Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605

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Physiology & Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/phb

Sensory evaluation techniques Make good for you taste good

Gail Vance Civille, Katherine Nolen Oftedal
Sensory Spectrum, Inc, 554 Central Ave., New Providence, NJ 07974, USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Keywords:
Sensory
Sulforaphane
Spectrum method
Descriptive analysis
Qualitative techniques
Strawberry
Emotions

a b s t r a c t
Sensory evaluation techniques are frequently used, however applied sensory is most often used within
private industry. Basic sensory techniques can be an invaluable aid to research on nutritional or functional
benets of natural products such as whole fruits, nuts and vegetables (through varietal selection, breeding,
etc.) in addition to clinical trials of botanicals. Products' sensory properties, including fruits and vegetables,
must be tailored to ultimately appeal to the consumer: no matter how healthy and nutritious a food is, if
it does not appeal to its intended end user, it is unlikely to succeed in today's marketplace. This paper outlines
the 5 S's or basic principles of applied sensory testing; Subjects, Site, Samples, Statistics, and Sensory Methods.
Two case studies are detailed where applied sensory is used to benec academic research; one as a clinical trial
of broccoli sprout extract, and the second as plant breeding research on strawberries. Finally, more in-depth
techniques are discussed so that one can ensure that product sensory properties are aligned with consumer expectations, in other words, that sensory congruence is achieved.
2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
With the rise in diet-related chronic disease in recent years, private industry and academic institutions alike have focused their
research on leveraging nutritional or functional benets of natural
products such as whole fruits, nuts and vegetables (through varietal
selection, breeding, etc.) as well as increasing the nutritional quality
of processed foods (through fortication, fat, sodium or sugar reduction initiatives, to cite only a few examples. As part of the effort to
discover, develop and market healthier products, understanding
nutritional and functional benets is key. Of additional importance
is highlighting and rening the products' sensory properties in an
attempt to ultimately appeal to consumers: no matter how healthy
and nutritious a food is, if it does not appeal to its intended end
user, it is unlikely to succeed in today's marketplace.
Used by many industries, sensory evaluation techniques have
been shown to be critical in the development, production and quality
maintenance of foodstuffs, personal care products, household goods,
textiles, pharmaceuticals and even furniture and automobile driving
experience. Sensory evaluation is dened as the scientic discipline
which encompasses all methods to evoke, measure, analyze and interpret human responses to the properties of foods and materials, as
perceived by the ve senses: taste, smell, touch, sight and hearing.
Specic senses of heightened interest are taste and smell, particularly
in their relationship with ingestive behavior. The application of

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: gvciville@sensoryspectrum.com (G.V. Civille),
koftedal@sensoryspectrum.com (K.N. Oftedal).
0031-9384/$ see front matter 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.04.015

sensory methods to the development of healthy foodstuffs seems a

natural t. This paper gives an overview of sensory evaluation techniques, from established practices to new methods and their applications, with a focus on health.

2. Overview of basic sensory techniques

Sensory evaluation is concerned with the human response to
physical stimuli. The sensory process can be simplied as follow: A
stimulus (food for example) rst hits the mouth, at which point
nerve signals are generated, integrated in the chorda tympani and
sent to the brain [1,2]. As one individual ingests a sucrose solution,
for example, the sucrose molecules bind with the gustatory cells in
the taste buds, which generates an inux of information sent to the
brain [3]. The brain then processes the information: it organizes, analyzes and interprets the sensations into perceptions [4]. Once the
stimulus is recognized, the brain formulates a response. The response
might be one of objective identication of the perception: this is
sweet, or one of subjective affective reaction to the stimuli: acceptance or rejection: I like it/I don't like it, and/or emotional response:
it gives me comfort, it brings back happy memories of my childhood. Sensory evaluation is concerned with all of these types of
responses. It focuses both on the objective measurement of the
sensory properties of products (also referred to as product understanding) and the subjective responses of individuals to physical
products (often referred to as consumer understanding), as well
interpretation of consumer response through understanding the
response to product (linking product and consumer understanding
[5].

G.V. Civille, K.N. Oftedal / Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605

2.1. Product understanding

The techniques that measure the product sensation, or product
understanding, are considered objective measurements and are either discriminative or descriptive. Discrimination tests answer the
question Are two or more products perceptibly similar or different?.
For example, if the objective is to reduce sodium and maintain sensory properties, discrimination is a good method. The most common
types of discrimination tests are triangle tests, duo-trio or alternative
forced choice [5]. In industry they are commonly used to test for ingredient substitutions when the objective is to maintain product
similarity.
Descriptive analysis is another objective sensory technique, and
requires a highly trained panel. Descriptive methods document the
qualitative and quantitative sensory aspects of a product. The qualitative aspects of products include specic appearance, aroma, avor or
texture characteristics, called attributes. The quantitative aspect is the
intensity of each of the attributes. Different descriptive analysis
methods differ primarily on their scale usage. The Spectrum method
is used in the case studies presented, which uses a 15 point scale
with ratio properties, where 0 is no detectable amount of attribute
and 15 is a high amount [5]. Descriptive analysis is often used when
the objective is to determine how samples differ. Two case studies
described in Sections 4 and 5 use Spectrum Method descriptive
analysis.
2.2. Consumer understanding
The second branch of sensory evaluation focuses on the consumer
response. These techniques measure the subjective personal reaction
of consumers, such as acceptance (liking) or preference. In addition
the consumer perception of product performance benets can be measured such as comfort, therapeutic or healthy, which may be
important to brand identity, product quality or setting up consumers'
expectations. Consumer Understanding focuses on measuring the perception of product attributes as ltered through the consumers' screen
of expectations. For example if a brown liquid was served to consumers
as cola but is actually a ne coffee, it would be perceived quite negatively based on the consumer's expectations of cola. The same can be
true for benets; a healthy shake will have a different set of expectations by consumers from an indulgent shake. There are two types of
consumer testing; quantitative and qualitative. Testing with consumers
for quantitative results requires high numbers of participants (at least
n = 75) due to the person-to person variability in preferences and
physiological sensitivity [5]. During quantitative testing respondents
are asked specic closed-ended questions and given a scale in which
to rate liking or hedonics. Qualitative consumer testing, such as focus
groups or triads, is more discussion-based and generates data that is
verbal. Participants are asked open-ended questions and a moderator
verbally probes for more depth in response. Qualitative testing often
focuses on language to describe products, emotions around products
and usage behaviors. Often quantitative testing is used towards the
end of the development phase or in product benchmarking within a
category. Qualitative testing is used towards the earlier phases in
product development and can uncover potential reasons why a product
is liked or disliked as well as the emotional links to product sensory
characteristics.
3. Basic guidelines for sensory testing
One of the difculties in sensory evaluation is managing the many
sources of variability. Tests should be designed in such a way as to
balance controlled testing environments with the high variability
that is the reality of normal product consumption. An example can
be found in the legal advertising case of Kimberly Clark vs. Procter &
Gamble over a dispute in paper towel claims [6]. Kimberly Clark

599

asserted in an advertising claim that SCOTT towels absorb faster

than Bounty paper towels, and the implication was that this was
true of typical, everyday usage conditions. The exact verbal claim
was SCOTTS unique ridges soak up everyday spills even faster than
Bounty towels. Kimberly Clark's absorbency test was based on a visual
assessment of a paper towel placed over a 10 mL spill, and allowed to sit
over the spill for several minutes. One of the primary criticisms was that
Whole Sheet Pickup Test relies on parameters that are not Consumer
Relevant, meaning when a spill occurs in the home, an average consumer will not place one sheet over the spill and allow it to sit for
5 min. In that challenge, P&G won. However, the crux of the case is central to much of modern sensory research. Sensory scientists must design
studies that are controlled, reproducible and reasonable, without
compromising the relevance to consumer behavior. When designing
a sensory test, the 5 S's should always be considered; Subjects, Site,
Samples, Statistical Analysis and Sensory Method, which has been
discussed in Section 2.
3.1. Subjects
Firstly, are the subjects of the study trained assessors, as in descriptive analysis, or are they untrained consumers? When testing
with consumers, it is important to decide the population to which
the study is making inferences. The subjects tested should be representative of the population for whom the product is intended. Products that are commonly consumed may be tested with general
population without strict guidelines on age, gender or brand usage,
however with niche products it may be important to recruit individuals of a particular demographics. In addition, with many personal
care products such as lotion, skin is needed as a substrate for proper
evaluation. It must be decided whether the assessor uses his or her
skin, or if a separate individual is required; one as substrate and one
as assessor/evaluator. Often with skin-care products the assessor is
the same individual as the substrate (self-assessment).
3.2. Site
The second aspect to consider is site or location. Where is the test
or assessment taking place? Determine whether the product should
be evaluated in the home or can the environment be reasonably
re-created in a lab setting. As in the case of Kimberly Clark vs. P&G
discussed in Section 3, a laboratory assessment may need to be specially designed to replicate a consumer in-home experience. Fine
fragrances and air fresheners can often be evaluated in a laboratory
setting using odor booths more consistently than in a home environment. However, in some cases, such as sunscreen, it may be necessary
to additionally test in a real-use environment to account for extreme
environmental factors. In the case of sunscreen, sunlight, heat and
water assault may change product properties that are not present in
a laboratory test environment. Food products can be legitimately tested in a controlled environment for early comparisons of ingredient effects on prototypes differences. However, at some time in the product
evaluation cycle the researcher needs to test nal product options
with consumers in both controlled and home environments to reect
better the end use context.
3.3. Samples
What products are you testing? How much control in preparation
is needed? Often the study objectives determine the samples, and in
the preparation of instant coffee within a controlled laboratory environment, high consistency can be achieved, however it is quite laborious. For a typical evaluation of coffee by an expert panel there are 20
steps in preparation to ensure that each cup of coffee is the same
within a sample. A truncated version of the preparation protocol is
as follows; heat water, weigh the instant coffee, weigh boiling

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G.V. Civille, K.N. Oftedal / Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605

water, mix coffee and water, heat ceramic cups, pour coffee, measure
temperature of coffee, cover coffee cup with watch glass to better
maintain temperature. Each step controls for variation in the nished
product. Usually instant coffee is sold with specic preparation
instructions, so it is assumed that even in-home it will be prepared
a certain way. Additionally, it is important to understand that interpretation is limited to the samples that were tested, how they were
prepared in the test. In the case of Domino's vs. Subway [7] a claim
was made by Domino's that their oven baked sandwiches were preferred to Subway by 2 to 1. The criticism of Domino's testing was
that they only tested ve of Subway's 16 sandwiches. Each of the 5
Subway sandwiches had a comparable Domino's Oven Baked sandwich. While Domino's asserted that they were testing the hot or
toasted sandwich line (Oven Baked vs. Subway Fresh Toasted), Subway allows consumers to toast any sandwich. Subway's position
was that a toasted version of every sandwich would be needed to
make a broad comparison of full product lines. The NAD concluded
that Domino's taste test was reasonable enough to allow for a more
narrow claim between the two hot sandwich lines (Domino's Oven
Baked vs. Subway Fresh Toasted), vs. all sandwiches.
In addition to preparation methods it is important to consider the
inherent properties of the samples, which will dictate the creation of
the descriptive lexicon or consumer questionnaire. In addition to attribute intensity, often samples differ in perception across time and
order. A more integrated approach is necessary to capture the sample
integrity, which relates to the whole impression of the product and
unity across components. Some examples of integrated attributes
are amplitude/harmony, balance, authenticity or delity and blend
[8]. Amplitude, as described by Thompson et al. [9], measures the balance and blendedness of avor components as well as the bloom and
impact throughout evaluation. The research group compared US ice
creams vs. Italian gelati and found that most of the Italian gelati had
higher amplitude ratings. Samples with higher amplitude also had
higher avor impact, longevity and bloom. The panelists had a minimum of 200 h evaluation experience. Panels that measure integrity
attributes need to have more experience than the minimum 100 h
of training for an expert panel [9].
The General Mills descriptive panel additionally measures complexity in products, [10]. The term used is harmonious, which captures the degree to which the aromatics make sense together and are
compliant. Sensory Spectrum primarily uses the term balance and
blend, which measures the degree to which the individual avor components (aromatics and tastes) blend together into a well-combined
sensory impression making it difcult to identify each component.
While basic tastes do not blend together as aromatics do, products
with high balance and blend tend to have a balanced taste prole, appropriate for that product category. One aspect not yet discussed is
that of avor appropriateness or delity. This answers the question,
is this what the product is supposed to be?, which requires product
concept knowledge. For example, if a avor is supposed to be mocha,
but has no coffee or espresso avor notes, it may be very harmonious
or high in balance and blend, however it will be low in delity.

commonly used to bundle attributes into meaningful dimensions that

summarize the differences among the samples. Other techniques, such
as Cluster Analysis may be used to identify preference segments, i.e.
groups of consumers that may not desire the same characteristics in
their favorite products. Regression techniques are also part of the toolbox, and used to uncover what sensory features may be driving consumer acceptance or perception of benets.
In any case, one should always remember that statistical analysis
techniques are a tool to analyze the data, but that it is the responsibility of the sensory professional to interpret the data and generate insights. It is also the responsibility of the sensory professional to
assess what level of detail is critical for providing insights.
Results from the descriptive analysis of rums provide a great example of when overlooking details would result in missing great insights. Tables 1 and 2 provide descriptive analysis prole of ve
dark rums. In this example, Dark Rum 5 is identied as a benchmark
product. At rst glance, for Dark Rum 3 to match Dark Rum 5's prole,
one would suggest to lower the fruity notes and toasted notes and enhance the sweet aromatics. However, if one looks at the details of the
proles (Table 2), the recommendations may not be as straightforward. Focusing on the sweet aromatics complex, it becomes obvious
that merely increasing the sweet aromatics will not be sufcient to
match Dark Rum 5, but that the character of the sweet aromatics
needs to be addressed: Dark Rum 3's molasses notes need to be
replaced by vanilla notes.
With descriptive analysis, principal component analysis (PCA) is
frequently used on data sets of 7 or more samples. In PCA, however,
attributes are often removed from the analysis if they are only present
in one sample or are at present at very low amounts. Table 1 is a
sample of data from descriptive analysis of rums. If the specic
sweet aromatic characters (tier 3 attributes) are removed from analyses it may show Dark Rum 3 being simply lower in sweet aromatics
compared to Dark Rum 5. The primary difference between the two
samples, however is not just Sweet Aromatics intensity, but character.
Dark Rum 3 is molasses and rener's syrup while Dark Rum 5 is
primarily vanilla with low rener's syrup character. If any attributes
are removed, it is important to go back to the raw data or means to
better explain product differences.
In interpreting results from sensory trials, one needs to always balance simplicity and complexity. Sometimes, looking at the details may
prevent the sensory professional from seeing the big picture and generating key insights. In other cases overlooking details and focusing too
much on the big picture may be detrimental to insight generation.
3.5. Sensory methods
Generally the project objectives determine the sensory methods.
Section 2 discusses the primary sensory evaluation techniques. Each
study should have it's own unique methodology based upon the objective, the technique and the samples. Within Section 4 are two
unique case studies in which different sensory methodologies are
used. The specic examples given use descriptive analysis, and a combination of both descriptive and qualitative techniques.

3.4. Statistical analysis

As many scientic disciplines, sensory evaluation gathers information that is then treated, analyzed and mined for insights. Data analysis
techniques rely heavily on statistics. The basic univariate techniques
such as Analysis of Variance and chi-squared are often sufcient to
determine simple differences and make product recommendations for
quantitative consumer testing. As more samples are tested, more complex multivariate data analysis techniques become necessary to summarize the information in a meaningful way and generate insights.
For example, in descriptive evaluation, when at least 8 to 10 products
are proled using a ballot that may contain 30 or 40 discrete attributes,
Principal Component Analysis (PCA) or Factor Analysis (FA) are

Table 1
Tier 1 descriptive analysis proles from 5 dark rums.

SAMPLE
AROMATICS
Fruity
Toasted Grain
Sweet Aromatics Complex
Woody Complex
Black Pepper / Terpene
Brown Spice Complex
Aldehydic
Alcohol

Dark Rum Dark Rum Dark Rum Dark Rum Dark Rum
1
2
3
4
5
0.0
0.0
4.5
3.5
0.0
0.0
1.2
3.5

0.0
0.0
3.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
3.0
3.0

4.0
1.5
4.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
0.0
2.8

6.5
0.0
2.5
1.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.5

2.0
0.0
6.5
0.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
2.0

G.V. Civille, K.N. Oftedal / Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605
Table 2
Detailed descriptive analysis proles from 5 dark rums.

SAMPLE

Dark
Rum 1

Dark
Rum 2

Dark
Rum 3

Dark
Rum 4

Dark
Rum 5

AROMATICS
Fruity
Orange Peel

0.0

0.0

4.0

6.5

2.0

0.0

0.0

2.0

4.5

1.0

Banana

0.0

0.0

2.2

1.5

0.0

Apricot

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

Toasted Grain

0.0

0.0

1.5

0.0

0.0

Sweet Aromatics Complex

4.5

3.0

4.0

2.5

6.5

Molasses

0.0

1.0

3.0

0.0

0.0

Caramelized

3.0

0.0

0.0

2.0

0.0

Buttery

1.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Refiner's Syrup

0.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

1.5

Vanilla

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

5.0

Woody Complex

3.5

2.0

0.0

1.2

0.0

Dried Wood

0.0

2.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Oaky

3.5

0.0

0.0

1.2

0.0

Black Pepper / Terpene

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

2.0

Brown Spice Complex

0.0

0.0

1.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.0

0.0

0.0

Aldehydic

1.2

3.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Alcohol

3.5

3.0

2.8

2.5

2.0

Nutmeg

4. Applications of sensory evaluation techniques to support health

and wellness initiatives
4.1. Case study 1: masking off-avors in broccoli sprout fortied
beverages
The application of sensory evaluation in the development of fortied food products is commonly used in industry. Often, the ingredient being fortied imparts a distinct avor or texture change. While
off-avors may not be eliminated, sensory testing can aid in the reduction. Iterative descriptive analysis proling or screening provides
direction for product developers. This practice occurs routinely within food industry, but is not as common within clinical trials. During
dietary intervention trials high compliance is crucial, and so reduction
of off-avors or bitter tastes becomes increasingly important. In addition, it is important to control for the placebo effect.
In numerous intervention trials conducted in both The People's Republic of China and the US, a team at Johns Hopkins University has
been investigating the chemoprotective properties of broccoli sprout extract (BSE) [11,12]. They identied sulforaphane (SF) and glucoraphanin
(GR) as the specic components that attenuate early-phase carcinogenesis and have tested its effectiveness in at-risk for cancer, and healthy
populations. SF-rich BSE (SFR) has certain advantages for the clinical trialist, but had a stronger radish-like avor whereas the GR-rich BSE had a
broccoli-like avor character. In such a situation, masking the placebo effect is challenging, as the active ingredient has distinctive visual characteristics and a particularly strong avor and aftertaste.
In earlier trials mango juice was used as a delivery method to better hide the visual differences between test and placebo groups, however; Advantages of SFR include its better bioavailability and more
rapid uptake, which are tempered by its more astringent taste. The
taste in beverage formulation could be partially masked by mixing
with mango juice, but more suitable masking materials are still required. [12]. A sensory trial was therefore conducted to identify a
beverage system which, when mixed with BSE, reduced the broccoli
character such that the off-avors of BSE (GR and SF) would be
masked. In addition, it was important to mask the daikon (radishlike) complex in the SF extract. The goal was to mask 1 serving of

601

powdered BSE which was prepared according to Kensler et al., suspended in 4 oz of liquid [13]. Spectrum Descriptive Analysis was
used to prole fortied beverages.
First, the expert panel reviewed avor properties of GR and SF in
an aqueous solution. The SF was found to have a strong radish avor
and nasal pungency. Then, avor components were identied that
mask or match avor and chemical feeling characteristics of GR or
SF. Additionally, these avors needed to be common in the Chinese
diet and due to logistics, readily accessible as juices in the Qidong
region of The People's Republic of China. Since the SF extract was
anecdotally found by the study population to be more strongly
avored, more emphasis was placed on SF extracts. Flavor systems
identied by the panel as promising option to counteract the offnotes of BSE included tropical fruit avors (pineapple, lychee), citrus
avors, ginger and dairy avors (yogurt-type beverages such as
Yakult or Calpico). Table 1 contains the specic avors combination
tested. BSE was mixed into commercially available juices and beverages of the identied avors. Samples were evaluated by descriptive
analysis, using a consensus rating. Results for the broccoli and radish
complexes are shown below in Table 3.
Results showed that both pineapple-ginger and citrus pineapple
beverage systems meaningfully decreased the radish and broccoli
aroma and avor. The pineappleginger blend was particularly effective at reducing the radish aroma. However, ginger is known to contain
6-gingerol which is a bioactive compound with anti-carginogenic properties [14] and thus would confound the purported benets of GR and
SF. Therefore, citrus/pineapple avored beverage was identied as
being most promising without risk of confounding the benets of GR
and SF. The results showed the pineapple and citrus yogurt beverages
to reduce the broccoli avor of the GR extract to about threshold level
(0.8 on the 15 point Spectrum scale). The citrus pineapple blend was
most effective at additionally reducing radish avors in SF extracts.
Based on these ndings, a new trial was planned using citrus/pineapple
blend juice for delivery of SF and is currently taking place in China
(Table 4).
4.2. Case study 2: understand consumer perception of strawberry
varietals
As recommended by the USDA, fruits and vegetables are integral
to a healthy well-balanced diet, along with other natural products
such as whole grains, nuts and beans [15]. Those natural ingredients
constitute essential sources of vitamins, minerals, ber and other bioactive compounds that may help reduce the risk of some types of cancer and other chronic diseases. Growers and producers, however, are
facing many challenges balancing the nutritional quality of their
products with the inherent sensory variability of natural products,
meaning agricultural products can be variable from not only grower
to grower, but within packaged containers or items from the same
grower. Ultimately, understanding which sensory qualities appeal to
their customers is key to determine strategies to enhance the marketability and general consumption of their products.

Table 3
BSE beverage avors.
Code

Extract

Beverage avor uice

P-GR
C-GR
CS- SF
CP-SF
PG-SF
CG-SF
PLG-SF
LG-SF
LG
W-SF

GR
GR
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF
SF

SF

Pineapple
Citrus yogurt beverage (Calpico)
Citrus yogurt beverage and soy
Citrus yogurt, pineapple
Pineapple Ginger
Citrus yogurt, ginger
Pineapple, lychee, ginger
Lychee, ginger
Lychee, ginger
Water

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G.V. Civille, K.N. Oftedal / Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605

Table 4
Descriptive analysis data of BSE fortied beverages.

Aroma
Total aroma
Broccoli complex
Radish complex
Flavor
Total impact
Broccoli complex
Radish complex
a

Table 5
Consumers perception of strawberry avor and texture.

LG

WSF

PGR

CGR

CSSF

CPSF

PGSFa

CGSFa

PLGSFa

LGSFa

7
0
0

8
4.5
1.5

6
0.8
0

5.5
0
0

7
2.5
2.5

6.5
1.5
1.5

7.5
2
0

7.2
1
2.5

7.5
1
2

7.8
0.8
2.2

Consumer
preference

Sample Consumer reasoning

codes

Most
107
preferred

Moderately 112
preferred
7
0
0

7
4.5
2.5

6.5
0.8
0

6
0.5
0

6.8
2
1.5

7
2
2

8
1.8
2

7.5
1.5
1.5

7.5
1.5
1.5

7.5
0.8
2

122

Contain ginger.

In an effort to grow North Carolina State's agricultural industry and

strengthen the strawberry sector by breeding a strawberry that is
adapted specically to the state's climatic conditions and market
demands, [16] a partnership was formed between NC State University's
Plants for Human Health Institute and the NC Research Campus was
established where Johnson & Wales University (College of Culinary
Arts). Plant breeders, culinary professionals and Sensory Spectrum
collaborated on a strawberry varietal study. The program's objectives
are to 1) enhance strawberry quality avor, texture, color, size and
2) Improve economic value and marketability of NC strawberries. As a
long-term project, a two-phase approach was taken for the project to
rst understand sensory properties through descriptive analysis and
then understand the consumer response through qualitative research
[17].
To support the overall project, a sensory study was designed to
meet the following project objectives:
1) to improve the understanding of strawberry sensory quality
2) to understand consumer, chefs and buyers perceptions of
strawberries
3) to understand the perceived sensory properties of strawberry
breeds and varieties.
A preliminary session was conducted between the strawberry
breeder and members of Sensory Spectrum to determine the most appropriate descriptors and range of trait expression for future proling. A diverse selection of strawberry genotypes was selected to
exhibit the range of fruit quality traits to determine the sensory descriptors that best represented the germplasm. Main categories included avor, appearance and texture; each main level was further
discussed and analyzed for specic attributes contributing to the
overall sensory quality. For example, strawberry avor was scored
for traits ranging from specic volatile signatures such as ethyl maltol
and methyl anthranilate to the basic taste perceptions of sweet, sour
and bitter. Sixteen varietals of Strawberries were rst descriptively
proled using the Spectrum Descriptive Analysis method to understand sensory variability among varietals. Based on the results, a subset of samples with distinct sensory characteristics were selected, and
used in qualitative discussions with consumers to understand attitudes and perceptions towards the different types of strawberries.
Due to sample availability, the same products were not available for
chefs and buyers, who were studied at a later date.
Phase 1. Documenting the sensory properties of strawberries using
descriptive analysis.
Sixteen varietals of strawberries grown in North Carolina were
descriptively proled using the Spectrum Descriptive Analysis method.
Once sensory proles were established for each varietal, dimensions of
variability were established using Factor Analysis, which helped the
researchers understand a whole-product view of the sensory properties
(data not shown) [18]. Based on these ndings, a subset of six strawberry
varietals was selected to obtain consumer feedback and perception.

Least
105
preferred

108

130

High strawberry avor,

right blend of sweet, tart
and juicy, appropriate
rmness
Good juiciness and
strawberry avor, but
bland, too many seeds
Good strawberry avor but
lacks intensity, too many
seeds;
Less sweet and strawberry
avor than 107; texture is
mushy and rough in mouth

Bland avor; lacks

strawberry taste and is
unripe. Harder and crispy/
crunchy
130 Very juicy but bland.
Floral avor, overripe

Descriptive properties
Highest in fresh/raw
strawberry avor. Moderate
sweet and sour. High
juiciness and moist mass.
Moderate strawberry avor
but slight overripe/
fermented. Moderate
juiciness and seeds.
Moderate strawberry avor.
Moderate sweet and sour.
Moderate strawberry avor;
highest in ethyl maltol
(candy-like) with lower
fresh strawberry. Lowest in
hardness and denseness at
rst bite.
Lowest avor overall. Low
strawberry avor, highest in
green. Highest in denseness.
High uniformity of bite.
Lowest strawberry avor.
Slight green and overripe.

Phase 2. Understanding consumer, chefs and buyers attitudes, expectations and perceptions through qualitative discussions.
Qualitative research was conducted among consumers of strawberries. Since the consumers typically consumed strawberries as a
whole fruit, they discussed the appeal of strawberry characteristics
in that context. When eating strawberries as a plain whole fruit, the
characteristics that are most important to the consumers are color,
sweetness, juiciness and rmness of texture. Among the six strawberries tested Sample 107 was liked best, for its strawberry avor,
balance of sweet and sour, rmness and juiciness. Table 5 provides
a summary of the sensory characteristics of the samples tested with
consumers and their appeal to consumers.
Another group of interest included chefs and buyers. Due to timing
of the test, the strawberries evaluated descriptively were no longer
available and buyers were shown strawberries that were commercially
available at the time of study instead. Chefs and buyers had a different
perspective from the consumers with regards to strawberry use and
rather than highlighting the sensory benets of strawberry as a whole
fruit, they classied strawberries based on their function and potential
use. Fresher, juicier strawberries with a fully developed avor become
more versatile in their use, while those with underdeveloped avors
or overripe avor and texture have more restricted applications. Chefs
use appearance and tactile signals to judge the sensory characteristics
of strawberries. A selection of these sensory signals is shown in
Table 6. Sensory signals provide a basis for generating expectations
about the strawberry's avor and texture, as well as what stage of
shelf-life.
Outcomes of the research included an increased understanding of
the sensory signals associated with strawberries as well as identifying

Table 6
Sensory signals of strawberries and interpretation by chefs/buyers.
Sensory signal

Interpretation

Large size
Red all the way to the stem
Pale, white interior

Over fertilized or over watered, longer shelflife

Sweeter strawberry
Low avor

G.V. Civille, K.N. Oftedal / Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605
Table 7
Themes and expectations associated with calming and energizing benets.
Calming
Familiarity vs. Discovery

603

5. Avoiding consumer cognitive dissonance using sensory

alignment

Energizing

Familiarity/revisiting
The smell of your
own bed
Repetitive tasks or
motions
No surprise
Nostalgia and
traditions
Blend vs. contrast
Smoothness/blend
Vanilla
Smooth
Muted/deep colors
Singular vs. complex
Singularity
Single scent,
textures, sounds
Slow repetitive motion Slow repetitive
vs. intense activity
motion
Flowing, running
water (bath/lake)
Cream, lotion,
powder
Sleeping
Taking the time

Discovery
Smell and feel of a freshly made
bed
New task, spur of the moment
Surprise
Newness and search
Contrast/spike
Vanilla with spice or orange
Carbonated
Vibrant/bright colors
Complexity
Complex scents, textures,
sounds providing contrast
Intense activity
Waves and sprays (shower/
ocean)
Wash, scrubs, sprays
Awake
Rushing

the inherent variation present in the contemporary gene pool Consumer preferences were also obtained which will help to prioritize
fruit quality traits in strawberry breeding programs. The addition of
descriptive analysis to applied breeding programs will provide plant
breeders with unbiased tools to measure otherwise subjective fruit
quality traits. Furthermore, combining consumer preferences with
descriptive analysis is an approach that will result in the development
of consumer-driven improvements in not only strawberries but also
other nutritionally important agricultural commodities.

Another area of application of sensory methods is related to understanding consumer benet expectations and delivering against those
expectations. As seen from the Strawberry Case Study (Section 4.2) sensory signals can send different messages to consumers. Qualitative
methodologies can be used at the fuzzy front end or at very early
product development stages to understand which sensory properties
are inherently associated with specic benets in the mind of the consumer. Additionally, this information can be conrmed quantitatively
with large numbers of consumers (at least n = 150) for sound business
decision-making. Two examples show how more advanced sensory
methods can be used to achieve sensory congruence or harmony.
Example 1. In a study conducted with creative consumers, calming
and energizing benets of personal care products were investigated.
Qualitative methods used to generate a list of sensory expectations associated with the two benets included collages, interactions with a
wide variety of stimuli, compare and contrast exercises, etc. All of
those exercises were followed by a discussion to dive into the sensory
experience to be constructed around the benet to generate high alignment between expectations and actual product experience. Table 7
highlights the contrast in expectations that emerged from the discussion. Fig. 1 represents the sensory expectations congruent with the benet of calming. Such methods may help then better design a product
concept around the benet that is to be delivered by the product.
Example 2. A manufacturer of therapeutic products was struggling
with the avor of their current offering: consumers complaints about
the avor was high, the current avor was not liked with complaints
that it was too medicinal. In an effort to gain higher consumer acceptance and increase consumer satisfaction, the manufacturer decided to
reformulate and designed new prototypes with a completely different

Fig. 1. Consumer-dened sensory cues associated with the concept of calming.

604

G.V. Civille, K.N. Oftedal / Physiology & Behavior 107 (2012) 598605

Fig. 2. Map highlighting product similarities and differences from a descriptive and consumer standpoint.

avor system than that of its current products. In addition to the prototypes, it was decided that current products with a strong avor, current
products with a milder avor and mixture of strong current and prototype avors were to be included in the test.
Product properties were documented using descriptive analysis
and product acceptance and imagery was captured in a central location quantitative test, among consumers of the product category.
The data from both the descriptive panel and the quantitative consumer research was then mined for insights.
Using multivariate regression methods (partial least square regression), a map (Fig. 2) was generated that allowed to visualize
product similarities and differences both from a consumer and product understanding standpoint. As a note, this data has been modied
from its original form to conceal proprietary information and is used
for illustrative purposes only.
Not surprisingly, from a product standpoint, strong current products
clustered together, prototypes grouped together and mixture products
fell somewhere in the middle. From a consumer standpoint, it became
clear that prototypes were overall more liked than the strong-avored
current samples. However, when imagery was added to the map, current products were perceived as efcacious while the prototypes were
believed to be more natural yet less efcacious.
Based on these ndings, it was recommended that the manufacturer introduce on the market the new prototype under a different
brand than the current product and after product introduction, advertise the new product as being as efcacious as the current product
rather than replace the current product at the risk of creating consumer doubt in the efcacy of the new product.
6. Summary and conclusions
In conclusion, sensory evaluation can be an incredible asset in
health and wellness research on food and beverages, botanicals for

fortication and fruit or vegetable plant varietals. The same basic

principles of good sensory research, The 5 S's, lay a foundation for applied sensory academic research such as clinical trials and plant varietal research. It is important, however, to remember the reality of
everyday life, and that the product of interest likely has emotional
ties to the end user (consumer). As discussed, there are sensory
tools to avoid cognitive dissonance in products such as qualitative
techniques, descriptive analysis paired with consumer quantitative
testing, and multivariate data analysis, among others. These sensory
tools can ensure that the results of the studies are applicable to the
end user and that the product achieves sensory congruence with
the underlying consumer expectations.
Acknowledgements
Jed Fahey, ScD, Julianne Bierwirth, RD, Johns Hopkins University
Judy Heylmun, Clare Dus, Annlyse Retiveau Krogmann, Sensory
Spectrum, Inc.
Golden Leaf Foundation
Jeremy Pattison, North Carolina Research Center.
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