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SteamEngineeringTutorials>SteamEngineeringPrinciples&HeatTransfer
Directsteaminjectioninvolvesthedischargeofsteambubblesintoaliquidatalowertemperaturetotransferheat.Thistutorialexplainstheprocess
andthemethodsused,includingtherelevantheattransfercalculations.

HeatingVatsandTanksbySteamInjection
Directsteaminjectioninvolvesthedischargeofaseriesofsteambubblesintoaliquidatalowertemperature.Thesteambubblescondenseandgiveuptheir
heattothesurroundingliquid.
Heatistransferredbydirectcontactbetweenthesteamandtheliquid,consequentlythismethodisonlyusedwhendilutionandanincreaseinliquidmassis
acceptable.Therefore,theliquidbeingheatedisusuallywater.Directsteaminjectionisseldomusedtoheatsolutionsinwhichachemicalreactiontakesplace,
asthedilutionofthesolutionwouldreducethereactionrateandlowertheproductivity.
Directsteaminjectionisthemostwidelyusedmethodforboilerfeedtankheatingthroughoutindustry.Thismethodisoftenchosenbecauseofitssimplicity.No
heattransfersurfaceorsteamtrapsetisrequired,andthereisnoneedtoconsiderthecondensatereturnsystem.

Steamconsumptioncalculations
Duringdirectsteaminjection,heatistransferredinadifferentmannertoindirectheatexchange.Astheheatisnottransferredacrossasurface,andthesteam
mixesfreelywiththeprocessfluidbeingheated,theamountofusableheatinthesteammustbecalculatedinadifferentway.ThiscanbefoundusingEquation
2.11.1:

Equation2.11.1showsthatsteaminjectionutilisesalloftheenthalpyofevaporation(orlatentheat)andaproportionoftheliquidenthalpycontainedinthe
steam.Theactualproportionoftheliquidenthalpyusedwilldependonthetemperatureofthewaterattheendoftheinjectionprocess.
Onemajordifferencebetweenindirectheatinganddirectsteaminjection,isthatthevolume(andmass)oftheprocessfluidisincreasedassteamisadded,by
theamountofsteaminjected.
Anotherdifferenceisthat,whencalculatingthesteamflowratetoasteamcoil,thepressureinthecoilisconsidered,butforsteaminjection,thepressurebefore
thecontrolvalveisconsidered.
Insomecases(wheretheliquidsurfaceisnotattheoverflowpipelevel),thiswillincreasetheheadofliquidovertheinjectorastimeprogresses.However,this
increaseislikelytobesmallandisrarelytakenintoaccountincalculations.

Factorsinfluencingtheheattransferrate
InEquation2.11.1,thesteamconsumptionrateisdirectlyrelatedtotheheatrequirement.Unlessthesteaminjectionsystemisdesignedsothatallconditions
areconducivetomaximumheattransfer,thesteambubblesmaysimplybreakthesurfaceoftheliquidandescapetotheatmospheresome

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oftheheatcontainedinthesteamwillbelosttoatmosphereandtheactualheattransferratetothewaterwillbelessthananticipated.
Inthecaseofasubmergedcoil,themaximumheattransferrateatthestartofthewarmupperiodwilldependonthemaximumsteamflowrateallowedthrough
thecontrolvalveanditsassociatedpipework,andthemaximumheatoutputallowedbythecoilsurfacearea.
Duringdirectsteaminjection,itmightbeexpectedthatthemaximumheattransferrateattheverystartofthewarmupperiodisdependentonthemaximum
flowratethroughthecontrolvalve,andthepipeorinjectoritself.However,asimpliedabove,itwillalsodependonotherfactorssuchas:
SizeofthesteambubbleCondensationofasteambubblewilldependontheheattransferacrossthesurfaceofthebubble.Toensurethatthesteam
bubbleiscompletelycondensed,thesurfacearea/volumeratiomustbeaslargeaspossible.Smallerbubbleshaveagreatersurfaceareaperunitvolumethan
largerbubbles,soitisdesirabletoproduceverysmallbubbles.Thedifferentialpressure(betweenthesteampipeandthepointwherethesteamisdischarged
intothewater)asthebubbleemergeswillalsoaffectthesizeofthesteambubble.Thespecificvolumeofsteamwillincreaseasthepressureisreduced,so
thatadropinpressurewillincreasethesizeofthesteambubbleasitescapesintotheliquid.Evenifthesteambubbleisemittedfromaverysmallhole,the
bubblemayincreasesignificantlyinsizeifthesteampressureishigh.Consequently,alowerpressureinthespargepipeisbetter.
HeadofliquidovertheinjectionpointTheheadofliquidovertheinjectionpointwillcreateabackpressuresothatthedifferentialpressurewillbelessthan
thesteampressure.Iftheheadofliquidislargeandthesteampressureinthespargepipeislow,theremayonlybeaverysmallchangeinpressuresothatthe
sizeofthebubblesformediskepttoaminimum.
Agreaterheadofliquidoverthepointofinjectionwillgivethesteambubblesmaximumopportunitytocondensebeforetheyreachthesurface.
VelocityofthebubbleThevelocityofthebubbleatthepointofinjectionwillalsodependonthedifferencebetweenthesteampressureandtheliquidhead.
Itisdesirabletokeepthisdifferentialpressureaslowaspossible,sothatbubblevelocitiesarealsoaslowaspossibleandthebubblesaregiventhemaximum
timetocondensebeforetheyreachthesurface.
TemperatureoftheliquidTherateatwhichthesteamwillcondenseisdirectlyproportionaltothetemperaturedifferencebetweenthesteamandtheliquid
beingheated.Aswithallheattransferprocesses,therateofheatexchangeisdirectlyproportionaltothetemperaturedifferential.
Itisalwaysadvisabletoensurethatthetemperatureoftheliquidiscorrectlycontrolledandiskepttotheminimumrequiredfortheapplication,sothatthe
maximumheattransferrateismaintainedandthereisnowastageofenergy.

Spargepipes
Thisissimplyapipemountedinsidethetank,withtheholesdrilledatregularpositions(typically4oclockand8oclock)whenviewedfromtheend,equally
spacedalongthelengthofthepipe,andwiththeendblankedoff.Thesteamexitsthepipethroughtheholesassmallbubbles,whichwilleithercondenseas
intendedorreachthesurfaceoftheliquid(seeFigure2.11.1).
Spargepipesareinexpensivetomakeandeasytoinstall,butarepronetocausehighlevelsofvibrationandnoise.Amuchmoreeffectivemethodistousea
properlydesignedsteaminjector.

Example2.11.1Determinethesteamloadtoheatatankofwaterbysteaminjection

Thesecalculations(steps1to5)arebasedonExamples2.9.1and2.10.1asfarasheatlossesareconcerned,butwiththetankcontainingwater(c p=4.19
kJ/kgC),insteadofweakacidsolutionandthewaterbeingheatedbysteaminjectionratherthanasteamcoil.

Step1
findtheenergyrequiredtoheatup12000kgofwaterfrom8Cto60Cin2hoursbyusingEquation2.6.1:

Steamissuppliedtothecontrolvalveat2.6barg.Inordertocalculatethemeansteamflowrate,itisnecessarytodeterminethetotalenthalpyinthesteam
(hg)atthispressure.ItcanbeseenfromTable2.11.1(anextractfromsteamtables)thatthetotalenthalpyofsteam(hg)at2.6barg
is2733.89kJ/kg.

Step2findthemeansteamflowratetoheatthewaterbyusingEquation2.11.1:

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Step3findthemeansteamflowratetoheatthetankmaterial(steel).
FromExample2.9.1,themeanheattransferrateforthetankmaterial=(tank)=14kW
ThemeansteamflowratetoheatthetankmaterialiscalculatedbyagainusingEquation2.11.1:

Step4findthemeansteamflowratetomakeupfortheheatlossesfromthetankduringwarmup.FromExample
2.9.1:

Whilstitisreasonabletoacceptthatthesteamsliquidenthalpywillcontributetotheriseintemperatureofthewaterandthetankmaterial,itismoredifficultto
accepthowthesteamsliquidenthalpywouldaddtotheheatlostfromthetankduetoradiation.Therefore,theequationtocalculatethesteamusedforheat
losses(Equation2.11.2)considersonlytheenthalpyofevaporationinthesteamatatmosphericpressure.

Step5Determinethesteamloadtoheatatankofwaterbysteaminjection.Thetotalmeansteamflowratecanbe
calculatedasfollows:
Itisimportanttorememberwithsteaminjectionsystemsthatthefinalmassofliquidisequaltothemassofcoldliquid,plusthemassofsteamadded.
Inthisexample,theprocessstartedwith12000kgofwater.Duringtherequiredheatupperiodof2hourssteamhasbeeninjectedattherateof569kg/h.The
massofliquidhastherefore,increasedby2hx569kg/h=1138kg.
Thefinalmassoftheliquidis:12000kg+1138kg=13138kg
Theadditional1138kgofcondensatehasavolumeofabout1138litres(1.138m)andwillalsohaveincreasedthewaterlevelby:

Clearly,theprocesstankneedstohavesufficientspaceabovethestartingwaterleveltoallowforthisincrease.Forsafety,anoverflowshouldalwaysbe
includedinthetankconstructionwheresteaminjectionisinvolved.
Alternatively,iftheprocessrequirementhadbeentofinishwithamassof12000kg,themassofwateratthebeginningoftheprocesswouldbe:

Steaminjectors
AmoreeffectivealternativetothespargepipeisthesteaminjectorasshowninFigure2.11.3.Theinjectordrawsincoldliquidandmixesitwithsteaminside
theinjector,distributingheatedliquidtothetank.
Theengineereddesignoftheinjectorbodyismoresophisticatedthanthesimplespargepipe,andallowssteamathigherpressurestobeused.Aturbulentzone
iscreatedwithinthebodyoftheinjector,whichensuresthatthoroughmixingofthesteamandliquidoccurs,evenatrelativelyhighpressures.Thishasthe
effectofagitatingandcirculatingtheliquidsothataconstanttemperatureismaintainedthroughoutthetank,withouttemperaturestratificationorcoldspots.
Theseinjectorsaremorecompactthanspargepipes,consequentlyanyinterferencewithobjectsthatmaybedippedinthetankcanbeavoided.Theyaremore
robustandgenerallyquieterthanspargepipes,althoughnoiseproblemsmaystillbeencounteredifnotinstalledcorrectly.

Noisespertainingtosteaminjectors
Whenusinghighpressuresteaminjectorsthreedistinctnoiselevelsareproducedunderthefollowingconditions:
NormalrunningWheresteampressuresattheinjectorinletareabove2barg,thenoiseproducedduringnormalrunningconditionscanbedescribedasa
softroar.
Noiseiscausedbythecondensationofsteaminsidethedischargetube,asitmixes
withrecirculatingwaterdrawnthroughtheholesintothecastingbody.Undernormalconditionsthedischargefromtheinjectortubeisapproximately10Chotter
thantheincomingwater.
Thistypeofnoiseincreaseswithsteampressure,watertemperatureandthenumberofinjectors,butitisrarelyobjectionableatsteampressuresbelow8barg.
Althoughstrongcirculationofthetankcontentsoccursatpressuresabove8barg,littlevibrationshouldbeexperienced.
IncompletecondensationThisischaracterisedbyasoftbumpingnoiseandissometimesaccompaniedbyheavyvibration.Itoccurswhentheliquid
temperatureistoohigh(usuallyabove90C).Whentheliquidistoohottheinjectorbecomeslessefficientandaproportionofthesteamescapesfromthe
dischargetube.
Athighersteampressures,condensationofthesteammaycausevibration,whichisnotrecommendedforatmospherictanks.However,incylindricalpressure
vesselsofarobustdesign,thismaynotcauseanyproblems.
LowflowratesWhenthesteampressureattheinlettotheinjectorfallsbelow1.5barg,adistinctivecracklingcanbeheard.Undertheseconditionssteam
isunabletogiveupitsenthalpyofevaporationbeforeitleavestheinjectortube.

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Atlowflowratesthesteamistravellingatalowervelocitythanintheothermodesofoperation,andcollapsingsteambubblesarefoundonthebodycastingand
intheconnectingpipework,inducingcavitation.Thisnoiseisoftenconsideredobjectionable,andmaybefoundifthesteaminjectorsystemhasbeen
oversized.
Noisemayalsobecausedbypoorinstallationoftheinjector.Thesidesofarectangulartankmaybemadefromfairlyflexiblepanels.Connectinganinjectorto
themiddleofaflexiblepanelmayinducevibrationandnoise.Itmayoftenbebettertomounttheinjectornearerthecornerofthetankwherethestructureis
stiffer.

Example2.11.2
BasedondatafromExample2.11.1,proposeasteaminjectionsystem.
Requiredsteaminjectionrate=569kg/h
Thesteaminjectionpressure=1.0bar
Thelargestinjector(IN40M)hasacapacityof400kg/hat1.0bar,sothisapplicationwillrequire:
Ideally,becauseofthelowpressuresinvolved,theinjectorswouldbeinstalledatoppositeendsofthetanktogivegoodmixing.
Analternativewouldbetousehigherpressuresteam.Thiswouldallowtheuseofjustone,smallerinjector,reducingcostsandstillprovidinggoodmixing.

Alternativemethodofcalculatinginjectedsteamload
ThepreviousmethodusedinthisModuletocalculatethemeansteamflowraterequiresthemeanheatloadtobecalculatedfirst.ThisisdepictedbyEquation
2.11.1:

Ifthemeanheattransferrateisnotknown,anothermethodcanbeusedtodeterminethemeansteamflowrate.Thisrequirestheuseofaheatbalanceas
describedbelow.
Itshouldbenotedthatbothmethodsreturnexactlythesameresult,sowhicheverisuseddependsupontheuserschoice.

Calculatingthemeansteamflowratebymeansofaheatbalance
Aheatbalanceisconsideredwheretheinitialheatcontentinthewaterplustheheataddedbythesteamequalsthefinalheatcontent.Theheatbalance
equationforthewaterinthetankisshowninEquation2.11.3:

Massofsteamtobeinjected
ThemassofsteamtobeinjectedcanbedeterminedmoredirectlyfromEquation2.11.4,whichisdevelopedfromEquation2.11.3.

Example2.11.3
ConsiderthesameconditionsasthatinExample2.11.1.

ConductingaheatbalanceonthewaterinthetankbyusingEquation2.11.4:

Conductingaheatbalanceonthetankmaterial
Theheatlossesfromthesidesofthetankandthewatersurfacearethesameaspreviouslycalculated,thatis24kg/h.
ThisisthesameresultasthatobtainedpreviouslyinthisModulefromEquations2.11.1and2.11.2,andprovesthateithermethodcanbeusedtocalculatethe
meansteamflowratetoheatthetankanditscontents.

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