Telecommunication Network Design

Lecture notes
Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen
Telecommunication Network Design

Microwave Link Design
Jorma Kekalainen
Microwave Communication
A microwave communication system utilizes the
radio frequencies >1 GHz
These radio frequencies are called microwaves
Typically, spanning in microwave communication is
from 2 to 60 GHz.
As per IEEE, electromagnetic waves between 30
and 300 GHz are called millimeter waves or
Extremely High Frequencies (EHF) as their
wavelengths are from 10 to 1 mm.
Frequencies between 300 and 3000 GHz are called
Hyper High Frequencies (HHF) also called
submillimeter waves
197
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Lecture notes
Microwave Communication
Small capacity systems generally employ
the frequencies less than 3 GHz while
medium and large capacity systems
utilize frequencies ranging from 3 to 15
GHz.
Frequencies > 15 GHz are essentially
used for short-haul transmission.
198
Why radio links

No requirement for right-of-way
Less vulnerable to vandalism
Not susceptible to accidental cutting
of the link
Often more suited to crossing rough
terrain
Often more practical in heavily
urbanized areas
As a backup to fiber-optic cable links
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Lecture notes
Advantages of Microwave Radio

Less prone to accidental damage
Links across mountains and rivers are
more economically feasible
Two point installation and maintenance
Two point security
They are quickly deployed
200
Competitors
Fiber-optic cable systems provide
strong competition with line-of-sight
(LOS) microwave.
Satellite communications is an extension
of line-of-sight microwave.
Drawback; The excessive delay when the
popular geostationary satellite systems are
utilized.
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Lecture notes
Line-of-sight Microwave System

Line-of-sight (LOS) microwave provides broadband
bearer connectivity over a link or series of links
upwards into the millimeter spectrum.
Each link can be up to 40 - 50 km long or more
depending on terrain topology and antenna mast
height.
The key term here is line-of-sight (LOS).
It implies that the antenna of the radio link on one
end has to be able to see the antenna on the other
end.
This may not necessarily be true, but it does give
some idea of the problem.
202
Radio Horizon
The distance to the radio horizon varies with
the index of refraction of the intervening
space.
Under normal atmospheric conditions (k=4/3),
the radio horizon is about 15 percent beyond
the optical horizon because the microwave ray
beam being bent toward the earth.
However, this generalization may be overly
optimistic under certain circumstances.
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Lecture notes
Radio and Optical Horizon (smooth earth)
204
Refraction
205
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Lecture notes
Line-of-Sight Considerations
Microwave radio communication requires a clear line-of-sight
(LOS) condition
Radio LOS takes into account the concept of Fresnel ellipsoids
and their clearance criteria
Fresnel zones are specified employing ordinal numbers that
correspond to the number of half wavelength multiples that
represent the difference in radio wave propagation path from
the direct path
Ideally, the first Fresnel Zone must be clear of all
obstructions.
a+b+/2
r
a
Radius of the 1.Fresnel zone

rF=[*a*b/(a+b)]
206
Example
The link length is 40
km. Calculate the
maximum value of
the first Fresnel
radius, when
a) f=250 MHz
b) f=4 GHz
Note.
a+b+/2
rF
a
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Lecture notes
Radius of the first Fresnel zone

R=17.32(x(d-x)/fd)1/2
where d = distance between antennas (in km)
R= first Fresnel zone radius in meters
f= frequency in GHz
R
x
y
d=x+y
208
Typically the first Fresnel zone is used to
determine obstruction loss
The direct path between the transmitter and the
receiver needs a clearance above ground of at
least 60% of the radius of the first Fresnel zone
to achieve nearly free space propagation
conditions
Clearance is described to ensure sufficient
antenna heights so that, in the worst case of
refraction (for which Earth-radius factor k is
minimum) the receiver antenna is not placed in the
diffraction region
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Lecture notes
Clearance criteria to be satisfied under
normal propagation conditions:
Clearance of 60% or greater at the
minimum k suggested for the certain path
Clearance of 100% or greater at k=4/3
In case of space diversity, the antenna

can have a 60% clearance at k=4/3
210
Microwave Link Design

Microwave Link Design is a
systematic process that includes
Loss/attenuation calculations
Fading and fade margins calculations
Frequency planning and interference
calculations
Quality and availability calculations
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Lecture notes
Microwave Link Design Process

The whole process is iterative and may go through
many redesign phases before the required quality and
availability are achieved
Interference
analysis
Frequency
Planning
Propagation losses
Branching
losses
Other Losses
Link Budget
Fading
Predictions
Quality
and
Availability
Calculations
Rain
attenuation
Diffractionrefraction
losses
Multipath
propagation
212
Hop Calculations
213
Q&A stands here for Quality and Availability
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Lecture notes
Loss / Attenuation Calculations

The loss/attenuation calculations are
composed of three main contributions
Propagation losses
(Due to Earths atmosphere and terrain)
Branching losses
(comes from the hardware used to deliver the
transmitter/receiver output to/from the
antenna)
214
Loss / Attenuation Calculations

Miscellaneous (other) losses
unpredictable and sporadic in character like fog,
moving objects crossing the path, poor equipment
installation and less than perfect antenna
alignment etc
Detailed contribution of these losses is not

calculated but they are considered in the
planning process as an additional loss
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Lecture notes
Propagation Losses
Free-space loss - when the transmitter and
receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight
Lfsl=92.45+20log(f)+20log(d) [dB]
where f = frequency (GHz)
d = LOS range between antennas (km)
One estimation of vegetation attenuation
(provision should be taken for 5 years of
vegetation growth)
L=0.2f 0.3R0.6(dB)
f=frequency (MHz)
R=depth of vegetation in meters
216
Diffraction
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Lecture notes
Propagation Losses
Obstacle Loss also called Diffraction Loss or Diffraction
Attenuation.
One method of calculation is based on knife edge
approximation.
Having an obstacle free 60% of the Fresnel zone gives 0
dB loss
First Fresnel Zone
0 dB
0 dB
6dB
16dB
20dB
218
Propagation Losses
Gas absorption
Primarily due to the water vapor and
oxygen in the atmosphere.
The absorption peaks are located around 23
GHz for water molecules and 50 to 70 GHz
for oxygen molecules.
The specific attenuation (dB/km) is
strongly dependent on frequency,
temperature and the absolute or relative
humidity of the atmosphere.
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Lecture notes
Gas Attenuation vs. Frequency

Total specific
gas attenuation 23GHz
1.0 (dB/Km)
T=40oC
RH=80%
0.4
T=30o
RH=50%
Frequency (GHz)
25
50
220
Gas Absorption
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Lecture notes
Propagation Losses
Attenuation due to precipitation
Rain attenuation increases exponentially with rain intensity
The percentage of time for which a given rain intensity is
attained or exceeded is available for 15 different rain
zones covering the entire earths surface
The specific attenuation of rain is dependent on many
parameters such as the form and size of distribution of the
raindrops, polarization, rain intensity and frequency
Horizontal polarization gives more rain attenuation than
vertical polarization
Rain attenuation increases with frequency and becomes a
major contributor in the frequency bands above 10 GHz
The contribution due to rain attenuation is not included in
the link budget and is used only in the calculation of rain
fading
222
Atmospheric attenuation
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Lecture notes
Rain Attenuation
Two types of attenuating mechanisms:
absorption and scattering caused by the rain
drops.
Horizontally polarized waves are

attenuated more than vertically polarized
waves.
224
Rain attenuation
225
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Lecture notes
Ground Reflection
Reflection on the Earths surface may give rise to multipath
propagation
The direct ray at the receiver may interfered with by the
ground-reflected ray and the reflection loss can be
significant
Since the refraction properties of the atmosphere are
constantly changing the reflection loss varies.
The loss due to reflection on the ground is dependent on the
reflection coefficient of the ground
The reflection coefficient is dependent on the frequency,
grazing angle (angle between the ray beam and the horizontal
plane), polarization and ground properties
226
Ground Reflection
The grazing angle of radio-relay paths is very small
usually less than 1
It is recommended to avoid ground reflection by
shielding the path against the indirect ray
The contribution resulting from reflection loss is
not automatically included in the link budget.
When reflection cannot be avoided, the fade
margin may be adjusted by including this
contribution as additional loss in the link budget
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Lecture notes
Multipath
228
Telecommunication Network Design

Path Analysis (Link Budget)
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Lecture notes
Introduction
The path analysis (or link budget) is carried out to
dimension the link.
This means here to establish operating parameters
such as transmitter power output, parabolic antenna
aperture (diameter), and receiver noise figure, among
others.
The type of modulation and modulation rate (number
of transitions per second) are also important
parameters.
Next table shows basic parameters in two columns.
The first we call normal and would be the most
economic; the second column is titled special,
giving improved performance parameters, but at an
increased price.
230
LOS Microwave Basic Equipment

Parameters
231
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Lecture notes
Space distribution of power
232
The First Fresnel Zone

Design objective:
Full clearance of the 1. Fresnel zone.
233
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Lecture notes
The First Fresnel Zone

The radiated power is distributed in a
zone surrounding the direct line-ofsight.
234
Example
235
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Lecture notes
Obstacle Loss
236
Knife edge and earth surface losses
237
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Lecture notes
True and equivalent earth radius
238
Earth Bulge calculation
239
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Lecture notes
Free 1.Fresnel zone
The 1st Fresnel shall be free from obstacles

when k=4/3.
On paths over water surfaces or desert
areas, it is recommended to have the 1st
Fresnel zone free from obstacles when k=1.
240
Link Budget
The link budget is a calculation involving the
gain and loss factors associated with the
antennas, transmitters, transmission lines and
propagation environment, to determine the
maximum distance at which a transmitter and
receiver can successfully operate
Receiver sensitivity threshold is the signal
level at which the radio runs for a given biterror rate at a specified bit rate
System gain depends on the design of the
radio
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Lecture notes
Link Budget
The gains from the antenna at each end are added to
the system gain
larger antennas provide a higher gain
The free space loss of the radio signal is subtracted.

the longer the link the higher the loss
These calculations give the fade margin

In most cases since the same duplex radio setup is
applied to both stations the calculation of the received
signal level is independent of direction
242
Approach
First, we calculate the free-space loss between the transmit
antenna and receive antenna.
This is a function of distance and frequency (i.e., the
microwave transmitter operational frequency).
We then calculate the EIRP (effective isotropically radiated
power) at the transmit antenna.
The EIRP is the sum of the transmitter power output, minus
transmission line losses plus the antenna gain, all in decibel units.
When we add the EIRP to the free-space loss (in dB), the result
is the isotropic receive level (IRL).
When we add the receive antenna gain to the IRL and subtract
the receive transmission line losses, we get the receive signal
level (RSL).
This relationship of path gains and losses is shown in the
following figure.
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Lecture notes
LOS microwave link gains and losses.

Transmitter output is 1 watt or 0 dBW.
244
Path Loss
If the isotropic radiator (an antenna that radiates uniformly in
all directions) is fed by a transmitted power Pt, it radiates
power density Pt/4d2 (W/m2) at a distance d, and if a radiator
has a gain Gt, the power flow is enhanced by the factor Gt.
So power density at a distance d is S0= GtPt/4d2 .
Finally, the power intercepted by an antenna of effective cross
section A (related to the gain by Gr = 4A/2) is Pr=AS0=PtGtGr(
/4d)2.
The term 1/(/4d)2 is known as the free-space loss and
represents the steady decrease of power flow (in W/m2) as the
wave propagates.
From this we can derive the commonly used formula of freespace path loss, which reduces to
where L is the free-space attenuation between isotropic

antennas in dB, F is the frequency in GHz, and D is the path
distance in km.
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Lecture notes
Example
Consider the problem from a different aspect.
It requires 22 dB to launch a wave to just 1 wavelength ()
distant from an antenna.
Thus for an antenna emitting +10 dBW, we could expect the
signal one wavelength away to be 22 dB down, or -12 dBW.
Whenever we double the distance, we incur an additional 6
dB of loss.
Hence at 2 from the + 10-dBW radiator, we would find -18
dBW; at 4, -24 dBW; 8, -30 dBW; and so on.
Now suppose that we have an emitter where F = 1 GHz. What is the
path loss at 1 km?
From rough calculations, the 6-dB relationship is worthwhile and

also gives insight in that if we have a 50-km path and shorten or
lengthen it by a km, our signal level will be affected little.
246
Calculation of EIRP
Effective isotropically
radiated power is
calculated by adding
decibel units:
the transmitter power
output (in dBm or dBW),
the transmission line losses
in dB (a negative value
because it is a loss), and
the antenna gain in dBi.
dBi = decibels
referenced to an
isotropic (antenna).
247
EIRP = Trans. output (dBW) - Trans. line loss (dB) + Ant. gain (dB)
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Lecture notes
Example
If a microwave transmitter has a 1-watt
(0-dBW) power output, the waveguide
loss is 3 dB, and the antenna gain is 34
dBi, what is the EIRP in dBW?
248
Calculation of Isotropic Receive Level

(IRL)
The IRL is the RF power level impinging on the
receive antenna.
It would be the power we would measure at
the base of an isotropic receive antenna.
The calculation is shown below
lRLdBW = EIRPdBW Path lossdB

249
Below 10 GHz : Path loss = Free-space loss (FSL)
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Lecture notes
Calculation of Receive Signal Level (RSL)

The receive signal level (RSL) is the
power level entering the first active
stage of the receiver:
Note: Power levels can be in dBm as well.

250
Example
Suppose the isotropic receive level
(IRL) is -121 dBW, the receive antenna
gain is 31 dB, and the line losses are 5.6
dB. What is the RSL?
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Lecture notes
Link Budget
Receive Signal Level (RSL)
RSL = Pout Lctx + Gatx Lcrx + Gatx FSL
Pout = output power of the transmitter (dBm)
Lctx, Lcrx = Loss (cable,connectors, branching unit) between
transmitter/receiver and antenna(dB)
Gatx = gain of transmitter/receiver antenna (dBi)
FSL = free space loss (dB)
Link feasibility formula

RSL Rx (receiver sensitivity threshold)
252
Calculation of Receiver Noise Level

The thermal noise level of a receiver is a function of
the receiver noise figure and its bandwidth.
For analog radio systems, receiver thermal noise level
is calculated using the bandwidth of the intermediate
frequency (IF).
For digital systems, the noise level of interest is in
only 1 Hz of bandwidth using the notation N0, the
noise level in a 1-Hz bandwidth.
The noise that a device self-generates is given by its
noise figure (dB) or a noise temperature value.
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Lecture notes
Calculation of Receiver Noise Level

Any device above absolute zero generates thermal noise.
We know the thermal noise power level in a 1-Hz bandwidth of a
perfect receiver operating at 1 K is
where Pn is the noise power level.

From numerical value we will recognize this as Boltzmanns
constant expressed in dBW.
We can calculate the thermal noise level of a perfect receiver
operating at room temperature (T=290 K) using the following
formula:
254
Pn=kTB, k=1.3806504 1023 J/K
Noise Figure
Noise figure simply tells us how much noise has been
added to a signal while passing through a device in
question.
Noise figure (dB) is the difference in signal-to-noise
ratio between the input to the device and the output
of that same device.
We can convert noise figure to noise temperature in
kelvins with the following formula:
where Te is the effective noise temperature of a

device.
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Lecture notes
Example
Suppose the noise figure of a device is
3 dB. What is the noise temperature?
Lets round 1.995 to 2; thus
256
Thermal Noise Power

The thermal noise power level of a
device operating at room temperature is
where BW is the bandwidth of the

device in Hz.
257
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Lecture notes
Example
A microwave receiver has a noise figure of 8 dB and
its bandwidth is 10 MHz. What is the thermal noise
level (sometimes called the thermal noise threshold)?
If the receiver in the above example was operating in

a digital regime, wed want to calculate N0 (noise
spectral density)
258
Calculation of Eb/N0 in Digital Radio

Systems
Instead of familiar signal-to-noise ratio (S/N, SNR) in digital
systems we often use Eb/N0, meaning energy per bit per noise
spectral density ratio.
We can relate Eb/N0 to bit error rate (BER) given the
modulation type in question.
Suppose the RSL was 1 watt and we were receiving 1000 bits per
second.
How much energy is imparted to 1 bit? We simply divided 1 watt
by 1000 bits per second. So it is 1 mW.
In radio work we do the division logarithmically because we work
with decibels.
Eb can be stated as follows:
259
The receive signal level (RSL)
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Lecture notes
Example
A certain radio system receives 1.544
Mbps and the RSL is -108 dBW. What is
the energy per bit (Eb)?
260
Eb/N0
We can now develop a formula for
Eb/N0:
Simplifying, we obtain
Note.
261
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Lecture notes
Some Notes on Eb/N0

Eb/N0, for a given BER, will be different for
different types of modulation (e.g., FSK, PSK,
QAM, etc.).
When working with Eb, we divide RSL by the
bit rate, not the symbol rate nor the baud
rate.
There is a theoretical Eb/N0 and a practical
Eb/N0.
The practical Eb/N0 is always a greater value
than the theoretical, greater by the
modulation implementation loss in dB.
262
Digital Modulation of LOS Microwave

Radios
Digital systems, typically standard PCM, are
notoriously wasteful of bandwidth compared to their
analog counterparts.
For example, the analog voice channel is nominally 4
kHz, whereas the digital voice channel, assuming one
bit per hertz of bandwidth is 64 kHz.
This is a 16-to-1 difference in required bandwidth.
Thus various national regulatory authorities require
that digital systems must be bandwidth conservative.
One term that is used in this connection is bit
packing.
This means packing more bits into a hertz of
bandwidth.
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Lecture notes
How does bit packing work?

In the binary domain we can estimate bandwidth to
approximately equate to 1 bit/Hz.
For example, if we were transmitting at 2.048 Mbps wed
need 2.048 MHz of bandwidth.
Quadrature phase shift keying (QPSK) is one example

of higher levels of modulation.
In this case we achieve a theoretical packing of 2 bits/Hz.
Again, if we are transmitting 2.048 Mbps with QPSK we
would need 2.048 MHz/2 or 1.024 MHz.
QPSK is one of a family of modulation schemes that

are based on phase shift keying (PSK).
264
Block diagram of a QPSK modulator

With binary PSK (BPSK) we might assign a binary 1 to the 0
position (i.e.. no phase retardation) and a binary 0 to the 180
phase retardation point.
For QPSK, the phase-circle is broken up into 90 segments.
In this case, for every transition we transmit 2 bits at a time.
QPSK modulator really only consists of two BPSK modulators

where one is out of phase with the other by 90.
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Lecture notes
8-PSK
In 8-ary PSK modulation case the phase
circle is broken up into 45 phase
segments.
Now for every transition, 3 bits at a
time are transmitted.
The bit packing in this case is 3 bits per
Hz.
266
QAM
We can construct a hybrid waveform covering both
amplitude modulation as well as phase modulation.
This family of waveforms is called quadrature
amplitude modulation (QAM).
For example, 16-QAM has 16 different state possibilities:
eight are derived for 8-ary PSK and two are derived from
the two amplitude levels.
Here for each state transition, 4 bits are transmitted at
once.
The bit packing in this case is 4 bits/Hz.
Some digital LOS microwave systems use 256-QAM

and 512-QAM, theoretically achieving 8 bits/Hz and
9 bits/Hz of bit packing.
267
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Lecture notes
Example
268
269
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Lecture notes
Theoretical/Practical bandwidth
The difference between theoretical bit
packing and the practical deals with filter
design.
For QAM-type waveforms, depending on
design, practical bit packing may vary from
1.25 to 1 .5 the baudrate-bandwidth.
The extra bandwidth required provides a
filter with spectral space to roll-off.
In other words, a filters skirts are not
perfectly vertical.
270
Example
Suppose we are using a 48-Mbps bit stream to input
to our transmitter which was using 16-QAM
modulation.
Its baud rate, which measures transitions per second,
would be 48/4 megabauds.
If we allowed 1 baud/Hz, then 12 MHz bandwidth
would be required.
If we used a roll-off factor of 1.5, then the practical
bandwidth required would be 18 MHz.
Carry this two steps further to 64-QAM.
Here the theoretical bit packing is 6 bits/Hz and for
the 48-Mbps bit stream, a practical 12-MHz
bandwidth would be required.
baud (unit symbol "Bd") is synonymous to symbols per second. It is the unit
of symbol rate, also known as baud rate or modulation rate; the number of
271
distinct symbol changes (signaling events) made to the transmission medium
per second in a digitally modulated signal or a line code
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Lecture notes
BER vs. Eb/N0 for various PSK and QAM
272for
As an amount of signal elements (symbols) M=2n increases (e.g., M = 64),
a given error rate, Eb/N0 increases
Example
A digital link operates in the 7-GHz
band with a link 37 km long.
The bit rate is 1.544 Mbps and the
modulation is 64-QAM.
The specified BER for the link is 10-7
and the modulation implementation
loss is 2 dB.
The receiver noise figure is 8 dB.
The antennas have 35-dB gain at each
end, and transmission line losses are
1.8 dB at each end.
What link margin can be expected
assuming the transmitter has a 1-watt
output?
Solution
First turn to next figure and derive
the required Eb/N0.
This is about 19.5 dB; add to this the
modulation implementation loss of 2
dB and the result is that the required
value for Eb/N0 is 21.5 dB.
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Lecture notes
Example (cont.)
The next step is to calculate a
candidate RSL value.
We know that Eb must be 21.5 dB above
N0.
We can calculate N0 because we have
the receiver noise figure (8 dB)
274
Example (cont.)
Thus RSL, in this case, is 10 log(1.544106)
greater than Eb, because
So
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Lecture notes
Example (cont.)
We will hold this minimum RSL value for future
reference (we use this reference to calculate the
prevailing link margin), and now we turn to the transmit
side of the link.
Assume the transmitter has a 1-watt output or 0 dBW.
Calculate EIRP (effective isotropically radiated power)
in dBW
276
Example (cont.)
Calculate the free-space loss (path loss):
Calculate the IRL (isotropic receive level) :

lRLdBW = EIRPdBW Path lossdB
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Lecture notes
Example (cont.)
Calculate RSL (Receive Signal Level) :
Calculate the link margin: RSL-RSLreference
278
Antenna Gain
Often we are faced with the problem of
What antenna gain will provide the
margin or provide the gain necessary to
meet performance objectives?
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Lecture notes
Parabolic Antenna Gain

At a given frequency the gain of a parabolic antenna is a
function of its effective area and may be expressed by the
formula
where G is the gain relative to an isotropic antenna, A is the

area of antenna aperture, is the aperture efficiency, and is
the wavelength at the operating frequency.
Commercially available parabolic antennas with a conventional
horn feed at their focus usually display a 55% efficiency or
somewhat better. With such an efficiency, gain (G, in decibels)
is then
where D is measured in meters and F in gigahertz.

280
Calculation of Antenna Gain (=0.55)
c
f
FGHz 109
2
G = 10 log 4 (D / 2 ) 0.55
8
10
2 0.55 100
G = 20 log D + 20 log FGHz + 10 log

9
G = 20 log D + 20 log FGHz + 17.8

281
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Lecture notes
Example
What size antenna would be required in
the preceding example? Let G = 35dB
and F=7GHz.
D1m
282
Antenna types
Parabolic dish antennas, with waveguide (horn)
feeds, are probably the most economic
antennas for radio links operating from 3 GHz
upward.
Below 3 GHz, coaxial feeds are used, and often
the antennas are Yagis.
Coaxial cable transmission lines deliver the RF
energy from/to transmitter/receiver to the
antenna in this range.
Above 3 GHz, coaxial cable becomes too lossy
and waveguide is more practical.
Other types of antennas may also be used, such
as the horn, and spiral.
Besides cost and gain, other features are
front-to-back ratio, side lobes, and efficiency.
283
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Lecture notes
Power budget
LFSL = 92.4 + 20 log FGHz + 20 log Dkm
Prx = Ptx + 2Gant 2 L feed LFSL
Margin = Prx Pthreshold
LFSL: free space loss

Dkm: distance
FGHz: frequency
Prx: received power [dBm]
Ptx : transmitted power [ dBm]
Pthreshold: receiver threshold [dBm]
M : margin
Gant: antenna gain
Lfeed: feeder cable loss
Link Budget
The fade margin is calculated with respect to
the receiver threshold level for a given biterror rate (BER).
The link is available if received signal is above
receiver threshold level, otherwise the link
goes down
Link feasibility formula
RSL Rx = receiver (sensitivity) threshold
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Lecture notes
Radio path link budget

Transmitter 1
waveguide
Transmitter 2
Splitter
Splitter
Receiver 1
Antenna Gain
Branching
Losses
Propagation
Losses
Output
Power (Tx)
Receiver 2
Branching
Losses
Received
Power (Rx)
Fade Margin
Receiver threshold Value

286
Fading
On very short radio paths below about 10 GHz, the signal level
on the distant end receiving antenna, assuming full LOS
conditions, can be predicted (calculated) accurately (about 1dB
inaccuracy).
If the transmitter continues to give the same output, the
receive signal level will remain constant.
As the path is extended, the measured RSL will vary around a
median.
The signal level may remain at that median for minutes or hours,
and then suddenly drop and then return to the median again.
In other periods and/or on other links, this level variation can be
continuous for periods of time.
Drops in level can be as much as 30 dB or more.
This phenomenon is called fading.
The system and link design must take fading into account when
sizing or dimensioning the system/link.
287
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Lecture notes
Fades
As the RSL drops in level, so does the Eb/N0.
As the Eb/N0 decreases, there is a
deterioration in error performance; the BER
degrades.
Fades vary in depth, duration, and frequency
(i.e., number of fade events per unit of time).
We cannot eliminate the fades, but we can
mitigate their effects.
The primary tool we have is to overbuild each
link by increasing the margin.
288
Availability
Link margin is the number of dB we have as a surplus in the link
design.
We could design an LOS microwave link so we just achieve the
RSL at the distant receiver to satisfy the Eb/N0 (and BER)
requirements using free-space loss as the only factor in link
attenuation (besides transmission line loss).
Unfortunately we will only meet our specified requirements
about 50% of the time.
So we must add margin to compensate for the fading.
We have to determine what percentage of the time the link
meets BER performance requirements.
We call this time availability.
If a link meets its performance requirements 99% of the time,
then it does not meet performance requirements 1 % of the
time.
We call this latter factor unavailability.
289
Page 47
Lecture notes
Signal Power (dBm)
Scales of Fading
Large scale fading component
Small scale fading

component
290
Link Margin = Fade Margin

To improve time availability, we must increase the link margin,
often called the fade margin.
How many additional dB are necessary?
There are several approaches to the calculation of a required
fade margin.
One of the simplest and most straightforward approaches is to
assume that the fading follows a Rayleigh distribution, often
considered worst-case fading.
If we base our premise on a Rayleigh distribution, then the
following fade margins can be used:
291
Page 48
Lecture notes
Probability calculations
292
Probability calculations
293
Page 49
Lecture notes
Example
294
Example
Calculate the following table a) with given time availability and b)
with given fade margin
295
Page 50
Lecture notes
Time availability
296
Probability that R-distributed field is less

than abscissa value
297
Page 51
Lecture notes
Per-hop time availability

More often than not, LOS microwave systems consist of multiple
hops.
Here our primary interest is the time availability at the far-end
receiver in the system after the signal has progressed across all
of the hops.
From this time availability value we will want to assign an
availability value for each hop or link.
Suppose a system has nine hops and the system time availability
specified is 99.95%, and we want to calculate the time
availability per hop or link.
The first step is to calculate the system time unavailability.
This is simply 1.0000 0.9995 = 0.0005.
We now divide this value by 9 (i.e., there are nine hops or links):
Now we convert this value to time availability:
298
Multipath
The most common cause of
fading is multipath
conditions.
As the term implies, signal
energy follows multiple paths
from the transmit antenna to
the receive antenna.
Two additional paths, besides
the main ray beam, are shown
next figure.
Most of the time the
delayed signal energy (from
the reflected/refracted
paths) will be out of phase
with the principal ray beam
which causes fading.
299
Page 52
Lecture notes
Multipath
300
Multipath Propagation
Reflection (odd Fresnel zone numbers) and
Scattering
Reflected signal strength is dependent on:

The total reflection coefficient (reflection and/or
scattering)
301
The total phase shift
Page 53
Lecture notes
Multipath Propagation
Reflection (even Fresnel zone numbers) and
Scattering
Reflected signal strength is dependent on:

The total reflection coefficient (reflection and/or
scattering)
302
The total phase shift
Dispersion
In digital systems, there is the
additional impairment of dispersion
caused by multipath.
Of course, the delayed energy arrives
later, spilling into the next bit or binary
symbol position, increasing the
probability that that bit decision will
be in error.
303
Page 54
Lecture notes
Overbuilding
Probably the most economic way to overbuild a link is to increase the
antenna aperture.
Every time we increase the aperture doubling the diameter of the
parabolic dish, we increase the gain by 6 dB
It is recommend that apertures for LOS microwave antennas not

exceed 4 m.
Not only does the cost of the antenna get notably greater as aperture
increases over 3 m, but the equivalent sail area of the dish starts to
have an impact on system design.
Wind pressure on large dishes increases tower twist and sway, resulting
in movement out of the capture area of the ray beam at the
receive antenna.
This forces to stiffen the tower, which could dramatically increase
system cost.
Also, as antenna aperture increases, gain increases and beamwidth
decreases.
304
Overbuilding
Other measures we can take to overbuild a link are:
Insert a low-noise amplifier (LNA) in front of the receiver mixer.
Improvement: 6 - 12 dB.
Use an HPA (high-power amplifier).

Usually a traveling-wave tube (TWT) amplifier; 10 watts output.
Improvement: 10 dB.
Implement FEC (forward error correction).

Improvement: 15 dB.
Implement some form of diversity.
Space diversity is preferable in many countries.
Can be a fairly expensive measure.
Improvement: 5 - 20 dB or more.
305
Page 55
Lecture notes
Fading conditions
It should be appreciated that fading varies with path
length, frequency, climate, and terrain.
The rougher the terrain, the more reflections are
broken up.
Flat terrain, and especially paths over water, tends to
increase the incidence of fading.
For example, in dry, windy, mountainous areas the
multipath fading phenomenon may be nonexistent.
In hot, humid coastal regions very strong fading may
be expected.
306
Fading types
Fading is defined as the variation of the
strength of a received radio carrier signal
due to atmospheric changes and/or ground
and water reflections in the propagation
path.
Four fading types are considered while
planning links.
They are all dependent on path length and
are estimated as the probability of
exceeding a given (calculated) fade margin
307
Page 56
Lecture notes
Fadin Margin
308
Fading margin
Safety margin.
Should be large
enough to guarantee
that quality and
availability
objectives are met
during fading
conditions.
Typical value 40 dB
309
Page 57
Lecture notes
Fading
310
Fading types
Multipath fading
Flat fading
Frequency-selective fading
Rain fading
Refraction-diffraction fading
311
Page 58
Lecture notes
Multipath fading
Multipath fading is the dominant fading
mechanism for frequencies lower than 10 GHz.
A reflected wave causes a multipath, i.e. when a
reflected wave reaches the receiver as the
direct wave that travels in a straight line from
the transmitter
If the two waves reach the receiver out of phase
they weaken the overall signal.
As a thumb rule, multipath fading, for radio links
having bandwidths less than 40MHz and path
lengths less than 30km is described as flat
instead of frequency selective
312
Flat and Frequency Selective fading

Flat fading
A fade where all frequencies in the channel
bandwidth are equally affected.
If necessary, flat fade margin of a link can be
improved by using larger antennas, a higher-power
microwave transmitter, lowerloss feed line and
splitting a longer path into two shorter hops
On water paths at frequencies above 3 GHz, it is
advantageous to choose vertical polarization
Frequency-selective fading
There are amplitude and delay distortions across
the channel bandwidth
It affects high capacity radio links
313
Page 59
Lecture notes
Multipath Fading
314
Rain fading
Rain attenuates the signal caused by the scattering
and absorption of electromagnetic waves by rain
drops
It is significant for long paths (>10km)
It starts increasing at about 10GHz and for
frequencies above 15 GHz, rain fading is the
dominant fading mechanism
Rain outage increases dramatically with frequency and
then with path length
Microwave path lengths must be reduced in areas
where rain outages are severe
The available rainfall data is usually in the form of a
statistical description of the amount of rain that falls
at a given measurement point over a period of time
315
Page 60
Lecture notes
Reducing the Effects of Rain

Multipath fading is at its minimum during
periods of heavy rainfall, so entire path fade
margin is available to combat the rain
attenuation
Route diversity with paths separated by more
than a few km can be used successfully
Vertical polarization is far less susceptible to
rainfall attenuation (40 to 60%) than
horizontal polarization.
316
Fading Margin
Fading margin > Rain fading + Multipath
fading
Rain fading
Dominant cause of fading for f> 10 GHz
Multipath fading
Dominant cause of fading for f< 10 GHz
Common fading margin: 25 - 40 dB

317
Page 61
Lecture notes
Refraction Diffraction Fading

Also known as k-type fading
For low k values, the fictive Earths surface becomes curved and
terrain irregularities, man-made structures and other objects
may intercept the Fresnel Zone.
For high k values, the fictive Earths surface gets close to a plane
surface and better LOS (lower antenna height) is obtained
The probability of refraction-diffraction fading is therefore
indirectly connected to obstruction attenuation for a given value
of Earth radius factor
Since the Earth-radius factor is not constant, the probability of
refraction-diffraction fading is calculated based on cumulative
distributions of the Earth-radius factor
318
Interference fade margin

To accurately predict the performance of a digital
radio path, the effect of interference must be
considered.
Interference in microwave systems is caused by the
presence of an undesired signal in a receiver.
When this undesired signal exceeds certain limiting
values, the quality of the desired received signal is
affected.
To maintain reliable service, the ratio of the desired
received signal to the (undesired) interfering signal
should always be larger than the threshold value.
319
Page 62
Lecture notes
Interference fade margin

In normal unfaded conditions the digital signal
can tolerate high levels of interference but in
deep fades it is critical to control
interference.
Adjacent-channel interference fade margin
(AIFM) (in decibels) accounts for receiver
threshold degradation due to interference
from adjacent channel transmitters
Interference fade margin (IFM) is the depth
of fade to the point at which RF interference
degrades the BER to 10-3 .
320
Far-end Interference
321
Page 63
Lecture notes
Near-end Interference
322
Adjacent channel interference
323
Page 64
Lecture notes
Output Power
324
Output Power
325
Page 65
Lecture notes
Antennas
326
Threshold Degradation
327
Page 66
Lecture notes
Threshold Degradation
328
Link Budget
329
Page 67
Lecture notes
Microwave Link Multipath Outage

Models
A major concern for microwave system users
is how often and for how long a system might
be out of service.
An outage in a digital microwave link occurs
with a loss of digital signal frame sync for
more than 10 sec.
Digital signal frame loss typically occurs when
the BER increases beyond 10-3.
330
Outage and Availability

Outage (Unavailability) (%) = (SES/t) x 100
where
t = time period (expressed in seconds)
SES = severely errored second (1-s intervals in which the BER
exeeds 10-3 )
Availability is expressed as a percentage as :
A = 100 - Outage (Unavailability)
A digital link is unavailable for service after a ten consecutive
BER>10-3 SES outage periods.
331
Page 68
Lecture notes
Quality and Availability (Q&A)

The main purpose of the quality and availability
calculations is to set up reasonable quality and
availability objectives for the microwave path.
The ITU-T recommendations G.801, G.821 and
G.826 define error performance and availability
objectives.
The objectives of digital links are divided into
separate grades: high, medium and local grade.
The following grades are usually used in wireless
networks
Medium grade for the access network
High grade for the backbone network
332
Improving the Microwave System

Diversity Improvement
Space Diversity
Polarity Diversity
Frequency Diversity
Route Diversity
Hybrid Diversity
Media Diversity
Hardware Redundancy
Hot standby
Repeaters
333
Page 69
Lecture notes
Diversity Operation
Diversity reception means the simultaneous reception of the
same radio signal over two or more paths.
Each path is handled by a separate receiver chain and then
combined in the radio equipment so that effects of fading are
mitigated.
The separate diversity paths can be based on space, frequency,
and/or time diversity.
The simplest form of diversity is space diversity.
The two diversity paths in space diversity are derived at the
receiver end from two separate receivers with a combined
output.
Each receiver is connected to its own antenna, separated
vertically on the same tower.
The separation distance should be at least 70 wavelengths and
preferably 100 wavelengths.
Probably, fading will not occur on both paths simultaneously.
334
Diversity Antenna Systems

Combining
Combined signal
fed to receiver
Signal 2
Signal 1
Signal Strength
C o m b in e d s ig n a l
S ig n al 1
S ig n al 2
T im e
335
Page 70
Lecture notes
Concept of Diversity
Fade
Transmission
media 1
Information
Receiver
Transmission
Tmedia 2
Peak
336
Diversity
Primarily used to reduce the effects of
multipath fading.
337
Page 71
Lecture notes
Diversity
338
A space-diversity configuration
339
Page 72
Lecture notes
Antenna separation
340
Correlation between branches

The branch correlation coefficient (r) represents the degree of
similarity between the signals from two different receiving
branches.
The correlation coefficient ranges from 0 to 1.
r=1 means the signals from two different branches behave
exactly the same. In this case, the signals are coherent.
r=0 means the signals from two different branches behave
completely different. In this case, the signals are uncorrelated.
To achieve the best performance, a diversity antenna system
is required to provide uncorrelated signals.
For r=1, the diversity antenna becomes ineffective in combating
the multipath fading.
A diversity antenna system can perform satisfactorily provided
that r<0.7.
341
Page 73
Lecture notes
Probability that R-distributed field is less than abscissa

value with different number of diversity channels
342
Number of diversity channels
Frequency Diversity
Frequency diversity is more complex and more costly than space
diversity.
It has advantages as well as disadvantages.
Frequency diversity requires two transmitters at the near end
of the link.
The transmitters are modulated simultaneously by the same
signal but transmit on different frequencies.
Frequency separation must be at least 2%, but 5% is
preferable.
The two diversity paths are derived in the frequency domain.
When a fade occurs on one frequency, it will probably not occur
on the other frequency.
343
Page 74
Lecture notes
A frequency-diversity configuration
344
Frequency Diversity
The more one frequency is separated from the other, the less
chance fades will occur simultaneously on each path.
Frequency diversity is more expensive, but there is greater
assurance of path reliability.
It provides full and simple equipment redundancy and has the
great operational advantage of two complete end-to-end
electrical paths.
In this case, failure of one transmitter or one receiver will not
interrupt service, and a transmitter and/or a receiver can be
taken out of service for maintenance.
The primary disadvantage of frequency diversity is that it
doubles the amount of frequency spectrum required in this day
when spectrum is at a premium.
In many cases it is prohibited by national licensing authorities.
For example, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
does not permit frequency diversity for industrial users.
345
Page 75
Lecture notes
Hot-standby
The full equipment redundancy aspect is very attractive to the
system designer.
Another approach to achieve diversity improvement in
propagation plus reliability improvement by fully redundant
equipment is to resort to the hot-standby technique.
On the receive end of the path, a space-diversity configuration
is used.
On the transmit end a second transmitter is installed as in in the
previous figure, but the second transmitter is on hot standby.
This means that the second transmitter is on but its signal is not
radiated by the antenna.
On a one-for-one basis the second transmitter is on the same
frequency as the first transmitter.
On failure of transmitter 1, transmitter 2 is switched on
automatically.
346
One-for-N hot standby

One-for-N hot standby is utilized on large radio link systems
employing several radio carriers, where the cost for duplicate
equipment for each channel may be prohibitive.
On such multi-RF channel arrangements it is customary to assign some
sort of priority arrangement.
Often the priority channel enjoys the advantage of frequency diversity,
whereas the other RF channels do not.
On failure of one of the other channels, the diversity improvement is
lost on the priority channel, with the diversity pair switched to carry
the traffic on the failed pair.
In another arrangement the standby channel carries low-priority
traffic and does not operate in a frequency diversity arrangement,
while providing protection for perhaps two or three other channels
carrying the higher-priority traffic.
On failure of a high-priority channel, the lower-priority channel drops
its traffic, replacing one of the RF channels carrying the more
important traffic flow.
Once this occurs, the remaining channels operate without standby
equipment protection.
347
Page 76
Lecture notes
Diversity Improvement
Propagation reliability improvement can be
exemplified as follows.
If a 50 km path required a 51 dB fade margin to
achieve a 99.999% reliability on 6.7 GHz without
diversity, with space diversity on the same path, only
a 33-dB fade margin would be required for the same
propagation reliability, namely, 99.999%.
For frequency diversity in the nondiversity condition,
assuming Rayleigh fading, a 30-dB fade margin would
display something better than a 99.9% path
reliability.
But under the same circumstances with frequency
diversity, with only a 1% frequency separation,
propagation reliability on the same path would be
improved to 99.995%.
348
LOS Microwave Repeaters

Digital LOS microwave repeaters completely
demodulate the incoming signal to baseband (i.e., to
the raw electrical signal of 1s and 0s.).
This full demodulation causes regeneration of the 1s
and 0s.
The outgoing signal is squared up and retimed.
The regenerated baseband signal is remodulated,
upconverted and retransmitted on a different
frequency.
349
Page 77
Lecture notes
Repeaters
Repeater receives signal
Repeater amplifies
the signal and
rebroadcasts the
signal
Poor Coverage area
Repeater units are designed to receive signals from a donor site,

amplify and rebroadcast the donor sites signals into poor coverage
areas or to extend the coverage range of the donor site.
350
Path/Site survey
This can turn out to be the most important step in
the design of an LOS microwave link (or hop).
Much of the survey is to verify findings and
conclusions of the path profile.
Of course each site must be visited to determine the
location of the tower and the radio equipment
shelter.
Site/path survey personnel must personally inspect
the sites in question, walking/driving the path or
flying in a helicopter, or a combination of these.
The positions must be accurately enough (<1m) crosschecked in three dimensions.
351
Page 78
Lecture notes
Frequency planning
The objective of frequency planning is
to assign frequencies to a network
using as few frequencies as possible
and in a manner such that the quality
and availability of the radio link path is
minimally affected by interference.
352
Frequency Planning and Frequency

Assignment
To derive optimum performance from an LOS microwave system,
the design engineer must set out a frequency-usage plan that
may or may not have to be approved by the national regulatory
organization.
The problem to choose frequencies has many aspects.
In practice, the useful RF spectrum is limited to about 150 GHz.
The upper limit is technology-restricted.
To some extent it is also propagation-restricted.
There is the problem of congestion
Those frequencies above 10 GHz could be called rainfallrestricted, because above 10 GHz excess attenuation due to
rainfall can become an important design factor.
Around urban and built-up areas, frequency assignments below
10 GHz are hard to obtain from national regulatory authorities.
However, if we plan properly for excess rainfall attenuation,
nearly equal performance is available at those higher
frequencies.
353
Page 79
Lecture notes
Some LOS Microwave Frequency Bands
354
Channel Plan
355
Page 80
Lecture notes
Frequency selection
Scenario 1:
Frequency band and sub-band decided.
Perfect. Early ordering of equipment possible.
Scenario 2:
Frequency band unknown.
Critical. Major changes of assumed bands may
alter the network design.
Application to frequency authority must be
made.
356
Frequency Planning
Determining factors for the influence of
interference:
The carrier to interference ratio (C/I) at the
input of the interfered receiver
The receiver selectivity i.e. receiver bandwidth
and the frequency separation between carrier and
interfering signal
The spectrum width of the interfering signal
The influence of interference can be reduced

by increasing C/I and/or the frequency
separation.
357
Page 81
Lecture notes
Frequency planning/Interference
reducing methods
Frequency (channel) separation
Transmitter attenuation (at interfering
transmitter)
Cross-polar antenna discrimination (V/H)
Co-polar antenna discrimination (directivity)
Larger antennas (smaller beam width and
higher antenna gain)
High performance antennas (side- and back
lobe attenuation)
Reduced spectrum width (low deviation)
358
Frequency planning
The following aspects are the basic
considerations involved in the assignment of
radio frequencies
Determining a frequency band that is suitable for
the specific link (path length, site location, terrain
topography and atmospheric effects)
Prevention of mutual interference such as
interference among radio frequency channels in
the actual path, interference to and from other
radio paths, interference to and from satellite
communication systems
Correct selection of a frequency band allows the
required transmission capacity while efficiently
utilizing the available radio frequency spectrum
359
Page 82
Lecture notes
Frequency channel arrangements

The available frequency band is subdivided
into two halves, a lower and an upper duplex
half.
The duplex spacing is always sufficiently
large so that the radio equipment can
operate interference free under duplex
operation.
The width of each channel depends on the
capacity of the radio link and the type of
modulation used.
360
Frequency planning tools

Frequency planning of a few paths can be
carried out manually but, for larger
networks (= for complex microwave
design), it is profitable to employ some
software transmission design tool.
Tools include standards, different
diversity schemes, diffraction and
reflection (multipath) analysis, rain
effects, interference analysis etc.
361
Page 83
Lecture notes
Path/Site survey
Line of sight must be precisely studied
reiteration for each obstacle in the LOS
microwave path
at least 0.6 of the first Fresnel zone must be
added on top of obstacles including 20 m for trees
and a few meters more for growth if in a
vegetated area (to avoid foliage loss penalties)
often it is advisable to add a few meters of safety
factor on top of the first Fresnel zone clearance
to avoid any diffraction loss penalties.
362
System tests
A series of tests should be carried out to
verify if the link (or system) meets the
performance requirements.
The first is the measurement of receive
signal level (RSL) at a links far-end receiver.
The second test is the bit error rate test
(BERT).
Ideally, the tests should be done over time.
This means to run the BERT continuously for
at least a few days or more to capture the
effects of fading.
363
Page 84
Lecture notes
Basic Recommendations
Use higher frequency bands for shorter hops
and lower frequency bands for longer hops.
Avoid lower frequency bands in urban areas.
In areas with heavy precipitation, if possible,
use frequency bands below 10 GHz.
Use protected (stand-by) systems (1+1) for all
important and/or high-capacity links.
Leave enough spare capacity for future
expansion of the system.
364
Common Planning Considerations

Perform detailed path surveys on ALL microwave
hops.
Maps are used only for initial planning, as a first
approximation.
Below 10 GHz, multipath outage increases rapidly
with path length.
Multipath effect can be reduced with higher fade
margin.
If the path has excessive path outage the
performance can be improved by using one of the
diversity methods.
However, diversity is an expensive way of improving
the performance of the microwave link and it should
be used carefully and as a last resort.
365
Page 85
Lecture notes
Difficult Areas for Microwave Links

In areas with lots of rain, use the lowest frequency
band allowed for the project.
Microwave hops over or in the vicinity of the large
water surfaces and flat land areas can cause severe
multipath fading.
Reflections may be avoided by selecting sites that
are shielded from the reflected rays.
366
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Lecture notes

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Why radio links

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Advantages of Microwave Radio

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Line-of-sight Microwave System

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Radio and Optical Horizon (smooth earth)

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Radius of the 1.Fresnel zone

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Radius of the first Fresnel zone

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

In case of space diversity, the antenna

Microwave Link Design

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Microwave Link Design Process

Q&A stands here for Quality and Availability

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Loss / Attenuation Calculations

Loss / Attenuation Calculations

Detailed contribution of these losses is not

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Gas Attenuation vs. Frequency

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Horizontally polarized waves are

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Telecommunication Network Design

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

LOS Microwave Basic Equipment

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Space distribution of power

The First Fresnel Zone

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

The First Fresnel Zone

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Knife edge and earth surface losses

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

True and equivalent earth radius

Earth Bulge calculation

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Free 1.Fresnel zone

The 1st Fresnel shall be free from obstacles

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

The free space loss of the radio signal is subtracted.

These calculations give the fade margin

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

LOS microwave link gains and losses.

where L is the free-space attenuation between isotropic

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

From rough calculations, the 6-dB relationship is worthwhile and

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Calculation of Isotropic Receive Level

lRLdBW = EIRPdBW Path lossdB

Below 10 GHz : Path loss = Free-space loss (FSL)

Telecommunication Network Design by Jorma Kekalainen

Calculation of Receive Signal Level (RSL)