Modern Human Evolution

Modern Human Evolution

Patrick Kern
Eastern Illinois University

Abstract

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This paper will explore the evolutionary journey of the modern human. Human relatives
such as the neanderthals, homo erectus, cro-magnon, and Australopithecines will also be covered
in relation to modern day developments, such as the cosmo sapien theory as proposed by
London scholar John Hands. Charles Darwins The Origin of Species will be used as a
baseline, while also looking at what Darwin may have gotten wrong or missed in his mission to
give his theory validity. How the Ice Age played a role in modern human evolution along with
the role that water played will also be examined. Finally, the relation that humans play in
relation to the environment as the dominant animal will be covered.

Modern Human Evolution

While working as a naturalist in 1837 South America, Charles Darwin began to wonder
about facts in the distribution of the organic beings that inhabit South America, and also the

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geological relations of present versus past inhabitants. Thus began his patient and reflective
work that would span 22 years and accumulate with the first edition of his famous work, On the
Origin of Species. Darwin would then update and revise 6 different editions spanning all the
way until 1872. The work is extraordinary not only in the fact that it sparked a revolution in the
biological sciences, but crossing over into the philosophical realm as well. The work was far
from acceptable by society at the time and many ridiculed and criticized the work. The scientific
community was divided.
In this paper I will attempt to bring a focus on evolution as both a science and a
philosophy in relation to modern day humans. From Australopithecines, neanderthals, and homo
erectus, to homo sapiens and cosmo sapiens. Where did it all start, and where are we today?
How did water shape this journey? What role did the Ice Age play? Where do humans fit into
the environment? What did Darwin get wrong? All of these questions will be explained and
answers will be attempted.

Charles Darwin
Darwins battle for the theory of evolution was one that was highly contested, and his life
and work can almost be seen as a microcosm for the evolution of humans. Darwins ideas were a
new way of thinking, and that scared many people, mainly the church. Darwin was not alone
however, and had plenty of support and allies along the way including botanist Joseph Hooker,
Thomas Huxley, and field naturalist Alfred Wallace who actually arrived at the same theory of
evolution by natural selection independently (McCalman, 2009). Not everyone supported or
agreed with Darwin however.
Such theories challenging Darwins theory of natural selection and survival of the fittest
can be found in the book, What Darwin Got Wrong written by philosopher Jerry Fodor and

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scientist Massismo Piattelli-Palmarini. Their argument is that the logic of Darwins theory is
riddled with mistakes, mainly regarding natural selection. The duo provide many facts and
examples to fortify their thesis that natural selection can not exist.
They conclude such things that even if mutations were really random at their source, that
the related phenotypes could not be random. They also claim that Darwin supporters have
adjusted to multiple processes by expanding their scope and invoking other forms of natural
selection. Basically, they are suggesting that natural selection advocates seem to be making
things up as they go along. What isnt in doubt in terms of evolution, are the fossils that
archaeologists have discovered over the years and what we have learned from these species,
starting with the australopithecines.

Australopithecines
Over time it has become quite clear that humans and apes are very closely related, with
the chimpanzee being our closest relative. The classification of this group is known as the
hominoids. The oldest known hominid fossils are roughly twenty million years old of what may
be the earliest known form of ape, the Morotopithecus (Hall, 2011). The australopithecines then,
were a group of southern apes from Africa that were discovered and named by anthropologist
Raymond Dart in 1925 (Hall, 2011).
Dart discovered a hominin fossil in the Cape Province of South America known as Taung.
The fossil became known as the Taung Child as the remains were the front part of the skull and
lower jaw of a six year old. These specimen were more similar to humans than apes in when
studying aspects of their teeth and brain. In the 1940s, other adult australopithecine skulls were
found not far from Taung in Sterkforntein. These were said to be roughly 3 million years old.
The continuing studies and discoveries in the years to come strengthened the human like

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similarities that the australopithecines displayed, such as a vertebral column and pelvic girdle
(Hall, 2011). All of this evidence leads to the conclusion that humans had a bipedal ancestor.
The bipedal nature of humans is also a key point of emphasis in discovering clues about
evolution, by studying possible tracks.
Although human and hominin tracks rarely occur within the geological record as rare acts
of sedimentary preservation, they do exist and have the potential to reveal important information
about the movement of our ancestors, especially when the tracks pertain to different hominin
species (Bennett, Reynolds, Morse, Budka, 2016). The transition from australopithecines to
homo provided the development in anatomy and physiology that was more suited for long
distance walking or running.
The sites explored by the group include tracks in Tanzania and Kenya, which are then
compared to more recent tracks. The group concludes that the features and make of our feet
have remained relatively the same over the past 3.5 million years, and any sort of evolutionary
progress of the feet would have been made prior to the australopithecine-homo transition stage
(Bennett, Reynolds, Morse, Budka, 2016).

Homo Species
From the australopithecines we move on to the genus of homo, which contains six
species; Homo rudolfensis, habilis, ergaster, erectus, sapien, and heidelbergensis. The most
closely associated with homo sapiens is thought to be the homo erectus. The very subtle
differences between the two have even led some experts to believe that homo erectus was
actually the original manifestation of homo sapiens.
The first homo fossil record is from East Africa, and dates to approximately 2.4 million
years old. What separates the homo species from the australopithecines is a larger brain and

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smaller molar teeth (Hall, 2011). This is see across the board with all six species. Everything
seemed to be making sense until the discovery of another species, the homo neanderthalensis in
Neander Valley Germany in 1856 complicated matters. The neanderthals evolved from the
European populations of heidelbergensis and many paleontologists now suggesting that Homo
sapiens evolved from the heidelbergensis (Hall, 2011).
What is clear, is the evolution is a series of transitions from one phase to the next. Very
interesting questions are raised in the article, Major Transitions in Human Evolution. Is there a
major gap between australopithecine and homo evolution? Does the pattern of change fit a model
of short and rapid formations, or gradual evolution? Why is the role of Africa so important? How
are different aspects such as genes, phenotypes and behavior integrated across the transitions of
evolution (Foley, Martin, Lahr, Stringer, 2016)? Where do the neanderthals fit into these
transitions and relationships?

Neanderthals
Approximately 24% of genetic material in human populations outside Africa is derived
from Neanderthals who interbred with anatomically modern humans. (Harris & Nielsen, 2016)
This new data seems to provide more conclusive evidence on the relation between humans and
the neanderthals, but what is happening to that relationship?
A small percentage of Neanderthal DNA is present in the genomes of many
contemporary human populations due to hybridization tens of thousands of years ago. Much of
this Neanderthal DNA appears to be deleterious in humans, and natural selection is acting to
remove it. (Juric & Aeschbacher, 2016) It seems that humans have been ridding themselves of
the neanderthal DNA over time. Is this further proof of evolution itself? A strong argument can

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be made by this data alone that humans have been adapting and evolving in order to progress. If
this is possible, where and when could this separation have began taking place?
According to Brian Fagan in his book, Cro-Magnon: How the Ice Age Gave Birth to the
First Modern Humans the first modern humans began separating and even competing with rival
neanderthals some thirty thousand years ago. Fagan argues that through superior intelligence
and tools, the homo sapiens were able to survive the harsh conditions of the ice age that the
neanderthals could not. If the neanderthals and humans are still linked genetically, then is it
possible then that there has only truly been one species of homo? Evolutionary ecologist Clive
Finlayson believes so.

Follow the Water

Finlayson believes that human evolution had become over complicated with the different
species branching off at different locations over different time periods. He believes that
interpreting the differences in fossils and artifacts that have been found has muddied the truth.
He believes that there is only one species of homo with slight variations and that the main factor
in all of this is water (Finlayson, 2016).
Humans had to deal with years of drying climates and the sources of water being broken
up and scattered about. This led to humans prioritizing the importance of water and and note
their sources, such as lakes and rivers. Finlayson argues that the drying climate drove the
development of brains, lengthened limbs, and encouraged light, portable tool kits and a more
mobile way of life. Humans who lived in wetter climates could remain and maintain a healthier
way of life, and use and build heavier shelter with heavier tools from local stone. This left them
less flexible however, and when the climates or landscapes changed it made humans more
vulnerable (Finlayson, 2016).

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Finlaysons theory is quite simple, humans have done nothing more than followed the
life-giving source of water (Finlayson, 2016) If this is true, how have humans become so
advanced as a species today and are we the dominant species on the planet?

Human Ascension and the Cosmo Sapien

In their book, The Dominant Animal: Human Evolution and the Environment scientists
Paul and Anne Ehrlich argue that through populating the earth, reshaping landscapes,
environmental changes and culture creation that humans are creating the future and shaping
evolution. This leads to the conclusion that humans are in fact the dominant species on the
planet.
The Ehrlichs also argue that these changes in evolution have not only happened, but are
currently accelerating. They claim that rate of changes are the highest they have been in the past
65 million years, and that human society is reshaping the biosphere. Along with being the
dominant animal, the Ehrlichs also argue that humans may be on a crash course with the
environment itself, stating that human activity inflict harsh and often irreversible damage on the
environment and its resources.
The argument is made that if many human activities are not checked or reflected upon, it
may set the world on a course where life itself will not be sustainable. The type of dire and
alarmist views seem to appear more often today, unfortunately with political agendas driving
them. With the development of humans dominant role on Earth, what does the future then hold
and what role may we play in regards to the entire universe?
Scientist John Hands argues that humans have reached a period where a self reflective
consciousness may actually enable us to determine our own future evolution. In his book,
Cosmo Sapiens: Human Evolution from the Origin of the Universe Hands lay out the theory of

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cosmo sapiens and raises question regarding our origins and the possibilities they are linked to
somewhere out in the universe?
Hands concludes that a reflective consciousness is all the distinguishes modern homo
sapiens from all other primates. This has lead to change in life itself, as in the kind of life that
one leads. This human consciousness theory that Hands lays out is broken into three phases;
primeval thinking, philosophical thinking and scientific thinking. What makes Hands arguments
so convincing is his own self reflective tone, actually devoting an entire chapter of the book to
the limitations of science.
Very rarely do you hear scientists reflecting on its fallibilities and possible blind spots.
Hand elaborates on the limits of what can actually be observed and measured. For example, how
subjectivity can limit sciences power through adoption of underlying assumptions, selection of
data, and the interpretation of data. These are powerful conclusions in regards to the science of
evolution compared and related to the philosophy of evolution.

Conclusion
In conclusion, modern human evolution is truly an idea, theory and movement that still
raises more questions than answers. The blending of philosophy and science is probably the
strongest aspect of evolution. When you break down the theory solely as only a philosophy or a
science, there may not be such an intense desire for knowledge on evolution today and the theory
would have never expanded. The fact that the theory is a marriage of sorts, brings together two
different sides which gives the theory of evolution the back and forth theories, data and
discoveries that continue to drive it forward and expand its audience.
Even the modern world of art as stepped into the evolution arena with films such as The
X-Men, based on a comic book that took the idea of human evolution and asked the question,

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What if? The mutants of X-Men and the evolution accelerates and gives them their powers.
As Charles Xavier states in the original X-Men film in 2000, Mutation: it is the key to our
evolution. It has enabled us to evolve from a single-celled organism into the dominant species on
the planet. This process is slow, and normally taking thousands and thousands of years. But
every few hundred millennia, evolution leaps forward. Are we living in one of those times
now? Only time will tell.

References
Bennett, M. R., Reynolds, S. C., Morse, S. A., & Budka, M. (2016). Footprints and human
evolution:
Homeostasis in foot function?. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology,
461214-223. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2016.08.026
Darwin, C. (1979). The illustrated origin of species. London,
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Ehrlich, P., & Ehrlich A. (2009). The dominant animal: Human

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evolution and the environment. Washington D.C.: Island Press.

Fagan, B. (2010). Cro-Magnon: How the ice age gave birth to the first
modern humans. New York, NY: Bloomsbury Press.
Finlayson, C. (2014). The improbable primate: How water shaped human
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Fodor, J., & Piattelli-Palmarini, M (2010). What Darwin got
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Hall, B. (2011). Evolution: Principles and processes. Sudbury,
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Hands, J. (2016). Cosmo sapiens: Human evolution from the origin of
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the theory of evolution. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company.
Singer, B. (Director), & Hayter, D. (Writer). (n.d.). X-Men [Video file].