact, is very
point A, i.e. very heavy running. Such
scribed in Chapter 1.
close to the propeller curve through A.
a situation must be considered when
Point B will now be positioned on a pro-
layingout the main engine in relation to
In Fig. 12a, the propulsion power is
peller curve which is slightly heavy run-
the layout of the propeller, as described
shown as a function of the ship speed.
ning compared with the clean hul and
in Chapter 3.
When the resistance increases to a
calm weather propeller curve.
level which requires 15% extra power
A scewed propeller (with bent blade
to maintain a ship speed of 15 knots,
Sometimes, for instance when the hull
tips) is more sensitive to heavy run-
the operating point A will move towards
is fouled and the ship is sailing in heavy
ning than a normal propeller, because
point B.
seas in a head wind, the increase in re-
the propeller is able to absorb a higher
sistance may be much greater, corre-
torque in heavy running conditions. For
MAN B&W Diesel
a ducted propeller, the opposite effect

is obtained.
Heavy
running
BHP
21,000
Shaft power
Ap
10% pare
6% nt
2% slip
2%
Heavy waves and sea and wind against

When sailing in heavy sea against, with
18,000
heavy wave resistance, the propeller can be up to 7-8% heavier running

than in calm weather, i.e. at the same
15,000
propeller power, the rate of revolution

may be 7-8% lower. An example valid
for a smaller container ship is shown in
12,000
Fig. 13. The service data is measured

over a period of one year and only includes the influence of weather condi-
9,000 13
tions! The measuring points have been

reduced to three average weather conditions and show, for extremely bad
6,000
weather conditions, an average heavy

running of 6%, and therefore, in practice, the heavy running has proved to
be even greater.
C
B
A
B
A
16
Sh
ip
kn spe19
ot ed
s
76
80
Extremely bad weather
6%
Average weather
3%
Extremely good weather 0%
In order to avoid slamming of the ship,

and thereby damage to the stem and
88
92
96
100 r/min
Propeller speed
Clean hull and draught D

DMEAN = 6.50 m
DF
= 5.25 m
DA
= 7.75 m
Source: Lloyd's Register
racing of the propeller, the ship speed

will normally be reduced by the navigat-
22
84
Fig. 13: Service data over a period of a year returned from a single screw container ship
ing officer on watch.

Another measured example is shown
and the engines operating point will be
be subjected to a larger load than dur-
in Fig. 14, and is valid for a reefer ship
heavy running, as it takes some time
ing free sailing, and the propeller will be
during its sea trial. Even though the
before the propeller speed has reached
heavy running.
wind velocity is relatively low, only 2.5
its new and higher level. An example
m/s, and the wave height is 4 m, the
with two different accelerations, for an
Influence of displacement
measurements indicate approx. 1.5%
engine without electronic governor and
When the ship is sailing in the loaded
heavy running when sailing in head
scavenge air pressure limiter, is shown
condition, the ships displacement vol-
wind out, compared with when sailing
in Fig. 15. The load diagram and scav-
ume may, for example, be 10% high-
in tail wind on return.
enge air pressure limiter are described
er or lower than for the displacement
in Chapter 3.
valid for the average loaded condition.
Ship acceleration
This, of course, has an influence on the
When the ship accelerates, the propel-
Shallow waters
ships resistance, and the required pro-
ler will be subjected to an even larger
When sailing in shallow waters, the re-
peller power, but only a minor influence
load than during free sailing. The power
sidual resistance of the ship may be in-
on the propeller curve.
required for the propeller, therefore, will
creased and, in the same way as when
be relatively higher than for free sailing,
the ship accelerates, the propeller will
Shaft power
% SMCR
105
SMCR
100
5
95
90
85
80
fast-going ship with a relatively larger
SMCR: 13,000 kW x 105 r/min

Wind velocity : 2.5 m/s
Wave height : 4 m
Head wind
Tail wind
*22.0
22.3 *
99
100
101 102
may be slowed down faster by waves

an axe-shaped upper bow may better
e"
rv
u
Propeller design
rc
Heavy
light running
lle
e
running
op
r
"p
20.5
21.8
ne
* * 20.5 *
gi
En
"
21.5
d
in
w 21.1 *
d
*
ea
" h 20.8*
e
v
ur
rc
*21.2
ll e
21.1 *
e
p
e
o
rv
Pr
cu "
r
d
le n
el wi
op tail
r
P "
98
4 Ships with a flat stem

than a ship with a sharp stem. Thus
96
97
force than on the slow-going ship.
cut the waves and thereby reduce the

heavy running tendency.
5 Fouling of the hull and propeller
will increase both hull resistance and
3
propeller torque. Polishing the propeller

(especially the tips) as often as possible (also when in water) has a positive
effect. The use of effective anti-fouling
paints will prevent fouling caused by living organisms.
103 104 105 % SMCR

Propeller/engine speed
6 Ship acceleration
will increase the propeller torque, and
thus give a temporarily heavy running
Fig. 14: Measured relationship between power, propeller and ship speed during seatrial of a reefer ship
propeller.
7 Sailing in shallow waters
On the other hand, when the ship is
1 Relatively small ships (<70,000 dwt)
increases the hull resistance and re-
sailing in the ballast condition, the dis-
such as reefers and small container
duces the ships directional stability.
placement volume, compared to the
ships are sensitive whereas large ships,
loaded condition, can be much lower,
such as large tankers and container
8 Ships with scewed propeller
and the corresponding propeller curve
ships, are less sensitive because the
are able to absorb a higher torque un-
may apply to, for example, a 2% light-
waves are relatively small compared to
der heavy running conditions.
er propeller curve, i.e. for the same
the ship size.

Manoeuvring speed
power to the propeller, the rate of revo2 Small ships (Lpp < 135m 20,000
Below a certain ship speed, called the
dwt)
manoeuvring speed, the manoeuvrabil-
Parameters causing heavy running propeller
have low directional stability and,
ity of the rudder is insufficient because
Together with the previously described
therefore, require frequent rudder cor-
of a too low velocity of the water ar-
operating parameters which cause a
rections, which increase the ship re-
riving at the rudder. It is rather difficult
heavy running propeller, the parameters
sistance (a self-controlled rudder will
to give an exact figure for an adequate
summarised below may give an indica-
reduce such resistance).
manoeuvring speed of the ship as the
lution will be 2% higher.
velocity of the water arriving at the
tion of the risk/sensitivity of getting a

heavy running propeller when sailing in
3 High-speed ships
rudder depends on the propellers slip
heavy weather and rough seas:
are more sensitive than low-speed
stream.
ships because the waves will act on the
MAN B&W Diesel

Thus, also the pilot has to know pre-
Engine shaft power % A
cisely how the ship reacts in a given
A 100% reference point

M Specied engine MCR
O Optimising point
110
100
situation. It is therefore an unwritten
A=M
7
5
law that on a ship fitted with a fixed

pitch propeller, the propeller is always
90
designed for clockwise rotation when

sailing ahead. A direct coupled main
engine, of course, will have the same
80
mep
110%
70
rotation.
10
8 4
100%
In order to obtain the same side-thrust
effect, when reversing to astern, on
90%
60
ships fitted with a controllable pitch

propeller, CP-propellers are designed
80%
for anti-clockwise rotation when sailing
50
70%
ahead.
60%
40
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100 105
Engine speed, % A
Fig. 15: Load diagram - acceleration
Often a manoeuvring speed of the mag-
direction, i.e. pushing the ships stem to
nitude of 3.5-4.5 knots is mentioned.
port, during normal ahead running. This
According to the propeller law, a cor-
has to be counteracted by the rudder.
respondingly low propulsion power will

be needed but, of course, this will be
When reversing the propeller to astern
higher for running in heavy weather with
running as, for example, when berthing
increased resistance on the ship.
alongside the quay, the side-thrust effect is also reversed and becomes fur-
Direction of propeller rotation (side thrust)
ther pronounced as the ships speed
When a ship is sailing, the propeller
decreases. Awareness of this behav-
blades bite more in their lowermost po-
iour is very important in critical situa-
sition than in their uppermost position.
tions and during harbour manoeuvres.
The resulting side-thrust effect is larger

the more shallow the water is as, for
According to ef. [5], page 15-3, the real
example, during harbour manoeuvres.
reason for the appearance of the side

thrust during reversing of the propeller
Therefore, a clockwise (looking from aft
is that the upper part of the propellers
to fore) rotating propeller will tend to
slip stream, which is rotative, strikes the
push the ships stern in the starboard
aftbody of the ship.
Chapter 3
Thus, propeller curves will be parallel

to lines having the inclination i = 3, and
Engine Layout and Load Diagrams
lines with constant mep will be parallel
Power functions and logarithmic
to lines with the inclination i = 1.
scales
y = ax + b
2
a
As is well-known, the effective brake
Therefore, in the layout and load dia-
power PB of a diesel engine is propor-
grams for diesel engines, as described
tional to the mean effective pressure
in the following, logarithmic scales are
(mep) pe and engine speed (rate of rev-
used, making simple diagrams with
olution) n. When using c as a constant,
straight lines.
0
1
2
A. Straight lines in linear scales
Propulsion and engine running
y = log (PB)
PB may then be expressed as follows:

P B= c p e n
points
or, in other words, for constant mep the
Normally, estimations of the necessary
power is proportional to the speed:
propeller power and speed are based
b
X
y = log (PB) = log (c x n )
i=0
Propeller design point PD
i=1
on theoretical calculations for loaded

PB = c n1 (for constant mep)
ship, and often experimental tank tests,

both
assuming
optimum
operating
As already mentioned when running
conditions, i.e. a clean hull and good
with a fixed pitch propeller the power
weather. The combination of speed
may, according to the propeller law, be
and power obtained may be called the
expressed as:
ships propeller design point PD placed

on the light running propeller curve 6,
PB = c
n3
(propeller law)
see Fig. 17. On the other hand, some

shipyards and/or propeller manufactur-
i=2
x = log (n)
i=3
PB = engine brake power

c = constant
n = engine speed
log(PB) = i x log(n) + log(c)
PB = c x ni
y
ax + b
=
B. Power function curves
in logarithmic scales
Thus, for the above examples, the
ers sometimes use a propeller design
brake power PB may be expressed as
point PD that incorporates all or part
a function of the speed n to the power
of the so-called sea margin described
Fig. 16: Relationship between linear functions
of i, i.e.
below.
using logarithmic scales
PB = c ni
Fouled hull
surface (at sea trial) when the ship is
When the ship has been sailing for
delivered. This means that the inevita-
Fig. 16 shows the relationship between
some time, the hull and propeller be-
ble build-up of the surface roughness
the linear functions, y = ax + b, see (A),
come fouled and the hulls resistance
on the hull and propeller during sea
using linear scales and the power func-
will increase. Consequently, the ship
service after sea trial may result in a rel-
speed will be reduced unless the en-
atively heavier running propeller, com-
gine delivers more power to the propel-
pared with older ships born with a more
ler, i.e. the propeller will be further load-
rough hull surface.
tions PB = c
n i,
see (B), using logarith-
mic scales.
The power functions will be linear when
ed and will become heavy running HR.

Heavy weather and sea margin used for lay-
using logarithmic scales, as:

log (PB) = i log (n) + log (c)
Furthermore, newer high-efficiency ship
out of engine
types have a relatively high ship speed,
If, at the same time, the weather is bad,
and a very smooth hull and propeller
with head winds, the ships resistance
which is equivalent to: y = ax + b
MAN B&W Diesel
pulsion SP for fouled hull and heavy

weather. The heavy propeller curve,
Power
curve 2, for fouled hull and heavy

weather will normally be used as the
basis for the engine operating curve
in service, and the propeller curve for
MP
Engine margin
(10% of MP)
clean hull and calm weather, curve 6,

is said to represent a light running LR
SP
PD
Sea margin
(15% of PD)
propeller.
Continuous service rating S
PD
The continuous service rating is the

power at which the engine, including
the sea margin, is assumed to operate,
and point S is identical to the service
LR(5%)
propulsion point SP unless a main en-
HR
Engine speed
2
6
MP:
SP:
PD:
PD :
LR:
HR:
Heavy propeller curve _ fouled hull and heavy weather

Light propeller curve _ clean hull and calm weather
Specied propulsion point
Service propulsion point
Propeller design point
Alternative propeller design point
Light running factor
Heavy running
gine driven shaft generator is installed.

Light running factor fLR
The heavy propeller curve for a fouled
hull and heavy weather, and if no shaft
generator is installed may, as mentioned above, be used as the design
basis for the engine operating curve
in service, curve 2, whereas the light
propeller curve for clean hull and calm
weather, curve 6, may be valid for running conditions with new ships, and
Fig. 17: Ship propulsion running points and engine layout
equal to the layout/design curve of the
may increase much more, and lead to

Power
even heavier running.
curve 6 to choose the heavier propeller curve 2, see Fig. 17, corresponding
to curve 6 having a 3-7% higher rate of
When determining the necessary en-
revolution than curve 2, and in general
gine power, it is normal practice to add
with 5% as a good choice.
an extra power margin, the so-called
MP
sea margin, which is traditionally about Note that the chosen sea power marEngine margin
15% of the propeller
design PD power. gin does not equalise the chosen heavy
(10%
of
MP) ships, 20- engine propeller curve.
However, for large container
SP
PD
30% may sometimes be used.
Sea margin
(15% of
When determining
thePD)
necessary en-
Continuous service propulsion point SP
gine speed, for layout of the engine, it
The resulting speed and power combiPD

nation when including heavy propel-
is recommended compared with the
ler running and sea margin is called
clean hull and calm weather propeller
the continuous service rating for pro-
LR(5%)
HR
Engine speed
the engine operating curve in service,

propeller.
Therefore,
propeller
curve
2, whereas
the the
lightlight
propeller
curveforforclean
cleanhull
hulland
andcalm
calmweather,
weather
curve
curve
6, may
be valid for
running
con
is said
to represent
a light
running
ditions with new ships, and equal to
LRlayout/design
propeller and curve
will beofrelated
to the
the
the propel
heavy
propeller
curve
for
fouled
hull
ler. Therefore, the light propeller curve
forand
clean
hull
and
calm
weather
is
said
heavy weather condition by means
to represent a light running LR pro
of
a
light will
running
factor to
fLR,the
which,
for
peller and
be related
heavy
the same
power
the propeller,
propeller
curve
fortofouled
hull andis deheavy
condition increase
by means
of a
fined weather
as the percentage
of the
light running factor fLR, which, for the
rate power
of revolution
compared
to the
same
to the n,
propeller,
is defined
rate
of
revolution
for
heavy
running,
i.e.
as the percentage increase of the rate
of revolution n, compared to the rate of
revolution for heavy running, i.e.
fLR =
nlight nheavy
nheavy
100%
Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a socalled
engine margin of some 1015% is
frequently added as an operational
margin for the engine. The correspond
Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a so-called
engine margin of some 10-15% is frequently added as an operational margin
for the engine. The corresponding point
is called the specified MCR for propulsion MP, see Fig. 17, and refers to the
fact that the power for point SP is 1015% lower than for point MP, i.e. equal
to 90-85% of MP.
Specified MCR M
Engine shaft power, % A

110
A 100% reference point

M Specied engine MCR
O Optimising point
100
90
80
10
mep
110%
70
yard or owner for continuous operation
100%
power demand of the shaft generator

must also be considered.
Note:
Light/heavy running, fouling and sea
margin are overlapping terms. Light/
heavy running of the propeller refers
to hull and propeller deterioration, and
bad weather, and sea margin, i.e. extra
power to the propeller, refers to the in-
80%
3
50
70%
9
60%
specified propulsion MCR point MP untor is installed. In such a case, the extra
1
2
of the engine. Point M is identical to the

less a main engine driven shaft genera-
90%
60
The engines specified MCR point M

is the maximum rating required by the
A=M
7
5
40
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100 105
Engine speed, % A
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) _ layout curve for engine
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve _ fouled hull and heavy seas
Line 3: Speed limit
Line 4: Torque/speed limit
Line 5: Mean effective pressure limit
Line 6: Light propeller curve _ clean hull and calm weather _ layout curve for propeller
Line 7: Power limit for continuous running
Line 8: Overload limit
Line 9: Sea trial speed limit
Line 10: Constant mean effective pressure (mep) lines
fluence of the wind and the sea.

Fig. 18: Engine load diagram
Based on feedback from service, it

seems reasonable to design the propeller for 3-7% light running. The de-
and L3_L4, see Fig. 17. The L1 point re-
Os power, for electronically (ME) and
gree of light running must be decided
fers to the engines nominal maximum
mechanically (MC) controlled engines,
upon, based on experience from the
continuous rating. Within the layout
respectively.
actual trade and hull design, but 5% is
area there is full freedom to select the
often a good choice.
engines specified MCR point M and
Based on the propulsion and engine
relevant optimising point O, see be-
running points, as previously found,
Engine layout diagram
low, which is optimum for the ship and
the layout diagram of a relevant main
An engines layout diagram is limited by
the operating profile. Please note that
engine may be drawn-in. The specified
two constant mean effective pressure
the lowest specific fuel oil consump-
MCR point M must be inside the limita-
(mep) lines L1_L3 and L2_L4, and by
tion for a given optimising point O will
tion lines of the layout diagram; if it is
two constant engine speed lines L1_L2
be obtained at 70% and 80% of point
not, the propeller speed will have to be
MAN B&W Diesel

changed or another main engine type
and the optimised power can be from
Load diagram
must be chosen. Yet, in special cases,
85 to 100% of point Ms power. Over-
Definitions
point M may be located to the right of
load running will still be possible (110%
The load diagram (Fig. 18) defines the
line L1_L2, see Optimising/Matching
of Ms power), as long as consideration
power and speed limits for continuous
Point below.
to the scavenge air pressure has been
as well as overload operation of an in-
taken.
stalled engine which has an optimising
Optimising point O
point O and a specified MCR point M
The Optimising (MC)/Matching (ME)
The optimising point O is to be placed
that conforms to the ships specifica-
point O or, better, the layout point
inside the layout diagram. In fact, the
tion.
of the engine is the rating at which
specified MCR point M can be placed
the engine (timing and) compression
outside the layout diagram, but only by
Point A is a 100% speed and power ref-
ratio are adjusted, with consideration
exceeding line L1-L2, and, of course,
erence point of the load diagram, and
to the scavenge air pressure of the tur-
only provided that the optimising point
is defined as the point on the propeller
bocharger.
O is located inside the layout diagram.
curve (line 1) the layout curve of the
As mentioned below, under Load dia-
It should be noted that MC/MC-C en-
gram, the optimising point O (later on
gines without VIT (variable injection tim-
in this paper also used in general where
ing) fuel pumps cannot be optimised at
Normally, point M is equal to point A,
matching point for ME engines was the
part-load. Therefore, these engines are
but in special cases, for example if a
correct one) is placed on line 1 (layout
always optimised in point A, i.e. having
shaft generator is installed, point M
curve of engine) of the load diagram,
point Ms power.
engine through the optimising point
M: Specied MCR of engine

S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram
O, having the specified MCR power.

Power
7
A=M=MP
O
S=SP
2
5% A
3.3% A
5
4
Power
1 2 6
A=M
5% L1
S
Propulsion and
engine service curve
for heavy running
2
3
Engine speed
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
Line 7: Constant power line through specied MCR (M)
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Fig. 19a: Example 1 with FPP - engine layout without SG (normal case)
Propulsion and engine service

curve for heavy running
Engine speed
Fig. 19b: Example 1 with FPP - load layout without SG (normal case)
may be placed to the right of point A on
Line 3 and line 9
Running at low load above 100% of
line 7. The service points of the installed
Line 3 represents the maximum ac-
the nominal L1 speed of the engine is,
engine incorporate the engine power
ceptable speed for continuous opera-
however, to be avoided for extended
required for ship propulsion and for the
tion, i.e. 105% of A, however, maximum
periods.
shaft generator, if installed.
105% of L1. During sea trial conditions
During shoptest running, the engine
the maximum speed may be extended
Line 4:
to 107% of A, see line 9.
Represents the limit at which an ample
will always operate along curve 1, with
air supply is available for combustion
point A as 100% MCR. If CP-propeller
The above limits may, in general, be
and imposes a limitation on the maxi-
and constant speed operation is re-
extended to 105% and, during sea trial
mum combination of torque and speed.
quired, the delivery test may be finished
conditions, to 107% of the nominal L1
with a constant speed test.
speed of the engine, provided the tor-
Line 5:
sional vibration conditions permit.
Represents the maximum mean effective pressure level (mep) which can be
Limits to continuous operation
accepted for continuous operation.
The continuous service range is limited
The overspeed set-point is 109% of the
by the four lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 (9), see
speed in A, however, it may be moved
Fig. 18:
to 109% of the nominal speed in L1,
Line 7:
provided that torsional vibration condi-
Represents the maximum power for
tions permit.
continuous operation.


7
5% A
3.3% A
Power
A
O
Power
M=MP
S=SP
1 2 6
A
O
5% L1
Propulsion and
engine service curve
for heavy running
1 2
6
3
Engine speed
Fig. 20a: Example 2 with FPP - engine layout without SG (special case)
MAN B&W Diesel
Propulsion and engine service

curve for heavy running
Engine speed
Fig. 20b: Example 2 with FPP - load layout without SG (special case)
Line 10:
Electronic governor with load limitation
The reference limiter curve is to be
Represents the mean effective pres-
In order to safeguard the diesel engine
adjusted so that it corresponds to the
sure (mep) lines. Line 5 is equal to the
against thermal and mechanical over-
limitation lines of the load diagram.
100% mep-line. The mep-lines are also
load, the approved electronic gover-
an expression of the corresponding fuel
nors include the following two limiter
index of the engine.
functions:
Limits for overload operation
Scavenge air pressure limiter

The purpose of the scavenge air
pressure limiter is to ensure that
Torque limiter
the engine is not being overfuelled
The overload service range is limited as
The purpose of the torque limiter
during acceleration, as for example
follows, see Fig. 18:
is to ensure that the limitation lines
during manoeuvring.
of the load diagram are always obLine 8:
served. The torque limiter algorithm
The scavenge air pressure limiter
Represents the overload operation limi-
compares the calculated fuel pump
algorithm compares the calculated
tations.
index (fuel amount) and the actually
fuel pump index and measured
measured engine speed with a refer-
scavenge air pressure with a refer-
The area between lines 4, 5, 7 and the
ence limiter curve giving the maxi-
ence limiter curve giving the maxi-
dashed line 8 in Fig. 18 is available for
mum allowable fuel pump index at a
mum allowable fuel pump index at
overload running for limited periods
given engine speed. If the calculated
a given scavenge air pressure. If the
only (1 hour per 12 hours).
fuel pump index is above this curve,
calculated fuel pump index is above
the resulting fuel pump index will be
this curve, the resulting fuel pump in-
reduced correspondingly.
dex will be reduced correspondingly.

Power
S

A=M 7
O SG
7
5
3.3% A
5% A
SG MP
Power
1 2 6
A=M
7
5
or
SP
at
er
en
MP
Sh
af
tg
5% L1
en
af
tg
Sh
Engine service curve

for heavy running
Propulsion curve
for heavy running
er
at
o
SP
Engine speed

Fig. 21a: Example 2 with FPP - engine layout without SG (normal case)

for heavy running
Propulsion curve
for heavy running
Engine speed
Fig. 21b: Example 1 with FPP - load layout without SG (normal case)
The reference limiter curve is to be
and extra power will be required for
turn, may involve a minor reduction of
adjusted to ensure that sufficient air
propulsion in order to maintain the ship
the propeller efficiency, and may pos-
will always be available for a good
speed.
sibly cause the propeller manufacturer
combustion process.
to abstain from using a large light runAt calm weather conditions the extent
ning margin. However, this reduction of
Recommendation
of heavy running of the propeller will
the propeller efficiency caused by the
Continuous operation without a time
indicate the need for cleaning the hull
large light running factor is actually rel-
limitation is allowed only within the area
and, possibly, polishing the propeller.
atively insignificant compared with the
limited by lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 of the load
improved engine performance obtained
diagram. For fixed pitch propeller oper-
The area between lines 4 and 1 is avail-
when sailing in heavy weather and/or
ation in calm weather with loaded ship
able for operation in shallow water,
with fouled hull and propeller.
and clean hull, the propeller/engine
heavy weather and during acceleration,
may run along or close to the propeller
i.e. for non-steady operation without
Use of layout and load diagrams -
design curve 6.
any actual time limitation.
examples
After some time in operation, the ships
The recommended use of a relatively
based on fixed pitch propeller (FPP)
hull and propeller will become fouled,
high light running factor for design of
and one example based on controllable
resulting in heavier running of the pro-
the propeller will involve that a relatively
pitch propeller (CPP) are given in order
peller, i.e. the propeller curve will move
higher propeller speed will be used for
to illustrate the flexibility of the layout
to the left from line 6 towards line 2,
layout design of the propeller. This, in
and load diagrams.
In the following, four different examples

Power
M
A
O=S

7
SP
Power
to
ra
ne
1 2 6
A
O=S
SP
Sh
a
MP
SG
ft
ge
5% A
3.3% A
MP
SG
5% L1

for heavy running
en
af
tg
Engine speed
Point A and M of load diagram

1
Point M: Located on constant power line 7 through point A

and at MPs speed
Fig. 22a: Example 2 with FPP - engine layout without SG (special case)
MAN B&W Diesel
Sh
Propulsion curve for heavy running
er
at
or
Propulsion curve
for heavy running
for heavy running
Engine speed
Fig. 22b: Example 2 with FPP - load layout without SG (special case)
In this respect the choice of the opti-
essary to limit the acceleration and/or
An example is shown in Figs. 20a and
mising point O has a significant influ-
the propulsion power.
20b. As will be seen in Fig. 20b, and
ence.
compared with the normal case shown

If the expected trade pattern of the ship
in Example 1 (Fig. 19b), the left-hand
Examples with fixed pitch propeller
is to be in an area with frequently ap-
limitation line 4 is moved to the left, giv-
Example 1:
pearing heavy wind and sea and large
ing a wider margin between lines 2 and
Normal running conditions, without
wave resistance, it can, therefore, be
4, i.e. a larger light running factor has
shaft generator
an advantage to design/move the load
been used in this example.
Normally, the optimising point O, and
diagram more towards the left.

Example 3:
thereby the engine layout curve 1, will

be selected on the engine service curve
The latter can be done by moving the
Normal case, with shaft generator
2 (for heavy running), as shown in Fig.
engines optimising point O and thus
In this example a shaft generator (SG)
19a.
the propeller curve 1 through the opti-
is installed, and therefore the service
mising point towards the left. How-
power of the engine also has to incor-
Point A is then found at the intersection
ever, this will be at the expense of a
porate the extra shaft power required
between propeller curve 1 (2) and the
slightly increased specific fuel oil con-
for the shaft generators electrical pow-
constant power curve through M, line
sumption.
er production.
7. In this case, point A will be equal to

point M.

Once point A has been found in the

layout diagram, the load diagram can
be drawn, as shown in Fig. 19b, and
hence the actual load limitation lines of
the diesel engine may be found.
Power
3.3%A
Example 2:
Special running conditions, without
shaft generator
5%A
When the ship accelerates, the propel-
A=M
5
ler will be subjected to an even larger
7
5%L 1
O
S
load than during free sailing. The same

applies when the ship is subjected to
an extra resistance as, for example,
when sailing against heavy wind and

sea with large wave resistance.
In both cases, the engines operating
Recommended range
for shaft generator
operation with
constant speed
point will be to the left of the normal

operating curve, as the propeller will
run heavily.
In order to avoid exceeding the lefthand limitation line 4 of the load dia-
Combinator curve
for loaded ship
and incl. sea margin
Min
speed
Max
speed
gram, it may, in certain cases, be necFig. 23: Example 5 with CPP - with or without shaft generator
Engine speed
In Fig. 21a, the engine service curve
point O has been chosen equal to point
drawn in Fig. 22b. Point M is found on
shown for heavy running incorporates
S, and line 1 may be found.
line 7 at MPs speed.
Point A, having the highest possible
Example with controllable pitch propeller
The optimising point O, and thereby the
power, is then found at the intersection
Example 5
engine layout curve 1, will normally be
of line L1-L3 with line 1, see Fig. 22a,
With or without shaft generator
chosen on the propeller curve (~ engine
and the corresponding load diagram is
this extra power.
Layout diagram without shaft generator
service curve) through point M.

Point A is then found in the same way
PD: Propeller design point, clean hull and calm weather
as in example 1, and the load diagram
Continuous service rating for propulsion with

a power equal to 90% specied MCR, based on:
can be drawn as shown in Fig. 21b.
S0:
Clean hull and calm weather, loaded ship
Special case, with shaft generator
S1:
Clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial)
Also in this special case, a shaft gen-
S2:
Clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
erator is installed but, unlike in Example
SP:
Fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
3, now the specified MCR for propul-
S3:
Very heavy sea and wave resistance
Example 4:
sion MP is placed at the top of the layout diagram, see Fig. 22a. This involves
that the intended specified MCR of the
engine (Point M) will be placed outside
the top of the layout diagram.
Engine shaft power % of A
100% ref. point (A)

Specied MCR (M)
110
105
A=M
100
One solution could be to choose a diesel engine with an extra cylinder, but
another and cheaper solution is to reduce the electrical power production of
the shaft generator when running in the
upper propulsion power range.
If choosing the latter solution, the required specified MCR power of the engine can be reduced from point M to
point M as shown in Fig. 22a. There-
95
S0
S1
S2
SP
90
85
8
80
S3
1
2
PD
75
6.3
6.2
6.1
70
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
Engine speed, % of A
fore, when running in the upper propulsion power range, a diesel generator
Line 1:
Propeller curve through point A=M, layout curve for engine
has to take over all or part of the elec-
Line 2:
Heavy propeller curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
trical power production.
Line 6:
Light propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather,

loaded ship, layout curve for propeller
However, such a situation will seldom
Line 6.1: Propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial)
occur, as ships rather infrequently op-
Line 6.2: Propeller curve, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
erate in the upper propulsion power
Line 6.3: Propeller curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
range. In the example, the optimising
MAN B&W Diesel
Fig. 24: Influence of different types of ship resistance on the continuous service rating
If a controllable pitch propeller (CPP) is
Load diagram
Increased ship speed, point S0
applied, the combinator curve (of the
Therefore, when the engines specified
If the engine power is increased by, for
propeller with optimum propeller ef-
MCR point M has been chosen includ-
example, 15%, and the loaded ship is
ficiency) will normally be selected for
ing engine margin, sea margin and
still operating with a clean hull and in
loaded ship including sea margin.
the power for a shaft generator, if in-
calm weather, point S0, the ship speed
stalled, point M can be used as point
V and engine speed n will increase
For a given propeller speed, the com-
A of the load diagram, which can then
binator curve may have a given propel-
be drawn.
V and engine speed n will increase in

(more or less
valid
the normal
accordance
with
theforpropeller
lawspeed
(more
orrange):
less valid for the normal speed range):
ler pitch, and this means that, like for a

fixed pitch propeller, the propeller may
The position of the combinator curve
be heavy running in heavy weather.
ensures the maximum load range within the permitted speed range for engine
in accordance with the propeller law
nS 0 = n 3 .0 115
. = 1048
.
n
operation, and it still leaves a reason-
Point S0 will be placed on the same
a light running combinator curve (the
able margin to the load limits indicated
propeller curve as point PD.
dotted curve), as shown in Fig. 23, to
by curves 4 and 5.
for the diesel engine in heavy weather
Influence on engine running of dif-
to the load limits indicated by curves 4
ferent types of ship resistance
and 5.
plant with FP-propeller

In order to give a brief summary regard-
Layout diagram with shaft generator
ing the influence on the fixed pitch pro-
The hatched area in Fig. 23 shows the
peller running and main engine opera-
recommended speed range between
tion of different types of ship resistance,
100% and 96.7% of the specified MCR
an arbitrary example has been chosen,
speed for an engine with shaft genera-
see the load diagram in Fig. 24.
tor running at constant speed.

The influence of the different types of
The service point S can be located at
resistance is illustrated by means of
any point within the hatched area.
corresponding service points for propulsion having the same propulsion
The procedure shown in Examples 3
power, using as basis the propeller de-
and 4 for engines with FPP can also be
sign point PD, plus 15% extra power.
applied for engines with CPP running

on a combinator curve.
Propeller design point PD

The propeller will, as previously de-
The optimising point O for engines
scribed, normally be designed accord-
with VIT can be chosen on the propel-
ing to a specified ship speed V valid for
ler curve 1 through point A=M with an
loaded ship with clean hull and calm
optimised power from 85 to 100% of
weather conditions. The corresponding
the specified MCR as mentioned before
engine speed and power combination
in the section dealing with optimising
is shown as point PD on propeller curve
point O.
6 in the load diagram, Fig. 24.
Sea runn
sea marg
Converse
ship and
V S 0 = V 3 .5 115
. = 1041
.
V
Therefore, it is recommended to use
obtain an increased operating margin
Point S0
propeller
PD: Propeller design point, clean hull and

Sea running with clean hull and 15% sea
margin, point S2Continuous service rating for propulsion
a power equal to 90% specified MCR, ba
Conversely, if still operating with loaded
S0: Clean hull and calm weather, loade
ship and clean hull, but now with extra
S1: Clean hull and calm weather, ballas
resistance from heavy seas, an extra
S2: Clean hull and 15% sea margin, loa
power of, for example,
15% is needed
SP: Fouled
hullspeed
and heavy
in order to maintain
the ship
V weather, loa
S3: Very heavy sea and wave resistanc
(15% sea margin).
As the ship speed VS2 = V, and if the

point (A)
propeller
had no100%
slip, ref.
it would
be ex110
Specified MCR (M)
pected that the engine (propeller)
105
speed would also be constant. However, 100
as the water does yield, i.e. the
A=
5
propeller
95has a slip, the engine speed
will increase and the running point S2
will be 90
placed on a propeller curve 6.2
very close
85 to S0, on propeller curve 6.
Propeller curve 6.2 will possibly
8
4 repre- 1
sent an80
approximate 0.5% heavier run-
ning propeller than curve 6.

75
6.3
Depending on the ship type and size,

70
the heavy running factor of 0.5% may
90
85
80
be slightly higher or lower.
6.2
95
6.1
10
En
1: Propeller
curve through point
For Line
a resistance
corresponding
to A=M, layout
Line
2: extra
Heavy
propeller
fouled hull and hea
about
30%
power
(30%curve,
sea mar-
gin), Line
the 6:
corresponding
relative
Light propeller
curve,heavy
clean hull and calm
loaded
ship,
layout
running factor will be about 1%.curve for propeller
Line 6.1: Propeller curve, clean hull and calm weath

Line 6.2: Propeller curve, clean hull and 15% sea m

Line 6.3: Propeller curve, very heavy sea and wave
Sea running with fouled hull, and heavy
In other words, in the example the pro-
Sea running at trial conditions, point S1
weather, point SP
pellers design curve is about 5% light
Normally, the clean hull propeller curve
When, after some time in service, the
running compared with the propeller
6 will be referred to as the trial trip pro-
ships hull has been fouled, and thus
curve used for layout of the main en-
peller curve. However, as the ship is
becomes more rough, the wake field
gine.
seldom loaded during sea trials and
will be different from that of a smooth

ship (clean hull).
more often is sailing in ballast, the actuRunning in very heavy seas with heavy
al propeller curve 6.1 will be more light
waves, point S3
running than curve 6.
A ship with a fouled hull will, conse-
When sailing in very heavy sea against,
quently, be subject to an extra resist-
with heavy waves, the propeller can be
For a power to the propeller equal to
ance which, due to the changed wake
7-8% heavier running (and even more)
90% specified MCR, point S1 on the
field, will give rise to a heavier running
than in calm weather, i.e. at the same
load diagram, in Fig. 24, indicates an
propeller than experienced during bad
propeller power, the rate of revolution
example of such a running condition.
weather conditions alone. When also
may be 7-8% lower.
In order to be able to demonstrate op-
incorporating some average influence
eration at 100% power, if required, dur-
of heavy weather, the propeller curve
For a propeller power equal to 90% of
ing sea trial conditions, it may in some
for loaded ship will move to the left, see
specified MCR, point S3 in the load dia-
cases be necessary to exceed the pro-
propeller curve 2 in the load diagram in
gram in Fig. 24 shows an example of
peller speed restriction, line 3, which
Fig. 24. This propeller curve, denoted
such a running condition.
during trial conditions may be allowed
fouled hull and heavy weather for a
to be extended to 107%, i.e. to line 9
loaded ship, is about 5% heavy running
In some cases in practice with strong
compared to the clean hull and calm
wind against, the heavy running has
weather propeller curve 6.
proved to be even greater and even to
Influence of ship resistance on
be found to the left of the limitation line
combinator curves plant with CP-
4 of the load diagram.
propeller
In order to maintain an ample air supply for the diesel engines combustion,
of the load diagram.
This case is rather similar with the FP-
which imposes a limitation on the maxi-
In such situations, to avoid slamming of
propeller case described above, and
mum combination of torque and speed,
the ship and thus damage to the stem
therefore only briefly described here.
see curve 4 of the load diagram, it is
and racing of the propeller, the ship
normal practice to match the diesel
speed will normally be reduced by the
The CP-propeller will normally operate
engine and turbo charger etc. accord-
navigating officers on watch.
on a given combinator curve, i.e. for a
ing to a propeller curve 1 of the load
given propeller speed the propeller pitch
diagram, equal to the heavy propeller
Ship acceleration and operation in shallow
is given (not valid for constant propeller
curve 2.
waters
speed). This means that heavy running
When the ship accelerates and the
operation on a given propeller speed
Instead of point S2, therefore, point
propeller is being subjected to a larger
will result in a higher power operation,
SP will normally be used for the engine
load than during free sailing, the effect
as shown in the example in Fig. 25.
layout by referring this service propul-
on the propeller may be similar to that
sion rating to, for example, 90% of the
illustrated by means of point S3 in the
engines specified MCR, which cor-
load diagram, Fig. 24. In some cases
responds to choosing a 10% engine
in practice, the influence of acceleration
margin.
on the heavy running has proved to be

even greater. The same conditions are
valid for running in shallow waters.
MAN B&W Diesel

S=PD Propeller design point incl. sea margins, and continuous service rating of engine
Line 1
Propeller curve for layout of engine
Line 6 Combinator curve for propeller design, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
Line 6.1 Light combinator curve, fouled hull and calm weather, loaded ship
Line 2
Heavy combinator curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
Line 2.1 Very heavy combinator curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
100% ref. point (A)

Specied MCR (M)
110
105
100
95
A=M
S=PD
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
6.1
2
2.1
55
50
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
105 110
Engine speed, % of A
Fig. 25: Influence of ship resistance on combinator curves for PC-propeller
Closing Remarks
References
In practice, the ships resistance will
[1] Technical discussion with
frequently be checked against the re-
Keld Kofoed Nielsen, Burmeister &
sults obtained by testing a model of the
Wain Shipyard, Copenhagen
ship in a towing tank. The experimental

tank test measurements are also used
for optimising the propeller and hull de-
[2] Ship Resistance H.E. Guldhammer

and Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1974
sign.
[3] Resistance and Propulsion of
When the ships necessary power re-
Ships, Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1983
quirement, including margins, and the

propellers speed (rate of revolution)
have been determined, the correct
[4] Paint supplier International

Coatings Ltd., 2003
main engine can then be selected, e.g.

with the help of MAN Diesel & Turbos
[5] Fartygspropellrar och Fartygs
computer-based engine selection pro-
Framdrift, Jan Tornblad, KaMeWa
gramme.
Publication, 1985
In this connection the interaction be-
Furthermore, we recommend:
tween ship and main engine is extremely important, and the placing of the
[6] Prediction of Power of Ships Sv.
engines load diagram, i.e. the choice
Aa. Harvald, 1977 and 1986
of engine layout in relation to the engines (ships) operational curve, must

be made carefully in order to achieve
[7] Propulsion of Single-Screw Ships

Sv. Aa. Harvald & J.M. Hee, 1981 30
the optimum propulsion plant. In order

to avoid overloading of the main engine
for excessive running conditions, the
installation of an electronic governor
with load control may be useful.
If a main engine driven shaft generator producing electricity for the ship
is installed, the interaction between
ship and main engine will be even more
complex. However, thanks to the flexibility of the layout and load diagrams
for the MAN B&W engines, a suitable
solution will nearly always be readily at
hand.
MAN B&W Diesel

All data provided in this document is non-binding. This data serves informational purposes only and is especially not guaranteed in any way.
Depending on the subsequent specific individual projects, the relevant data may be subject to changes and will be assessed and determined
individually for each project. This will depend on the particular characteristics of each individual project, especially specific site and operational
conditions Copyright MAN Diesel & Turbo Subject to modification in the interest of technical progress. 5510-0004-01ppr Oct 2010
Printed in Denmark
MAN Diesel & Turbo

Teglholmsgade 41
2450 Copenhagen, Denmark
Phone +45 33 85 11 00
Fax +45 33 85 10 30
info-cph@mandieselturbo.com
www.mandieselturbo.com

Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion

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Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion

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Basic Principles of

MAN B&W Diesel

Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion

Scope of this Paper

The operating conditions of a propel-

For the purpose of this paper, the term

This paper is divided into three chap-

ler according to the propeller law valid

ship is used to denote a vehicle em-

ters which, in principle, may be con-

for a propeller with fixed pitch are de-

ployed to transport goods and persons

sidered as three separate papers but

scribed for free sailing in calm weather,

from one point to another over water.

which also, with advantage, may be

and followed up by the relative heavy/

Ship propulsion normally occurs with

read in close connection to each other.

light running conditions which apply

the help of a propeller, which is the

Therefore, some important information

when the ship is sailing and subject to

term most widely used in English, al-

mentioned in one chapter may well ap-

different types of extra resistance, like

though the word screw is sometimes

pear in another chapter, too.

fouling, heavy sea against, etc.

Chapter 1, describes the most elemen-

Chapter 3, elucidates the importance

tary terms used to define ship sizes

of choosing the correct specified MCR

Today, the primary source of propel-

and hull forms such as, for example,

and optimising point of the main en-

ler power is the diesel engine, and

the ships displacement, deadweight,

gine, and thereby the engines load

the power requirement and rate of

design draught, length between per-

diagram in consideration to the propel-

revolution very much depend on the

lers design point. The construction of

ships hull form and the propeller de-

Other ship terms described include the

the relevant load diagram lines is de-

sign. Therefore, in order to arrive at a

effective towing resistance, consisting

scribed in detail by means of several

solution that is as optimal as possible,

of frictional, residual and air resistance,

examples. Fig. 24 shows, for a ship

some general knowledge is essential

and the influence of these resistances

with fixed pitch propeller, by means of

as to the principal ship and diesel en-

a load diagram, the important influence

seen, inter alia in combinations such as

gine parameters that influence the propulsion system.

of different types of ship resistance on

the engines continuous service rating.

and the flow conditions around the

propeller(s). In this connection, the