Steels: Ii Beng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng) Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

1
CHAPTER 6
STEELS
II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)
Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science
Introduction
Meals and alloys have many useful engineering properties and so have widespread
applications in engineering designs. Iron and its alloys (mainly steel) account for about
90% of the worlds production of metals mainly because of their combination of good
strength, toughness and ductility at relatively low cost.
Alloys based on iron are called ferrous alloys, and those based on the other metals are
called non-ferrous alloys.
Ferrous Alloys
The term ferrous alloys is used for those alloys that contain iron as the main constituent,
non-ferrous alloys being those whose main element is any metal other than iron. Pure
iron is relatively soft material and is hardly of any commercial use in this state. Alloys of
iron, particularly with carbon are, however, very widely used, the percentage of carbon
alloyed with the iron having a profound effect on the properties of the alloy.
The following are the terms used for ferrous alloys.

1. Steel
These are ferrous alloys containing less than 2% carbon. Steels are broadly
divided into two heads.
(a) Plain Carbon Steel
Plain carbon steels are those steels having carbon contents from
0.01% to 1.8%. in addition, manganese and silicon are almost
always included to overcome the ill-effect of the two main
impurities of sulphur and oxygen which arise from the steel
making process. They are called plain carbon steels because their
properties are mainly controlled by the amount of carbon content.
Plain carbon steels are further classified into
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Low carbon steels: steels containing less than

0.25% of carbon.
Medium carbon steels: Steels containing 0.25% to
0.6% of carbon.
High carbon steels: Steels containing more than
0.6% of carbon (less than 1.8%).
(b) Alloy Steel

They are called alloy steels because the type and amount of alloying
elements present in it control their properties. The most commonly added
alloying elements are nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, silicon
and vanadium.
Alloy steels are further classified into
(i)
Low-alloy steel: The term low-alloy steel is used
when the total amount of alloying elements is less
than about 2%.
(ii)
Medium-alloy steel: Steels containing total alloying
between 2% and 10%.
(iii)
High-alloy steel: Steel containing alloying elements
more than 10%.
2. Cast Iron
Cast irons have between about 2% and 4% carbon and are so called because they
are cast to their finished shape from the melt.
The Iron-Carbon System
Pure iron exists at room temperature as a body-centered cubic (BCC) structure, this being
known as alpha ferrite or just ferrite. This continues to exist up to 9120C. At this
temperature the structure changes to a face-centered cubic, known as austenite or gamma
iron. At 13940C this form changes to a body-centered cubic structure known as delta
ferrite. At 15380C, the iron melts. The figure below shows the cooling curve.
Temperature 0C
Liquid
1538
Delta
1394
Gamma
912
Alpha
Time
% Volume change
These transformation from a body-centered cubic, packing fraction 0.68, to a more

closely packed face-centered cubic, packing fraction 0.74, and then back to the less wellpacked BCC result in the volume of a sample of pure iron changing as it goes through
these transformation. The figure below shows the changes.
, Body centered
cubic
8
7
6
5
4
, Body centered
cubic
3
2
, Face centered
cubic
1
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400 1600
The BCC structure of ferrite is formed by iron atoms of diameter 0.256 nm. Between
these atoms are interstitial sites, which can accommodate atoms in an octahedral site of
0.038 nm in diameter. Carbon atoms have diameters of 0.154 nm. To accommodate
carbon atoms in alpha ferrite in such sites at room temperature would require severe
distortion of the lattice. Because of this, carbon has limited has only very limited
solubility in ferrite. However, the interstitial sites increase in size as the temperature
increases and so more carbon can be accommodated at higher temperature.
Face-centered cubic structure of austenite has interstitial spaces, which can accommodate
atoms in an octahedral site up to 0.104 nm in diameter and in e tetrahedral site 0.056 nm
in diameter. Carbon atoms with their diameter of 0.154 nm can thus be accommodated
with some slight distortion of the lattice and thus there is a higher solubility in austenite
than in ferrite.
When iron containing carbon is cooled from austenite state to ferrite state, the reduction
in the solubility of carbon in iron means that some carbon must come out of solution.
This occurs by the formation of a compound between iron and carbon called cementite.
This has one carbon atom for every iron atoms; hence it is often referred to as iron
carbide, Fe3C.
The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Iron-carbon alloys containing from a very small amount (about 0.03%) to about 1.2%
carbon, 0.25% to 1.00% manganese, and minor amounts of other elements are termed
plain-carbon steels.
The phases present in very slowly cooled iron-carbon alloys at various temperatures and
compositions of iron up to 6.67% carbon are shown in the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram below.
This phase diagram is not a true equilibrium diagram since the compound Fe3C, which is
formed, is not a true equilibrium phase. Under certain conditions, Fe3C, which is called,
cementite, can decompose into the more stable phases of iron and carbon (graphite).
However, for most practical conditions Fe3C is very stable and will therefore be treated
as an equilibrium phase.
Solid Phases in the Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

The Fe-Fe3C diagram contains the following solid phases: ferrite, austenite ,
cementite (Fe3C) and ferrite.
ferrite: This phase is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in the BCC iron
crystal lattice.
As indicated by the Fe-Fe3C phase diagram, carbon is only slightly
soluble in ferrite, reaching a maximum solid solubility of 0.02% at
7230C. the solubility of carbon in ferrite decreases to 0.005% at 00C.
Austenite (): The interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron is called austenite.
Austenite has an FCC crystal structure and a much higher solid solubility for
carbon than ferrite. The solid solubility of carbon in austenite is a maximum of
2.08% at 11470C and decreases to 0.8% at 7230C.
Cementite (Fe3C): The intermetallic compound Fe3C is called cementite.
Cementite has Negligible solubility limits and a composition of 6.67% C and
93.3% Fe. Cementite is a hard and brittle compound.
ferrite: The interstitial solid solution of carbon in -iron is called ferrite. It has
a BCC crystal structure like ferrite but with a greater lattice constant. The
maximum solid solubility of carbon in ferrite is 0.09% at 14650C.
Invariant Reactions in the Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram
Peritectic Reaction: At the peritectic reaction point, liquid of 0.53% C combines with
ferrite of 0.09% C to form austenite of 0.17% C. This reaction, which occurs at 14950C,
can be written as
Liquid (0.53% C) + (0.09% C)
14950C
(0.17% C)
ferrite is a high temperature phase and so is not encountered in plain-carbon steels at

lower temperatures.
Eutectic Reaction: At the eutectic reaction point, liquid of 4.3% C forms austenite of
2.08% C and the intermetallic compound Fe3C (cementite) which contains 6.67% C. this
reaction which occurs at 11470C can be written as
11470C
Liquid (4.3% C)
austenite (2.08% C) + Fe3C (6.67% C)
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This reaction is not encountered in plain carbon steels because their carbon contents are
too low.
Eutectoid Reaction: At the eutectoid reaction point, solid austenite of 0.8% C produces
ferrite with 0.02% C and Fe3C (cementite) which contains 6.67% C. this reaction which
occurs at 7230C can be written as
7230C
austenite (0.8% C)
ferrite (0.02% C) + Fe3C (6.67% C)
This eutectoid reaction, which takes place completely in the solid state, is important for
some of the heat treatments of plain carbon steels.
A plain carbon steel which contains 0.8% C is called a eutectoid steel since an alleutectoid structure of ferrite and Fe3C is formed when austenite of thus composition is
slowly cooled below the eutectoid temperature. If a plain carbon steel contains less than
0.8% C, it is termed a hypoeutectoid steel, and if the steel contains more than 0.8% C, it
is designated a hypereutectoid steel.
Slow Cooling of Plain-Carbon steels
Eutectoid Plain-Carbon Steels

If a sample of a 0.8% (eutectoid) plain-carbon steel is heated to about 7500C and held for
a sufficient time, its structure will become homogeneous austenite. This process is called
austenitising. If this eutectoid steel is then cooled very slowly to just above the eutectoid
temperature, its structure will remain austenitic, as indicated in the figure below, at point
a.
Further cooling to the eutectoid temperature or just below it will cause the entire structure
to transform from austenite to a lamellar structure of alternate plates of ferrite and
cementite. Just below the eutectoid temperature, a point b, the lamellar structure will
appear as shown in the figure below. This eutectoid structure is called pearlite since it
resembles mother of pearl. Since the
solubility of carbon in ferrite and Fe3C changes very little from 7230C to room
temperature, the pearlite structure will remain essentially unchanged in this temperature
interval.
Hypoeutectoid Plain Carbon Steel

If a sample of a 0.4% C plain-carbon steel (hypoeutectoid steel) is heated to about 9000C
(point a in the figure below) for a sufficient time, its structure will become homogeneous
austenite. Then, if
This steel is slowly cooled to temperature b (as shown above), proeutectoid ferrite will
nucleate and grow mostly at the austenite grain boundaries. If this alloy is slowly cooled
from temperature b to c in above figure, the amount of proeutectoid ferrite formed will
continue to increase until about 50% of austenite is transformed. While the steel is
cooling from b to c, the carbon content of the remaining austenite will be increased from
0.4 to 0.8%. At 7230C, if very slow cooling conditions prevail, the remaining austenite
will transform isothermally into pearlite by the eutectoid reaction. The ferrite in the
pearlite is called eutectoid ferrite to distinguish it from the proeutectoid ferrite which
forms first above 7230C. The microstructure of 0.35% C hypoeutectoid steel, which was
austenitised and slowly cooled to room temperature, is shown below.
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Hypereutectoid Plain Carbon Steel

If a sample of a 1.2% C plain-carbon steel (hypereutectoid steel) is heated to about 9500C
and held for a sufficient time, its structure will become essentially all austenite (point a in
the figure below). Then, if this steel is cooled very slowly to temperature b in the figure,
proeutectoid cementite will begin to nucleate and grow primarily at the austenitic grain
boundaries. With further slow cooling to point c, which is just above 7230C, more
proeutectoid cementite will be formed at the austenitic grain boundaries. If conditions
approaching equilibrium are maintained by the slow cooling, the overall carbon content
of the austenite remaining in the alloy will change from 1.2 to 0.8%.
With still further slow cooling to 7230C or just slightly below this temperature, the
remaining austenite will transform to pearlite by the eutectoid reaction, as indicated at
point d of the figure below. The cementite formed by the eutectoid reaction is called
eutectoid cementite to distinguish it from the proeutectoid cementite formed at
temperature above 7230C. Similarly, the ferrite formed by the eutectoid reaction is termed
eutectoid ferrite. The following figures show the transformation of the 1.2% C
hypereutectoid plain carbon steel with slow cooling and the microstructure of this steel at
room temperature.
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The Effect of Carbon Content on the Properties

Ferrite is a comparatively soft and ductile material. Pearlite is a harder and much less
ductile material. Thus the relative amounts of these two substances in carbon steel will
have a significant effect on the properties of that steel. The figure shows how the
percentages of ferrite and pearlite change with percentage carbon and also how the
mechanical properties are related to these changes.
For steels cooled slowly from the austenite state up to the eutectoid composition, i.e. for
hypoeutectoid steels, the decreasing percentage of ferrite and the increasing percentage of
pearlite results in an increase in tensile strength and hardness. The ductility decreases, the
percentage elongation being a measure of this. For hypereutectoid steels, increasing the
amount of carbon decreases the percentage of pearlite and increases the percentage of
cementite. This increases the hardness but has little effect on the tensile strength, the
ductility also changes little.
Before we proceed to a discussion of specific types of steels, the general characteristics
of low, medium and high carbon steels can be noted:
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(i)
(ii)
Low carbon steels are soft, ductile ans easy to weld. Therefore they are
widely used for presswork, sheets and wires and for structural
applications for which welding should be easier.
Medium carbon steels are mainly used as machine components
because of high strength. Their mechanical properties can be altered
substantially by heat treatment and a combination of high strength with
sufficient ductility or toughness can be developed in them.
Therefore medium carbon steels components are almost always used
in heat-treated condition while low carbon steels are invariably
employed in the as-received i.e., hot rolled or cold rolled condition.
(iii)
High carbon steels can develop very high strength and hardness. They
are always used in the heat-treated condition. Their main use is for
tools and dies, although 0.6% carbon steel is often used for rails.
Plain carbon versus Alloy steels

All steels, by definition, contain carbon. In addition they also possess certain amount of
Mn, Si, S and P. These elements are always introduced into the steel making processes.
These elements are not considered as alloying elements unless special additions are made
during steel making to increase their percentages. These ordinary steels are called plain
carbon steels or simply carbon steels.
As against this, alloy steels contain alloying elements purposely added for specific
reasons they are classified according into low and high alloy steels. If the sum of he
percentages of the alloying elements is less than 5%, it is called low alloy steels, if it is
greater than 5%, it is called high alloy steel.
Typical high alloy steels include

Stainless steels, Eg. 18% Cr 8% Ni steels and
High-speed steels, Eg. 18% W 4% Cr 1% V steel
Properties and Uses of Plain carbon Steels

Since plain carbon steels contain only carbon as the most important constituent and they
are used in the as-received condition, they are the least expensive of all steels. An
engineer should always consider first a plain carbon steel of suitable carbon percentage
for a given application; only if that steel is found inadequate, he should consider any
alloy steel.
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The tensile strength and yield strength increase almost linearly with percentage of carbon.
The tensile strength increases from 275 MPa for 0.05% carbon steel to 830 MPa for 0.9%
carbon steel. Note that plain carbon steels are rarely used beyond 1% carbon, except for
certain tools. Brinell hardness varies from 90 BHN to 280 BHN for the same range. The
ductility decreases from 30% to 10%.
Effect of other Elements
We shall discuss why the amounts of Mn, Si, S and P are controlled in plain carbon steels
(these are called residual elements)
Manganese can combine with carbon forming Mn3C. This also increases the strength of
the steel at the expense of ductility. Therefore in most steels Mn rarely exceeds 2%.
Another important effect of Mn is to combine with sulphur forming manganese sulphide
(MnS) inclusions, which are ductile and most beneficial for machinability. For most
% Mn
weldable grades of steels the ratio
is maintained above 3 to avoid brittle fracture.
%C
Silicon usually exists in steels up to 0.4%. With greater percentages the ductility is very
much reduced.
Sulphur is detrimental element in steel because it forms ferrous sulphide (FeS). The
sulphide is usually present along the grain boundaries in he structure. Because of this, the
steel becomes brittle at hot working temperature, for instance at rolling temperature
above 10000C. This is referred to as hot shortness.
Sulphur can be easily made harmless by allowing sufficient manganese to be present. In
this case MnS is formed which may pass into the slag or is present as uniformly
% Mn
distributed ductile inclusions in the structure. For this purpose the ratio
should be
%S
greater than 3.
The sulphur content is usually maintained within 0.05% in most steels. In free cutting
resulphurised steels the sulphur percentage is in the range of 0.075 to .15%. in these
steels MnS inclusions are purposely allowed to form to improve machinability. They are
mainly used for manufacture of threaded components in automatic machines.
Phosphorous should be less than 0.05% in steels. Higher percentages increase strength
but reduce ductility and toughness at room temperature. This behaviour is called cold
shortness.
For most weldable grades (%S + %P) should not be greater than 0.07%.
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Classification of Plain-Carbon Steels and Typical Mechanical Properties
Plain carbon steels are most commonly designated by a four-digit AISI-SAE code. The
first two digits are 10 and indicate that the steel is plain carbon steel. The last two digits
indicate the nominal carbon content of the steel in hundredths of a percent. For example,
the AISI-SAE code number 1030 for steel indicates that the steel is a plain carbon steel
containing a nominal 0.30% carbon. All plain carbon steel contains manganese as an
alloying element to enhance strength. The manganese content of most plain carbon steels
ranges between 0.30 to 0.95%. Plain carbon steels also contain impurities of sulphur,
phosphorous, silicon and some other elements.
Typical mechanical properties of some AISI-SAE type plain carbon steels are listed in
the following table (next page). The very low cabon plain carbon steels have relatively
low strengths but very high ductilities. These steels are used for sheet material for
forming applications such as body panels for automobiles. As the carbon content of the
plain cabon steel is increased, the steels become stronger but less ductile. Medium carbon
steels (1020 1040) find application for shafts and gears. High carbon steels (1060
1095) are used, for example, for springs, die blocks, cutters and shear blades.
Plain carbon steels can be used successfully if the strength and other engineering
requirements are not too severe. These steels are relatively low in cost but have some
limitations, which include the following:
1.
Plain carbon steels cannot be strengthened beyond about 690 MPa without a
substantial loss in ductility and impact resistance.
2.
Large section thickness of plain carbon steels cannot be produced with a

martensitic structure throughout. That is, they are not deep hardenable.
3.
Plain carbon steels have low corrosion and oxidation resistance.
4.
Medium carbon plain carbon steels must be quenched rapidly to obtain a fully
martensitic structure. Rapid quenching leads to possible distortion and cracking of
the heat-treated part.
Plain carbon steels have poor impact resistance at low temperature.
1.
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Typical Mechanical Properties and Applications of Plain Carbon steels

Alloy
AISISAE
Number
Chemical
Composition
wt %
Condition
Tensile
strength
Yield
strength
Elongation Typical composition
1010
0.10 C, 0.40 Hot-rolled

Mn
Coldrolled
276 414
290 - 400
179 310
159 - 262
28 47
30 -45
Sheet & strip for drawing

Wire, rod and nails and screws
Concrete reinforcement bar
1020
0.20 C, 0.45 As rolled

Mn
Annealed
448
393
331
297
36
36
Steel plate and structural sections

Shafts, gears
1040

Mn
Annealed
Tempered
621
517
800
414
352
593
25
30
20
Shafts, studs, high tensile tubing, gears
1060

Mn
Annealed
Tempered
814
628
1110
483
483
780
17
22
13
Spring wire, forging dies, railroad wheels
1080

Mn
Annealed
Tempered
967
614
1304
586
373
980
12
25
12
Music wire, helical springs, cold chisels,

Forging die blocks
1095
0.95 C, 0.4 Mn As rolled

Annealed
Tempered
966
655
1263
573
379
814
9
13
10
Dies, punches, taps, milling cutters, shear

blades, high tensile wire.
%
MPa
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HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

Heat treatment is an operation involving the heating of the solid metal to definite
temperatures, followed by cooling at suitable rates in order to obtain certain physical
properties, which are associated with changes in the nature, form, size and distribution of
the micro constituents.
Accordingly steel can be hardened to resist cutting action and prevent abrasion. The rate
of cooling and the manner o cooling are the controlling factors in heat treatment
processes. Heat treatment not only increases the hardness but also increases the tensile
strength and toughness. Different heat treatment processes are carried out in temperature
controlled furnaces and ovens.
Various heat treatment processes may be classified as follows:
1. Annealing
(a) Process annealing
(c) Full annealing
(d) Spheroidise annealing
(e) Diffusion annealing
2.Normalising
2. Hardening
3. Tempering
(a) Austempering
(b) Martempering
4. Case hardening
(a) Carburising
(b) Nitriding
(c) Flame hardening
(d) Induction Hardening
Besides these conventional methods, some advanced techniques are adopted on
steel. These are
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ion Nitriding
Plasma carburising
Electron beam hardening
Laser hardening
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Purpose of Heat Treatment
The heat treatment processes serve the following purposes. They are
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Produce hard surfaces and tough interior portions

Increase resistance to wear, abrasion and corrosion
Modify magnetic and electrical properties
Improve mechanical properties such as tensile strength, ductility, shock resistance
etc.
Improve machinability
Refine grains
Relieve internal stresses produced during cold working and other operations
Change chemical composition.
Microstructural Transformations
The iron-carbon phase diagram (page
) shows the phases that are present in ironcarbon alloys for a range of compositions at different temperatures if sufficient time is
allowed for all the movements of atoms by diffusion at any temperature to proceed to
completion. When an alloy is cooled, or heated, and a phase change occurs, a graph of
temperature against time shows a discontinuity. The temperatures at which such
discontinuities occur are known as arrest points or critical points.
A3
Temperature
A1
7230C
Heating Curve
For example, for hypoeutectoid steel a critical temperature is 7230C, which marks the
transformation of the steel from ferrite plus pearlite structure to ferrite plus austenite.
This lower critical point (7230C) is denoted by A1 and is always used to denote the
transformation of the steel from a ferrite plus pearlitic structure to ferrite plus austenite.
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The upper critical point on the figure is denoted by A3 and marks the transformation from
a ferrite plus austenite structure to just one of austenite. The figure below shows these
critical points on a simplified iron-carbon phase diagram.
austenite
A3
Acm
Austenite
+
cementite
Temperature
A1
Cementite
+
pearlite
ferrite+
pearlite
0.8
% carbon
a hypereutectoid steel has two critical points, the lower critical point A1 marking the
transformation from a steel with a structure of ferrite plus cementite to cementite plus
austenite and the upper critical point Acm the transformation from the cementite plus
austenite structure to austenite.
Note that the values of critical points obtained from a heating curve differ slightly from
those given by a cooling curve, the cooling values being slightly greater than the heating
values.
Isothermal Transformation Diagram for a Eutectoid Plain carbon Steel

Let us consider what reaction products form when austenite of eutectoid steel is rapidly
cooled to temperatures below the eutectoid temperature and the isothermally
transformed.
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Isothermal transformation experiments to investigate the microstructural changes for the

decomposition of eutectoid austenite can be made by using a number of small samples,
each about the size of a dime. The samples are first austenitised in a furnace at a
temperature above the eutectoid temperature (figure 1). The samples are then rapidly
cooled (quenched) in a liquid salt bath at the desired temperature below the eutectoid
temperature (figure 2). After various time intervals the samples are removed from the salt
bath one at a time and quenched into water at room temperature (figure 3). The
microstructure after each transformation time can be examined at room temperature.
Consider the microstructural changes, which takes place during the isothermal
transformation of a eutectoid plain carbon steel at 7050C, as schematically shown in the
figure below
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After being austenitised, the samples are hot quenched into a salt bath at 705 0C. After
about 6 minutes, coarse pearlite has formed to a small extend. After about 67 minutes, the
austenite is completely transformed to coarse pearlite.
By repeating the same procedure for the isothermal transformation of eutectoid steels at
progressively lower temperature, an isothermal transformation (IT) diagram can be
constructed, as shown below.
22
The S- shaped curve next to temperature axis indicates the time necessary for the
isothermal transformation of austenite to begin, and the second S-curve indicates the time
required for the transformation to be completed.
Isothermal transformations of eutectoid steels at temperatures between 7230C and 5500C
produce pearlitic microstructures. As the transformation temperature is decreased in this
range, the pearlite changes from a coarse to fine structure. Rapid quenching of eutectoid
steel from temperature above 7230C, where it is in the austenitic condition, transforms the
austenite into martensite, which is an hard constituent.
If eutectoid steels in the austenitic condition are hot quenched to temperatures in the 550
to 2500C range and are isothermally transformed, a structure intermediate between
pearlite and martensite, called bainite, is produced. Which has a non-lamellar eutectoid
structure of -ferrite and cementite. For eutectoid plain carbon steels, a distinction is
made between upper bainite, which is formed by isothermal transformation at
temperatures between about 550 to 3500C, and lower bainite, which is formed between
about 350 to 2500C. The figure below shows the electron micrographs of the
microstructure of upper and lower bainite respectively.
Upper bainite has large rod like cementite regions, whereas lower bainite has much finer
cementite particles. As the transformation temperature is decreased, the carbon cannot
diffuse as easily, and hence the lower bainite structure has smaller particles of cementite.
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Continuous-Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagram for Eutectoid Plain Carbon

Steel
In industrial heat treating operations, in most cases a steel is not isothermally
transformed at a temperature above the martensite start temperature but is continuously
cooled from the austenitic temperature to room temperature. The cooling rate depends on
the medium used for quenching, water giving a faster cooling than oil, oil a faster rate
than air-cooling.
In continuously cooling a plain carbon steel, the transformation from austenite to pearlite
occurs over a range of temperatures rather than at a single isothermal temperature. As a
result, the final microstructure after continuous cooling will be complex since the
reaction kinetics change over the temperature range in which the transformation takes
place. The figure below shows a CCT diagram for eutectoid plain carbon steel
superimposed over an IT diagram for this steel.
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The CCT diagram transformation start and finish lines are shifted to longer times and
slightly lower temperatures in relation to isothermal diagram. Also there are no
transformation lines below about 4500C for the austenite to bainite transformation.
The above figure shows different rates of cooling for thin samples of eutectoid plain
carbon steels cooled continuously from austenitic region to room temperature. Cooling
curve A represents very slow cooling, such as would be obtained by shutting off the
power of an electric furnace and allowing the steel to cool as the furnace cools. The
microstructure in this case would be coarse pearlite. Cooling curve B represents more
rapid cooling, such as would be obtained by removing an austenitised steel from a
furnace and allowing the steel to cool in still air. A fine pearlitic microstructure is formed
in this case.
Cooling curve C starts with the formation of pearlite, but there is insufficient time to
complete the austenite to pearlite transformation. The remaining austenite that does not
transform to pearlite at the upper temperatures will transform to martensite at lower
25
temperatures starting at about 2200C. This type of transformation, since it takes place in
to steps, is called a split transformation. The microstructure of this steel will thus consist
of a mixture of pearlite and martensite. Cooling at a rate faster than curve E, which is
called the critical cooling rate, will produce a fully hardened martensitic structure. 2
The critical cooling rate depends on the form of the CCT diagram. The result of
decreasing the amount of carbon in plain carbon steel is to shift the nose of the diagram
to the left. This means that the critical cooling rate for 0.4 % C plain carbon steel is
higher than that for the 0.8% C plain carbon steel. The more the CCT / TTT diagram is
shifted to the left the faster the cooling rate needed to obtain a completely martensitic
structure. In fact, by about 0.3% C the TTT diagram has been shifted so far to the left that
he cooling rate is too fast to be achieved and so such steels cannot b hardened by
quenching.
However, if elements such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum and manganese are added
to steel, the TTT nose is shifted to the right. This means that the critical cooling rate is
reduced.
The above figure shows this, showing how the total percentage, up to about 7%, of these
alloying elements changes the TTT diagram. Thus it may be possible to use oil or salt
quenching rather than water quenching to achieve a fully martensitic structure. The
hardenability is said to have been improved.
26
Heat Treatment Processes

Annealing
Annealing of steel is done to impart softness to it. The process involves heating of steel
above the critical temperatures and holding it there for sufficient time (rule is 1 hour for 1
inch section thickness). It is then allowed t cool slowly in the furnace by switching off
power supply or fuel supply to the furnace. On cooling the steel changes to ferrite and
pearlite in case of hypoeutectoid steels, and into pearlite and cementite for hypereutectoid
steels. Annealing serves the following objectives.
(i)
It softens the steel
(ii)
It improves ductility of steel
(iii)
It enhances machinability
(iv)
It refines the grain structure
(v)
Internal stresses, if any, are also removed
Different types of annealing processes are employed to serve different requirements of

steels and alloys.
Types of annealing Processes

Various annealing processes are:
Full Annealing:
In this process, hypoeutectoid steels (C < 0.8%) are heated to about 500C above A3
temperature, whereas hypereutectoid steels are heated to about 500C above A1
temperature. The steels are held at those respective temperatures for a soaking time or
holding time determined by the rule of 1 hour per 25 mm (one inch) of section thickness.
This soaking is for austenite formation. After this, the steel is cooled very slowly in the
furnace itself by switching off power supply to furnace. This extremely slow rate of
cooling in these results in a structure with large ferrite grains and coarse pearlite than in
the case of faster cooling. As a consequence, this structure gives high ductility, low
hardness and good machinability. Full annealing is also practised for steel castings to
remove segregation or non-uniform distribution of alloying elements (homogenisation)
Annealing temperature range for full annealing for both hypo and hypereutectoid steels is
shown below.
27
+ Fe3C
+
Temperature
+ Fe3C
% carbon
Process Annealing
In this process, the steel is heated to little below the critical temperatures, and held there
for prolonged duration. It is then cooled slowly which results in formation of pearlite.
Process annealing is often used during cold working processes with low carbon steels
(less than 0.3% C), where the material has to be made more ductile and stresses have to
be relieved for the process to continue. The process involves heating the steel to a
temperature 80 to 1700C below the A1 temperature (as shown in the figure below),
28
holding it at that temperature for a while and then allowing the material to cool in air.
This is faster rate of cooling than that employed with full annealing where the material is
cooled in the furnace. This process leads to recrystallisation. Prior to this treatment the
grains may have been deformed by the cold working process, afterwards a new grain
structure with no deformation. The effect of this treatment is to give a reduction in
hardness and an increase in percentage elongation. The effect of process annealing on the
properties of 0.15% plain carbon steel is given in the table below.
Condition
Hardness VHN
% Elongation
Cold Worked
187
22
Process Annealed
162
25
Spheroidising Annealing
When sub-critical annealing is applied to steels that have percentages of carbon greater
than 0.3%, the effect of the heating is to cause the cementite to assume spherical shapes
as shown blow.
29
Because of this, the process is referred to as Spheroidising annealing. The steel is heated
to about 300C below the A1 temperature as shown in the figure below, held there for
several hours to allow the cementite to change into spherical forms and then allowed to
cool, generally in the furnace. The result is spheroidal cementite in a matrix of ferrite and
a material, which is more machinable.
Normalizing
The term normalizing is used to describe an annealing process, which involves heating
steel to about 500C above the A3 temperature and then allowing the steel to cool in air.
The process is thus similar to full annealing but has a faster rate of cooling as shown.
30
It also differs from full annealing in that for hypoeutectoid steels the steel is cooled from
500 C above the Acm temperature.
The result of such a treatment is a ferrite and pearlite microstructure, the hardness and
strength being slightly greater than that, which would have occurred with full annealing.
The figure illustrates the effect on the properties of plain carbon steels of full annealing
and normalizing. The table below gives the properties of some plain carbon steels.
31
%
Treatment
carbon
0.2
0.4
0.6
Austenising Tensile
Yield
%
Temperature Strength Strength elongation
0C
MPa
MPa
Hardness
Impact
Strength
Izod (J)
As rolled
Normalized
Annealed
870
870
450
440
395
330
346
295
36
36
37
HB
143
130
111
As rolled
Normalized
Annealed
900
790
620
590
520
413
374
353
25
28
30
200
170
150
49
65
44
As rolled
Normalized
Annealed
900
790
814
775
625
483
420
373
17
18
23
240
230
180
18
13
11
87
118
123
SURFACE HARDENING
There are many situations where the need for good wear or fatigue resistance may
indicate the need for a hard surface to a component while requirement for a tough
material with good resistance to impact failure would indicate the need for a soft, ductile
core. Various methods are used for surface hardening and are grouped into two
categories.
1. Selective heating of the surface layers, i.e. Surface Heat Treatment
The composition of steel to be surface hardened by selective heating has to be
chosen with certain criteria in mind. Before the surface treatment, the steel must
have its inner core with the right mechanical properties. These properties will be
unaffected by the surface treatment. The selective heating has to be able to change
the microstructure of the steel to austenite in a very short amount of time so that
only the surface is brought up to the autenising temperature. After the steel is
quenched, provided the steel has less than about 0.4% carbon, the surface
austenite changes to martensite and so the surface becomes harder.
2. Changing the Composition of the Surface Layers
The composition of the surface layers may be changed by increasing the carbon
content, this being termed carburizing, diffusing nitrogen into the surface to
produce hard nitrides, this being termed nitriding; or introducing both carbon and
nitrogen into the surface layers, carbonitriding or nitrocarburising.
32
Local Surface Heat Treatment

One selective heating method is called flame hardening. This involves heating the surface
of steel with an oxy-acetylene flame and then immediately quenching the surface with
cold water as shown in the figure.
The heating transforms the structure of the surface layers to austenite and the quenching
changes this austenite to martensite. The depth of hardening depends on the heat supplied
per unit surface area per unit time. Thus the faster the burner is moved over the surface,
the less the depth of hardening. The temperatures used in this method are typically of the
order of 8500C.or more, i.e. above A3 temperature.
Another method of selective heating is induction hardening. This method involves
placing the steel component within a coil through which a high frequency current is
passed as shown below.
The form of the induction coil depends on the shape of the component being hardened.,
also the size of area to be hardened. The alternating current induces another alternating
current to flow within the surface layers of the steel component, the induced electrical
currents heating the surface layers. The temperature so produced cause the surface layers
to change to austenite. When the surface has reached the austenising temperature, the
33
surface is sprayed with cold water to transform the austenite to martensite. The depth of
heating produced by this method, and hence the depth of hardening, is related to the
frequency of the alternating current used. The higher the frequency the less the hardened
depth.
Carburising
Carburising involves changing the carbon content of the surface., followed by a
quenching process to convert the surface layers to martensite. This process is normally
carried out on a steel containing less than about 0.2% carbon., the carburising treatment
being used to give about 0.7 to 0.8% carbon in the surface layers. This wide difference in
carbon content is needed because the quenching process following the carburising will
affect both the inner core and the surface layers and the surface layers are to be converted
to martensite but the inner core remain soft and ductile.
There are a number of carburising methods. With pack carburising the steel component is
heated to above the A1 temperature while in a sealed metal box which contains
carburising medium, e.g. a carbon rich material such as charcoal and an energizer such as
barium carbonate. The oxygen present in the box reacts with the carbon to produce
carbon monoxide. This carbon rich atmosphere in contact with the hot steel results in
carbon diffusing into the surface austenite layers.
In gas carburising the component is heated above the A3 temperature in a furnace in an
atmosphere of carbon rich gas. The result is that carbon diffuses into the surface
austenitic layers. Gas carburising is the most widely used method of carburising.
Salt bath carburising, or cyaniding, involves heating the component in a bath of suitable
carbon rich salts. Sodium cyanide is mainly used. The carbon from the molten salt
diffuses into the component. In addition there is also diffusion of some nitrogen into the
component. Both carbon and nitrogen can result in a microstructure, which can be
hardened. This method tends to produce relatively thin, hardened layers with high carbon
content. This occurs because carburising takes place very quickly. One of the problems
with this method is the health and safety hazard posed by the poisonous cyanide. Another
problem is the removal of salt from the hardened component after treatment. This can be
particularly difficult with threaded parts and blind holes.
Carburising can result in the production of a large grain structure due to the time for
which the material is held at temperature in the austenitic state. Though the final product
may have a hard surface, there may be poor impact properties due to the large grain size.
A heat treatment might thus be used to refine the grains. Because the core and the surface
have different compositions a two-stage process is often used. The first stage involves a
heat treatment to refine the grains in the core. The component is heated to just above the
A3 temperature for the carbon content of the core.
34
For a core with 0.2% carbon, this is about 8700C. The component is then quenched in oil.
The result is a fine grain core, but the surface layers are rather coarse martensite. The
martensite is refined by heating to above the A1 temperature for the carbon content of the
surface layers. If the surface layers have 0.9% carbon, this is about 760 0C. The
component is then water quenched. The second stage treatment has little effect on the
core but refines the martensite in the outer layers. The treatment may then be followed by
a low temperature tempering, e.g. about 1500C, to relieve internal stresses produce by the
treatment
Nitriding
Nitriding involves changing the surface composition of steel by diffusing nitrogen into it
to produce hard nitride compounds. The process is used with those alloy steels that
contain elements that form stable nitrides, e.g. steels containing Al, Cr, Mo, W and V.
prior to the nitriding treatment the steel is hardened and tempered to the properties
required of the core. The tempering temperature does, however, need to be in the region
560 to 7500C. This is because the nitriding process requires a temperature up to 5300C
and this must not be greater than the tempering temperature as the nitriding process
would temper the steel and so change the properties of the core.
Unlike carburising nitriding is carried out at temperatures below the stable austenitic
state. The process consists of heating a component in an atmosphere of ammonia gas and
hydrogen, the temperature being of the order of 500 to 5300C. The time taken or the
nitrogen to react with the elements in the surface of the steel is often as much as 100 hrs.
The depth to which the nitrides are formed in the steel depends on the temperature and
the time allowed for the reaction. Even with such long times, the depth of hardening is
unlikely to exceed about 0.7 mm. After the treatment, the component is allowed to cool
35
slowly in he ammonia-hydrogen atmosphere. With most nitriding conditions, a thin white
layer of iron nitrides is formed on the surface of the component. This layer adversely
affects the mechanical properties of the steel being brittle and generally containing
cracks. It is therefore removed by mechanical means or chemical solutions.
Because with nitriding no quenching treatments are involved, cracking and distortion are
less likely than with the other surface hardening treatments. Very high surface hardnesses
can be obtained with special alloys. The hardness is retained at temperatures up to about
5000C, whereas that produced by carburising tends to decrease and the surface becomes
softer at temperatures of the order of 2000C. The capital cost of the plant is, however,
higher than that associated with pack carburising.
Comparison of Surface Hardening Processes

In comparing surface hardening processes, the term case depth is used. This is the depth
below the surface of a steel to which hardening occurs by a surface hardening process. It
is that portion of the steel whose composition has been measurably altered from the
original composition. The table below shows the comparison.
Surface Hardening Treatments

Process
Pack
carburising
Gas
carburising
Cyaniding
Nitriding
carboniridin
g
Flame
hardening
Induction
hardening
Temperatu Case
Case
Main uses
re
depth
hardness
0
C
mm
HRC
810 - 1100 0.25 - 3 45 - 65
Low carbon and carburising alloy
steels. Large case depths, large
components
E.g. gear teeth, bearing surfaces
810 - 980
0.07 - 3 45 - 85
Low carbon and carburising alloy
steels. Large number of components
e.g. gear teeth, bearing surfaces
760 - 870
0.02 50 -60
Low carbon and low alloy steels
0.07
500 - 530
0.07 50 -70
Alloy steels. Lowest distortion
0.7
Eg. Pistons, valves, gauges, dies,
moulds.
700 - 900
0.02 50 -60
Low carbon and low alloy steels
0.7
Eg. Gears, pulleys, screws, washers
850 - 1000 Up
to 55 - 65
0.4 to 0.7% carbon steels, selective
0.8
heating and hence hardening.
Eg. Gears, bearing surfaces
850 -1000 0.5 - 5
55 - 65
0.4 to 0.7% carbon steels, selective
heating and hence hardening.
36
Alloy Steels
The common alloying elements added to steel are
Manganese,
Chromium,
Nickel,
Molybdenum,
Tungsten,
Vanadium,
Silicon,
Aluminium,
Cobalt etc
Of these some are capable of forming their own stable carbides with the carbon present in
steel:
Cr - ( Cr23 C6 , Cr7 C3 )
Mo - ( Mo6C , Mo23 C6 , MoC )
W - (WC)
V - (V4 C3 )
These elements are called carbide formers. If their carbides are formed, they impart high
strength at high temperatures, high hardness and wear resistance. Therefore tool steels
usually contain some of these elements.
Almost all alloying elements (with the exception of Co) dissolve in austenite in the solid
state and increase the hardenability. This is the main purpose of adding small amounts
(1 2%) of alloying elements in the case of low alloy steels. Further a careful selection of
alloy additions can reduce or eliminate the risk of quench cracking. Most of the alloying
elements make the steel resistant to softening during tempering, thereby resulting in a
combination of higher hardness and toughness.
Mn, Ni, Co and Cu increase the range of austenite stability, whereas Cr, W, Mo, V, and
Si increase the range of ferrite stability in the iron-carbon diagram.
We shall briefly consider specific effects of these alloying elements:
Manganese: Manganese removes harmful effect of sulphur. It also improves
hardenability. Hadfield (high Mn- high C) steel contains about 12 -14% Mn and
about 1% C. It is austenitic at room temperature on quenching from 10000C and is
soft in initial condition. Abrasion, wear and impact in service increase its hardness
from 200 VHN to 600 VHN. It is used in jaw crushers, stone crushers, rock drills.
37
Nickel: Ni is added to improve hardenability and toughness. Steels with 9% Ni
have a very low transition temperature and are used for low temperature
applications.
Cobalt: Co improves resistance to softening during tempering, bur decreases
hardenability.
Copper: Cu in small amounts (< 1%) improves resistance to atmospheric
corrosion
Chromium: Cr is almost always added wherever resistance to abrasion and wear
is required. E.g., Ball bearings, dies, files, tools etc. Cr in general, improves
corrosion and oxidation resistance.
Tungsten: W improves high temperature strength; resistance to softening during
tempering. In expensive tool steels, W imparts hot hardness (high hardness at
elevated temperatures).
Molybdenum: Mo improves creep strength and oxidation resistance in steels used
foe steam turbine parts and boiler tubes. It is added to improve wear resistance
also. About 2% Mo reduces temper embrittlement brittleness induced by slow
cooling in the 400 6000C range in low alloy steels.
Vanadium: V in small amounts (0.5 2.0%) promotes fine grains and hot
hardness.
Silicon: Si is mainly used as an alloying element (3-5%) for transformer steels, to
increase the electrical resistance and reduce the eddy current losses. Si is also
used with Mn for springs. Steels with Si and Cr are used for automobile valves.
Boron: Bo has been added in extremely small amounts (0.003-0.005%) to
increase hardenability significantly and thereby replace additions of costly
alloying elements.
Aluminium: Al is added primarily for deoxidation of molten steel and it also
restricts grain growth.
Often several alloying elements are used in conjunction. This we have Ni-Cr steels, NiCr-Mo steels, Cr-V steels (for high temperature valves), Si-Mn steels (for springs).
38
Tool Steels
The basic requirements for tool steels are
i.
High hardness at service temperature (hot hardness)
ii.
Wear resistance
iii.
Impact strength
iv.
Hardenability
v.
Dimensional stability
vi.
Oxidation resistance
To meet these requirements, the tool steels have at least 0.6% carbon or more. The
inexpensive tool steels are plain carbon steels with 0.6 1.4% carbon. Since they do not
have alloying elements, they are hardened by water quenching. They are mainly used for
small tools, vises, saws etc.
Almost all other tool steels contain varying amounts of carbide forming elements such as
Mn, Cr, V, Mo and W. They are generally hardened by quenching in oil or simply
cooling in air (oil hardening and air hardening grades)
Special tool steels contain large percentages of alloying elements. Of these we shall
mention three types:
i.
High Carbon high chromium steels: HCHC steels contain 1.5% to 2.0% C, 11 to
13% Cr and small amounts of V (less than 1%). They are chosen for dies such as
blanking dies, extrusion and wire drawing dies etc.
ii.
High Speed Steels: HSS contains 18%W 4%Cr 1%V. This was developed in
1900 by F.W. Taylor (father of scientific management) for high cutting speeds in
machine tools to withstand the high temperatures of the cutting point.
iii.
Molybdenum grades of high speed steels which contain Mo along with W. Mo is

less expensive than W, and every 2% W can be replaced by 1% Mo. A typical
composition is M2: 0.8-1.0% C, 6%W, 5%Mo, 4%Cr, 2%V.
High speed steels can be used at cutting speed about twice as fast as carbon tool steels.
Cemented carbide tools can be used speeds five times as fast as high speed steels.
39
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels are by definition, steels containing more than 12% Cr. This is because a
minimum of 12% Cr is required for conferring sufficient corrosion resistance to steels by
forming a passive oxide film on the surface. Stainless steels are classified into three main
groups depending upon their crystal structure at room temperature:
i.
Ferritic grade
ii.
Martensitic grade
iii.
Austenitic grade
Ferritic and martensitic grades contain mainly Cr and C. Ferritic grade typically has 16 to
25% Cr with about 0.1% C. on the other hand martensitic grades contain 0.3 to 1.0% C.
Martensitic grades are given heat treatment to obtain hard martensite. They are mostly
used for knives, scissors, cutlery, razor blades, surgical instruments, springs and
measuring instruments. A typical example is 13% Cr, 0.3% C steel. Ferritic grades cannot
be hardened but possess excellent corrosion resistance for chemical plants. They are
mainly used for chemical-reactor vessels and petrochemical plants.
Austenitic stainless steels retain the high temperature structure of austenite at room
temperature; this is made possible by the addition of certain alloying elements like Ni,
Mn or nitrogen. By adding about 8% Ni to a steel with 18% Cr (with very low C, about
0.1% or less) a typical austenitic stainless steel (18-8) was developed. The austenitic
structure improves the corrosion resistance in oxidising atmospheres. This type is also
resistant to corrosion by many organic acids and therefore widely used in food, dairy,
pharmaceutical industries. Our household utensils are of this grade. These are not
resistant to corrosion by chlorides and certain mineral acids.

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1

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

The following are the terms used for ferrous alloys.

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Low carbon steels: steels containing less than

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

(b) Alloy Steel

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

These transformation from a body-centered cubic, packing fraction 0.68, to a more

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

The Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

Solid Phases in the Fe-Fe3C Phase Diagram

ferrite is a high temperature phase and so is not encountered in plain-carbon steels at

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

austenite (2.08% C) + Fe3C (6.67% C)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

ferrite (0.02% C) + Fe3C (6.67% C)

Slow Cooling of Plain-Carbon steels

Eutectoid Plain-Carbon Steels

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

Hypoeutectoid Plain Carbon Steel

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

Hypereutectoid Plain Carbon Steel

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

The Effect of Carbon Content on the Properties

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

Plain carbon versus Alloy steels

Typical high alloy steels include

Properties and Uses of Plain carbon Steels

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

Large section thickness of plain carbon steels cannot be produced with a

Plain carbon steels have low corrosion and oxidation resistance.

II BEng (Hons) Mech Eng (Well Eng)

Metallurgy & Manufacturing Science

Typical Mechanical Properties and Applications of Plain Carbon steels

Elongation Typical composition

0.10 C, 0.40 Hot-rolled

Sheet & strip for drawing

0.20 C, 0.45 As rolled

Steel plate and structural sections

0.40 C, 0.45 As rolled

Shafts, studs, high tensile tubing, gears

0.60 C, 0.65 As rolled

Spring wire, forging dies, railroad wheels

0.80 C, 0.80 As rolled

Music wire, helical springs, cold chisels,

0.95 C, 0.4 Mn As rolled