ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (12EB32)

Portion for the Frist Internal (1st CIE)

UNIT

MAIN TOPICS

SUB TOPICS
Principles of ecosystem,
impact of human being on environment: pollution, resource depletion and
global environmental issues,
Ecosystem health and environmental changes and human health. Procedure to
assess ecosystems health.

Ecosystems and environment

Standards- ISO14000 and Environmental Impact Assessment definition,

objectives, and types. Rapid and Comprehensive Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA),
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) and Finding Of No Significant Impact
(FONSI).
Some EIA examples Thermal Power Plant, Mining, Fertilizer, Construction
Projects, Airport, Water and Wastewater Treatment Plants.

II

IV

Strategies and Technologybased solutions for

Improvement of
Environment Quality
Introduction to cell and
organ systems:

Environment quality objectives and Waste challenge in modern society types of waste: municipal, agricultural, medicinal, E-waste, industrial.
Cell Types, Structure of plant, animal and microbial cell and Specialized cells
like stem cells and nerve cells.
Biological macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids
Special biomolecules hormones, enzymes, vitamins and antibiotics.
1

Evaluation Scheme
CIE Scheme
CIE consists of Three Tests each for 40 marks (15 marks for short answers + 25 marks for descriptive answers) out of which best two
will be considered. In addition there will be one assignment on self study component for 20 marks which is to be evaluated in different
phases by a committee during the semester.
Assessment
2 short answers
2 descriptive answers
self study
Total

% Weightage in Marks
15X2
25X2
20
80+20

Course Unitization for Internals and Semester End Examination

No. of Questions in
Sl. No. Chapter Teaching Hours
First Internals Second Internals Third Internals
1
Unit I
06
2
-2
Unit II
10
1
3
3
Unit III
06
-1
2
4
Unit IV
06
2
1
0
5
Unit V
08
--3

Unit 2
Strategies and Technology-based solutions for Improvement of Environment Quality:
1. Environment quality: Objectives and Waste challenge in modern society.

10 hrs

2. Types of waste: Municipal, Agricultural, Medicinal, E-waste, Industrial.

What is Solid Waste?

"Wastes are materials that are not prime products (that is products produced for the market) for which the initial user
has no further use in terms of his/her own purposes of production, transformation or consumption, and of which he/she
wants to dispose. Wastes may be generated during the extraction of raw materials, the processing of raw materials
into intermediate and final products, the consumption of final products, and other human activities. Residuals recycled
or reused at the place of generation are excluded." Solid wastes are any discarded (abandoned or considered wastelike) materials. Solid wastes can be solid, liquid, semi-solid or containerized gaseous material.

Types of solid waste

Solid waste can be classified into different types depending on their source:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Municipal,
Agricultural,
Medicinal,
E-waste,
Industrial.

Municipal Solid Waste,

Municipal solid waste (MSW), commonly known as trash or garbage (US), refuse or rubbish (UK) is a

waste

type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public.

Municipal solid waste consists of household waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, and
waste from streets. This garbage is generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes. With rising
urbanization and change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of municipal solid waste has been increasing rapidly
and its composition changing. In 1947 cities and towns in India generated an estimated 6 million tonnes of solid waste,
in 1997 it was about 48 million tonnes. More than 25% of the municipal solid waste is not collected at all; 70% of the
Indian cities lack adequate capacity to transport it and there are no sanitary landfills to dispose of the waste. The
existing landfills are neither well equipped or well managed and are not lined properly to protect against contamination
5

of soil and groundwater.

Over the last few years, the consumer market has grown rapidly leading to products being packed in cans,
aluminium foils, plastics, and other such nonbiodegradable items that cause incalculable harm to the environment. In
India, some municipal areas have banned the use of plastics and they seem to have achieved success. For example,
today one will not see a single piece of plastic in the entire district of Ladakh where the local authorities imposed a ban
on plastics in 1998. Other states should follow the example of this region and ban the use of items that cause harm to
the environment. One positive note is that in many large cities, shops have begun packing items in reusable or
biodegradable bags. Certain biodegradable items can also be composted and reused. In fact proper handling of the
biodegradable waste will considerably lessen the burden of solid waste that each city has to tackle.
There are different categories of waste generated, each take their own time to degenerate (as illustrated in the
table below).
The type of litter we generate and the approximate time it
takes to degenerate
Type of litter

Approximate
time
it
takes to degenerate the
litter

Organic
waste
such
as a week or two.
vegetable
and
fruit peels,
leftover foodstuff, etc.
Paper

1030 days

Cotton cloth

25 months

Wood

1015 years

Woolen items

1 year

Tin, aluminium, and other metal 100500 years

items such as cans
Plastic bags

one million years?

Glass bottles

undetermined

Hazardous waste/Industrial Waste

A waste or combination of wastes of a solid, liquid, contained gaseous, or semisolid form which may cause, or
contribute to, an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible illness, taking
into account the toxicity of such waste, its persistence and degradability in nature, its potential for accumulation or
concentration in tissue, and other factors that may otherwise cause or contribute to adverse acute or chronic effects
on the health of persons or other organisms.
Waste exhibiting one or more of the following four characteristics is considered hazardous:

Toxicity.
Corrosivity.
Ignitability.
Reactivity.

Toxicity: Waste that exhibits the Toxicity Characteristic (TC) poses a substantial threat to human health and the
environment. Waste toxicity is measured by using the Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP) (40 CFR
261.24). The TCLP extract is analyzed for lead (or other constituents) to determine if it is above or below the allowable
TC regulatory threshold, which for lead is 5 ppm (milligrams/ liter).
Leachable lead analysis differs from total lead analysis, which is typically performed on paint chips during a
risk assessment or inspection, in that leachable lead is dependent on the type of lead compound present and the size
7

of the particle (that is, its solubility). Because total lead analysis does not determine the specific lead compound
present, it is difficult, if not impossible, to predict how much of the lead will be leachable. Therefore, XRF or paint-chip
analysis (by the usual hot nitric acid digestion/ atomic absorption spectroscopy methods) are unlikely to help
determine leachability. The total lead levels determined by a paint-chip analysis are usable in two circumstances:

total lead level that is very low (e.g., less than 100 ppm), indicates that waste should not exceed the TC
regulatory threshold; and
total lead levels can be used in combination with total waste volume estimates to determine whether
recycling for lead recovery is feasible.
Corrosivity: Corrosive waste has a pH that is either less than or equal to 2 (highly acidic) or greater than or equal to
12.5 (highly basic), or which can corrode steel at a certain rate (40 CFR 261.22). Unneutralized caustic paint strippers
and acidic paint strippers (including the resulting sludge) may be corrosive.
Ignitability: Ignitable waste generally includes liquids with flash points below 140F (60C), flammable solids and
compressed gases, and oxidizers (40 CFR 261.21). Certain solvents from paint strippers (e.g., xylene) and the resulting
sludge or slurry waste may be ignitable.
Reactivity: Lead-based paint hazard control projects are unlikely to produce reactive waste. Reactive waste includes
substances that are capable of easily generating explosive or toxic gases, especially when mixed with water (40 CFR
261.23). These also include waste that is unstable and undergoes violent change without detonating.

Agricultural
Expanding agricultural production has naturally resulted in increased quantities of livestock waste, agricultural crop residues and agro-industrial byproducts. Following Table provides an estimate of annual production of agricultural waste and residues in some selected countries in the region (ESCAP
1997). Among the countries in the Asian and Pacific Region, Peoples Republic of China produces the largest quantities of agriculture waste and crop
residues followed by India. In Peoples Republic of China, some 587 million tonnes of residues are generated annually from the production of rice, corn and
wheat alone (see Figure 8.5). Figure 8.6 illustrates the proportions of waste that Malaysia generates from the production of rice, palm oil, rubber, coconut
and forest products (ESCAP 1997). In Myanmar, crop waste and residues amount to some 4 million tonnes per year (of which more than half constitutes rice
husk), whilst annual animal waste production is about 28 million tonnes with more than 80 per cent of this coming from cattle husbandry.

In Pakistan, about 56.22 million tonnes of different crop residues are generated of which 12.46 million tonnes originate from cotton, 2.90 million tonnes
from maize, 12.87 million tonnes from sugarcane, 8.16 million tonnes from rice and 19.83 million tonnes from wheat. In addition, Pakistan produces other
wastes amounting to some 28 million tonnes of which 58 per cent is animal waste, 40 per cent is sugarcane bagasse and the remaining two per cent
comprises a mix of jute sticks, mustard stalks, sesame sticks, castor seed stalks, sunflower stalks and tobacco stalks (ESCAP 1997).
In Sri Lanka, agricultural waste comprises animal waste, paddy husk, straw, coir fibre and coir dust, bagasse, as well as the waste from the timber
industry, which comprises sawdust, off-cuts and charcoal. Commercial rice milling generates around 2 million tonnes of paddy husk per annum, whilst coir
(the fibres from coconut husks) processing generates an annual 700 000 tonnes of coir dust (ESCAP 1997). Each year, Thailand produces about 4.6 million
tonnes of paddy husk, 35 million tonnes of rice straw, 7 million tonnes of bagasse and more than 25 million tonnes of animal waste (ESCAP 1997). Other
countries such as Australia, Cambodia, Japan, Lao Peoples Democratic Republic, Nepal, New Zealand, Republic of Korea, Viet Nam and Small Island
States in the South Pacific also generate huge quantities of agricultural waste and residues (ESCAP 1997, UNEP/SREP 1997).

Medicinal,
What are Biomedical wastes?
Biomedical wastes are defined as waste that is generated during the diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human
beings or animals, or in research activities pertaining thereto, or in the production of biological.
9

 What are biodegradable and non biodegradable wastes?

Biodegradable waste means any waste that is capable of undergoing anaerobic or aerobic decomposition, such as food
and garden waste, and paper and paperboard. It also includes waste from households, which because of its nature and
composition is similar to biodegradable waste from households.
Non biodegradable wastes are the wastes that cannot be decomposed by bacteria e.g plastics, bottles and tins.

What is the quantum of waste that is generated by a hospital?

The quantum of waste that is generated in India is estimated to be 1-2 kg per bed per day in a hospital and 600 gm
per day per bed in a general practioners clinic. e.g. a 100 bedded hospital will generate 100 200 kgs of hospital
waste/day. It is estimated that only 5 10% of this comprises of hazardous/infectious waste (5 10kgs/day)

What are the hazards associated with poor health care waste management?
Proper disposal of biomedical waste is of paramount importance because of its infectious and hazardous
characteristics. Improper disposal can result in the following:
Organic portion ferments and attracts fly breeding
Injuries from sharps to all categories of health care personnel and waste handlers
Increase risk of infections to medical, nursing and other hospital staff
Injuries from sharps to health workers and waste handlers
Poor infection control can lead to nosocomial infections in patients particularly HIV, Hepatitis B & C
Increase in risk associated with hazardous chemicals and drugs being handled by persons handling wastes
Poor waste management encourages unscrupulous persons to recycle disposables and disposed drugs for repacking
and reselling
Development of resistant strains of microorganisms
What are the rules and regulations governing the disposal of these wastes?
The Government of India has promulgated the Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules 1998. They are
applicable to all persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose or handle biomedical wastes.
10

This includes hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries, veterinary institutions, animal houses, pathological
laboratories and blood banks.
What are the responsibilities of health care institutions regarding biomedical waste management?
It is mandatory for such institutions to:

Set up biomedical waste treatment facilities like incinerators, autoclave and microwave systems for treatment of
the wastes
Make an application to the concerned authorities for grant of authorization
Submit a report regarding information about the categories and quantities of biomedical wastes handled during
the preceding year by 31 Jan every year
Maintain records about the generation, collection, reception, storage, transportation, treatment, disposal and/or
any form of handling bio medical waste
Report immediately any accident to the prescribed authority

What are the different hospital waste categories?

Category

Type of Waste

Treatment and Disposal Options

Category 1

Human Anatomical Waste (Human tissues,

Incineration/Deep Burial
organs, body parts)

Category 2

Animal waste (Animal tissues, organs, body

parts, carcasses, bleeding parts,blood and Incineration/Deep Burial
experimental animals used in research)

Category 3

Microbiology and biotechnology

waste(waste from lab culture, specimens
from microorganisms, vaccines, cell
cultures, toxins, dishes, devices used to
transfer cultures)
11

Local Autoclaving/ Microwaving/ Incineration

Category 4

Waste Sharps (Needles, Syringes, scalpels, Chemical Disinfection Autoclaving/

blades, glass)
Microwaving, Mutilation and Shredding

Category 5

Discarded medicines and cytotoxic drugs

Incineration/Destruction and disposal in land
(outdated, contaminated, discarded drugs) fills

Category 6

Soiled waste (contaminated with blood and

body fluids including cotton, dressings,
Autoclaving/ Microwaving/ Incineration
soiled plasters, linen)

Category 7

Solid waste (tubes, catheters, IV sets)

Chemical Disinfecion/Autoclaving/
Microwaving, Mutilation and Shredding

Category 8

Liquid waste (Waste generated from

laboratory and washing, cleaning,
disinfection)

Disinfection by chemical treatment and

discharge into the drains

Category 9

Incineration ash

Land fills

Category 10

Chemical waste

Chemical disinfection and discharge into the

drains

12

E-waste,
13

"Electronic waste" may be defined as discarded computers, office electronic equipment, entertainment device electronics, mobile phones, television sets,
and refrigerators. The EU defines this new waste stream as Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE). Since

there
is no definition of the WEEE in the environmental regulations in India, it is simply called e-waste. E-waste or electronic
waste, therefore, broadly describes loosely discarded, surplus, obsolete, broken, electrical or electronic devices 4.
This definition includes used electronics which are destined for reuse, resale, salvage, recycling, or disposal.

Composition of E-waste
E-waste consists of all waste from electronic and electrical appliances which have reached their end- of- life period or
are no longer fit for their original intended use and are destined for recovery, recycling or disposal. It includes
computer and its accessoriesmonitors, printers, keyboards, central processing units; typewriters, mobile phones and
chargers, remotes, compact discs, headphones, batteries, LCD/Plasma TVs, air conditioners, refrigerators and other
household appliances.5 The composition of e-waste is diverse and falls under hazardous and non-hazardous
categories. Broadly, it consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood and plywood, printed circuit
boards, concrete, ceramics, rubber and other items. Iron and steel constitute about 50% of the waste, followed by
plastics (21%), non-ferrous metals (13%) and other constituents. Non-ferrous metals consist of metals like copper,
aluminium and precious metals like silver, gold, platinum, palladium and so on. 6 The presence of elements like lead,
mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium, hexavalent chromium, and flame retardants beyond threshold quantities make
e-waste hazardous in nature. It contains over 1000 different substances, many of which are toxic, and creates serious
pollution upon disposal.7 Obsolete computers pose the most significant environmental and health hazard among the ewastes.
E-waste generation in India
All over the world, the quantity of electrical and electronic waste generated each year, especially computers and
televisions, has assumed alarming proportions. In 2006, the International Association of Electronics Recyclers (IAER) 8
projected that 3 billion electronic and electrical appliances would become WEEE or e-waste by 2010. That would
tantamount to an average e-waste generation rate of 400 million units a year till 2010. Globally, about 20-50 MT
(million tonnes) of e-wastes are disposed off each year, which accounts for 5% of all municipal solid waste. Although no
definite official data exist on how much waste is generated in India or how much is disposed of, there are estimations
based on independent studies conducted by the NGOs or government agencies. According to the Comptroller and
Auditor- Generals (CAG) report, over 7.2 MT of industrial hazardous waste, 4 lakh tonnes of electronic waste, 1.5 MT of
plastic waste, 1.7 MT of medical waste, 48 MT of municipal waste are generated in the country annually. 10 In 2005, the
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimated Indias e-waste at 1.47 lakh tonnes or 0.573 MT per day.
The main sources of electronic waste in India are the government, public and private (industrial) sectors, which
account for almost 70 per cent of total waste generation. The contribution of individual households is relatively small
at about 15 per cent; the rest being contributed by manufacturers. Though individual households are not large
contributors to waste generated by computers, they consume large quantities of consumer durables and are,
therefore,
potential creators of waste. An Indian market Research Bureau (IMRB) survey of E-waste generation at Source in 2009
14

found that out of the total e-waste volume in India, televisions and desktops including servers comprised 68 per cent
and 27 per cent respectively. Imports and mobile phones comprised of 2 per cent and 1 per cent respectively.
Environment concerns and Health hazards
E-waste is highly complex to handle due to its composition. It is made up of multiple components some of which
contain toxic substances that have an adverse impact on human health and environment if not handled properly.
Often, these problems arise out of improper recycling and disposal methods. This underlines the need for appropriate
technology for handling and disposal of these chemicals.
Pollutants or toxins in e-waste are typically concentrated in circuit boards, batteries, plastics, and LCDs (liquid crystal
displays). Given below is a table showing the major pollutants occurring in waste electrical and electronic equipments:

Listed in the table below are the harmful elements in the compositions of electrical and electronic appliances that can
be hazardous to health and environment

15

16

Potential Environmental Impacts from Solid Waste Management Activities

The typical municipal solid waste stream will contain general wastes (organics and recyclables), special wastes (household hazardous,
medical, and industrial waste), and construction and demolition debris. Most adverse environmental impacts from solid waste
management are rooted in inadequate or incomplete collection and recovery of recyclable or reusable wastes, as well as codisposal of
hazardous wastes. These impacts are also due to inappropriate siting, design, operation, or maintenance of dumps and landfills. Improper
waste management activities can:
Increase disease transmission or otherwise threaten public health. Rotting organic materials pose great public health risks,
17

including, as mentioned above, serving as breeding grounds for disease vectors. Waste handlers and waste pickers are especially
vulnerable and may also become vectors, contracting and transmitting diseases when human or animal excreta or medical wastes
are in the waste stream. (See the discussion on medical wastes below and the separate section on Healthcare Waste: Generation,
Handling, Treatment, and Disposal in this volume.) Risks of poisoning, cancer, birth defects, and other ailments are also high.
Contaminate ground and surface water. Municipal solid waste streams can bleed toxic materials and pathogenic organisms into the
leachate of dumps and landfills. (Leachate is the liquid discharge of dumps and landfills; it is composed of rotted organic waste,
liquid wastes, infiltrated rainwater and extracts of soluble material.) If the landfill is unlined, this runoff can contaminate ground
or surface water, depending on the drainage system and the composition of the underlying soils.
Many toxic materials, once placed in the general solid waste stream, can be treated or removed only with expensive
advanced technologies. Currently, these are generally not feasible in Africa. Even after organic and biological elements are
treated, the final product remains harmful.
Create greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants. When organic wastes are disposed of in deep dumps or landfills, they
undergo anaerobic degradation and become significant sources of methane, a gas with 21 times the effect of carbon dioxide in
trapping heat in the atmosphere.
Garbage is often burned in residential areas and in landfills to reduce volume and uncover metals. Burning creates thick
smoke that contains carbon monoxide, soot and nitrogen oxide, all of which are hazardous to human health and degrade urban air
quality. Combustion of polyvinyl chlorides (PVCs) generates highly carcinogenic dioxins.
Damage ecosystems. When solid waste is dumped into rivers or streams it can alter aquatic habitats and harm native plants and
animals. The high nutrient content in organic wastes can deplete dissolved oxygen in water bodies, denying oxygen to fish and
other aquatic life form. Solids can cause sedimentation and change stream flow and bottom habitat. Siting dumps or landfills in
sensitive ecosystems may destroy or significantly damage these valuable natural resources and the services they provide.
Injure people and property. In locations where shantytowns or slums exist near open dumps or near badly designed or operated
landfills, landslides or fires can destroy homes and injure or kill residents. The accumulation of waste along streets may present
physical hazards, clog drains and cause localized flooding.
Discourages tourism and other business. The unpleasant odor and unattractive appearance of piles of uncollected solid waste along
streets and in fields, forests and other natural areas, can discourage tourism and the establishment and/or maintenance of
businesses.
18

Nuclear waste
Nuclear waste is the material that nuclear fuel becomes after it is used in a reactor. It looks exactly like the fuel that was loaded into the
reactor -- assemblies of metal rods enclosing stacked-up ceramic pellets. But since nuclear reactions have occurred, the contents
arent quite the same. Before producing power, the fuel was mostly Uranium (or Thorium), oxygen, and steel. Afterwards, many
Uranium atoms have split into various isotopes of almost all of the transition metals on your periodic table of the elements.
The waste, sometimes called spent fuel, is dangerously radioactive, and remains so for thousands of years. When it first comes out of the
reactor, it is so toxic that if you stood within a few meters of it while it was unshielded, you would receive a lethal radioactive
dose within a few seconds and would die of acute radiation sickness within a few days. Hence all the worry about it.
In practice, the spent fuel is never unshielded. It is kept underwater (water is an excellent shield) for a few years until the radiation
decays to levels that can be shielded by concrete in large storage casks. The final disposal of this spent fuel is a hot topic, and is
often an argument against the use of nuclear reactors. Options include deep geologic storage and recycling. The sun would
consume it nicely if we could get into space, but since rockets are so unreliable, we cant afford to risk atmospheric dispersal on
lift-off.

2. Solid waste management (SWM)

19

Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials, usually ones produced by human
activity, in an effort to reduce their effect on human health or local aesthetics or amenity. A focus in recent decades has been to reduce
20

waste materials' effect on the natural world and the environment and to recover resources from them.
Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential, industrial, and
commercial producers. Waste management for non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan areas is usually the
responsibility of local government authorities, while management for non-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the
responsibility of the generator.
2.2 Functional Elements of SWM:
The activities associated with the management of Solid Waste can be grouped into six functional groups;

2.2.1- Waste Generation.

This step is simply identification/scoping step to locate the sites where the waste is being generated.
21

2.2.2- Waste handling and separation, storage, and processing at the source.
Handling and separation activities until placed in storage containers. From the stand point of materials specifications
and revenues from the sale of recovered materials, best place to separate for reuse and recycling.

2.2.3- Collection
Gathering of the solid waste and recyclables.
Waste collection is the component of waste management which results in the passage of a waste material from the
source of production to either the point of treatment or final disposal. Waste collection also includes the kerbside
collection of recyclable materials that technically are not waste, as part of a municipal landfill diversion program.

2.2.4- Separation and processing and transformation of solid wastes.

Separation and processing usually occurs at materials recovery center (MRF), transfer station, combustion facilities,
disposal sites. Waste transformation is supplied by altering the waste physically, chemically, and biologically
(decreases the amount to be landfilled)
22

2.2.4.1 Pulverization
1. To reduce to powder or dust, usually by crushing, pounding or grinding. To break up into tiny particles: bray,
crush, granulate, grind, mill, powder, triturate. See help/harm/harmless.
2.2.4.2 Hammer mill

A type of impact mill or crusher in which materials are reduced in size by hammers revolving rapidly in a vertical plane within a steel
casing. Also known as beater mill. A grinding machine which pulverizes feed and other products by several rows of thin hammers
revolving at high speed.
2.2.4.3 Baling

A technique used to convert loose refuse into heavy blocks by compaction; the blocks are then burned and are buried in sanitary landfill.

2.2.5- Transfer and transport.

Proper transport means to be used with trem cards with detailed disclosure.

2.2.6- Disposal
Waste Disposal Methods
Disposal methods for waste products vary widely, depending on the area and type of waste material. For example, in Australia, the most
common method of disposal of solid household waste is in landfill sites, as it is a large country with a low-density population. By
contrast, in Japan it is more common for waste to be incinerated, because the country is smaller and land is scarce. Other waste types
(such as liquid sewage) will be disposed of in different ways in both countries.

2.2.6.1 Landfill
23

Disposing of waste in a landfill is one of the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a common practice in most
countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly-designed and wellmanaged landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials in a way that minimises their
impact on the local environment. Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental
impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of leachate where result of rain percolating through the waste and
reacting with the products of decomposition, chemicals and other materials in the waste to produce the leachate which can pollute
groundwater and surface water. Another byproduct of landfills is landfill gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is
produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse
gas.
Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate, such as clay or plastic lining material. Disposed waste is
normally compacted to increase its density and stablise the new landform, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats)
and reduce the amount of wind-blown litter. Many landfills also have a landfill gas extraction system installed after closure to extract the
landfill gas generated by the decomposing waste materials. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or
burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity. Even flaring the gas is a better environmental outcome than allowing it to escape to the
atmosphere, as this consumes the methane, which is a far more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Many local authorities, especially in urban areas, have found it difficult to establish new landfills due to opposition from owners of
adjacent land. Few people want a landfill in their local neighborhood. As a result, solid waste disposal in these areas has become more
expensive as material must be transported further away for disposal (or managed by other methods).
This fact, as well as growing concern about the impacts of excessive materials consumption, has given rise to efforts to minimise the
amount of waste sent to landfill in many areas. These efforts include taxing or levying waste sent to landfill, recycling the materials,
converting material to energy, designing products that use less material, and legislation mandating that manufacturers become
responsible for disposal costs of products or packaging. A related subject is that of industrial ecology, where the material flows between
industries is studied. The by-products of one industry may be a useful commodity to another, leading to a reduced materials waste stream.
Some futurists have speculated that landfills may one day be mined: as some resources become more scarce, they will become valuable
enough that it would be economical to 'mine' them from landfills where these materials were previously discarded as valueless. A related
idea is the establishment of a 'monofill' landfill containing only one waste type (e.g. waste vehicle tyres), as a method of long-term
storage.
24

2.2.6.2 Incineration
Incineration is a waste disposal method that involves the combustion of waste at high temperatures. Incineration and other high
temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment". In effect, incineration of waste materials converts the waste
into heat, gaseous emissions, and residual solid ash. Other types of thermal treatment include pyrolysis and gasification.
A waste-to-energy plant (WtE) is a modern term for an incinerator that burns wastes in high-efficiency furnace/boilers to produce steam
and/or electricity and incorporates modern air pollution control systems and continuous emissions monitors. This type of incinerator is
sometimes called an energy-from-waste (EfW) facility.
Incineration is popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource, as they do not consume as much area as a landfill.
Sweden has been a leader in using the energy generated from incineration over the past 20 years. Denmark also extensively uses wasteto-energy incineration in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes.
Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is recognised as a practical method of
disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste), though it remains a controversial method of waste
disposal in many places due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.
Breaking down complex chemical chains such as dioxin through the application of heat usually cannot be done by simply burning the
material at the temperatures seen in an open-air fire. It is often necessary to supplement the combustion process with gas or oil burners
and air blowers to raise the temperature high enough to result in molecular breakdown. Alternately, the exhaust gases from a natural air
fire may pass through tubes heated to sufficiently high temperatures to trigger thermal breakdown.
Thermal breakdown of pollutant molecules can indirectly create other pollution problems. Dioxin breakdown begins at 1000C, but at
the same time poisonous nitrogen oxides and ozone begin to form when atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen break down at 1600C. This
undesired oxide formation may require further catalytic treatment of the exhaust gases.

2.2.6.3 Resource recovery

A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste material as a resource to be exploited, instead of simply a
challenge to be managed and disposed of. There are a number of different methods by which resources may be extracted from waste: the
25

materials may be extracted and recycled, or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity.
The process of extracting resources or value from waste is variously referred to as secondary resource recovery, recycling, and other
terms. The practice of treating waste materials as a resource is becoming more common, especially in metropolitan areas where space for
new landfills is becoming scarcer. There is also a growing acknowledgement that simply disposing of waste materials is unsustainable in
the long term, as there is a finite supply of most raw materials.
There are a number of methods of recovering resources from waste materials, with new technologies and methods being developed
continuously.
In some developing nations some resource recovery already takes place by way of manual labourers who sift through un-segregated
waste to salvage material that can be sold in the recycling market. These unrecognised workers called waste pickers or rag pickers, are
part of the informal sector, but play a significant role in reducing the load on the Municipalities' Solid Waste Management departments.
There is an increasing trend in recognising their contribution to the environment and there are efforts to try and integrate them into the
formal waste management systems, which is proven to be both cost effective and also appears to help in urban poverty alleviation.
However, the very high human cost of these activities including disease, injury and reduced life expectancy through contact with toxic or
infectious materials would not be tolerated in a developed country.

2.2.6.4. Recycling
Recycling means to recover for other use a material that would otherwise be considered waste. The popular meaning of recycling in
most developed countries has come to refer to the widespread collection and reuse of various everyday waste materials. They are
collected and sorted into common groups, so that the raw materials from these items can be used again (recycled).
In developed countries, the most common consumer items recycled include aluminium beverage cans, steel, food and aerosol cans,
HDPE and PET plastic bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines, and cardboard. Other types of plastic
(PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS) are also recyclable, although not as commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of
material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products.
The recycling of obsolete computers and electronic equipment is important, but more costly due to the separation and extraction
problems. Much electronic waste is sent to Asia, where recovery of the gold and copper can cause environmental problems (monitors
26

contain lead and various "heavy metals", such as selenium and cadmium; both are commonly found in electronic items).
Recycled or used materials have to compete in the marketplace with new materials. The cost of collecting and sorting the materials often
means that they are equally or more expensive than virgin materials. This is most often the case in developed countries where industries
producing the raw materials are well-established. Practices such as trash picking can reduce this value further, as choice items are
removed (such as aluminium cans). In some countries, recycling programs are subsidised by deposits paid on beverage containers.
However, most economic systems do not account for the benefits to the environment of recycling these materials, compared with
extracting virgin materials. It usually requires significantly less energy, water and other resources to recycle materials than to produce
new materials. For example, recycling 1000 kg of aluminum cans saves approximately 5000 kg of bauxite ore being mined (source:
ALCOA Australia) and prevents the generation of 15.17 tonnes CO2 greenhouse gases; recycling steel saves about 95% of the energy
used to refine virgin ore.

2.2.6.5 Composting and anaerobic digestion

Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, are increasingly being recycled. These
materials are put through a composting and/or digestion system to control the biological process to decompose the organic matter and kill
pathogens. The resulting stabilized organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes.
There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and technologies, varying in complexity from simple windrow
composting of shredded plant material, to automated enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. These methods of biological
decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic in composting methods or anaerobic in digestion methods, although hybrids of the two
methods also exist.
Examples

The Green Bin Program, a form of organic recycling used in Toronto and surrounding municipalities, makes use of anaerobic digestion to
reduce the amount of garbage shipped to landfills in the United States. This is the newest facet of a three-stream waste management
system has been implemented in the city and is a step towards the goal of diverting 70% of current waste. Green Bins allow organic
waste to be composted and turned into nutrient rich soil. Examples of accepted waste products for the Green Bin are food products and
scraps, soiled papers and sanitary napkins.
27

Edmonton has adopted large-scale composting to deal with its urban waste. Its composting facility is one of the largest in the world,
representing 35 per cent of Canada's industrial composting capacity. The $100 million co-composter and various recycling programs
enable Edmonton to recycle 60% of its residential waste. The co-composter itself is 38,690 square metres in size, equivalent to 8 football
fields. It's designed to process 200,000 tonnes of residential solid waste per year and 22,500 dry tonnes of biosolids, turning them into
80,000 tonnes of compost annually.
The BIOBIN is an on-site in-vessel organic waste management solution for small industrial and retail organic waste (primarily food
waste and small green waste). The BiobiN is used to collect food waste at shopping centers, schools, hospitality sites, etc, and the bin has
a built in aeration and biofiltration system, that blows air through the waste, initiating the composting process and effectively managing
any odor. The end product is then transported to a larger organics recycling facility for final processing into soil conditioner. The BiobiN
reduces the need for frequent pickups and reduces waste going to landfill.
Uses of biodegradable waste
Biodegradable waste is a little recognised resource. Through correct waste management, often using the two key processes of anaerobic
digestion and composting, it can be converted into valuable products.
Anaerobic digestion converts biodegradable waste into several products, including biogas, which can be used to generate renewable
energy or heat for local heating, and soil amendment (digestate). Composting converts biodegradable waste into compost.

2.2.6.6 Source Reduction (Waste Prevention)

Source reduction can be a successful method of reducing waste generation. Practices such as grasscycling, backyard composting, twosided copying of paper, and transport packaging reduction by industry have yielded substantial benefits through source reduction.
Source reduction has many environmental benefits. It prevents emissions of many greenhouse gases, reduces pollutants, saves energy,
conserves resources, and reduces the need for new landfills and combustors.

2.2.6.7 Recycling
Recycling, including composting, diverted 79 million tons of material away from disposal in 2005, up from 15 million tons in 1980,
28

when the recycle rate was just 10% and 90% of MSW was being combusted with energy recovery or disposed of by landfilling.
Typical materials that are recycled include batteries, recycled at a rate of 99%, paper and paperboard at 50%, and yard trimmings at 62%.
These materials and others may be recycled through curbside programs, drop-off centers, buy-back programs, and deposit systems.
Recycling prevents the emission of many greenhouse gases and water pollutants, saves energy, supplies valuable raw materials to
industry, creates jobs, stimulates the development of greener technologies, conserves resources for our children's future, and reduces the
need for new landfills and combustors.
Recycling also helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions that affect global climate. In 1996, recycling of solid waste in the United States
prevented the release of 33 million tons of carbon into the air-roughly the amount emitted annually by 25 million cars.

3. Engineering ethics.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
Ethics
- seeks to define fundamentally what is right or wrong, regardless of cultural differences.
Morals
- differ from ethics in that they reflect the predominant feelings of a culture about ethical issues.
Environmental Principles
- everything must go somewhere, or we can never really throw anything away.
29

- you cant get something for nothing, or there is no such thing as a free lunch.
- you cant even break even, or if you think things are mixed up now, just wait
- everything is connected to everything else, but how?
- natural systems can take a lot of stress or abuse, but there are limits.
- in nature you can never do just one thing, so always expect the unexpected.
Environmental Attitudes
- Development ethic
- based on action
- resources exist for the benefit of humans.
- progress
- Preservation ethic
- reasons: religious, asthetic, recreational, scientific
- nature is special in itself and must be preserved at all cost.
- Conservation ethic
- related to scientific preservationism
30

- considers the earth for all time

- balances resource use and availability, total development, and absolute preservation.
Societal Ethics
- The Common Good
- balances economics with environmental costs
- must consider:
- economic growth
- resource exploitation
- conservation
Corporate Ethics
- considers profitability balance of environmental costs vs. profit
- controlling waste affects profit margin
- costs are:
- administration, advertising, public relations, lobbying
- stock dividends, salaries, interest on loans
31

- waste disposal / clean-up

- raw materials, manufacturing
- research & development
- court costs
- Ceres Principles (Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economics) also known as the Valdez
Principles
- a set of voluntary codes for businesses
- ten (10) principles covering a wide range of goals
- a guide for corporate environmentalism
- Industrial Ecology
- accounts for waste (actually residues)
Individual Ethics
- broad, fundamental decisions and actions
Global Ethics
- Earth Summits

32

- Rio Declarations 1992

- Global Change
- Tokyo - 1997

3 Rs: Reduce, Reuse & Recycle

The three R's - reduce, reuse and recycle - all help to cut down on the amount of waste we throw away. They conserve natural
resources, landfill space and energy. Plus, the three R's save land and money communities must use to dispose of waste in landfills.
Sitting a new landfill has become difficult and more expensive due to environmental regulations and public opposition. Missouri has
a goal of reducing the amount of waste going into landfills by 40 percent. Everyone can help meet this goal and save natural
resources, energy, and money by following the three R's.
REDUCE
The best way to manage waste is to not produce it. This can be done by shopping carefully and being aware of a few guidelines:
Buy products in bulk, economy-size products or ones in concentrated form use less packaging and usually cost less per ounce.
Avoid over-packaged goods, especially ones packed with several materials such as foil, paper, and plastic. They are difficult to
recycle, plus you pay more for the package.
Avoid disposable goods, such as paper plates, cups, napkins, razors, and lighters. Throwaways contribute to the problem, and cost
more because they must be replaced again and again.
Buy durable goods - ones that are well-built or that carry good warranties. They will last longer, save money in the long run and
save landfill space.
At work, make two-sided copies when ever possible. Maintain central files rather than using several files for individuals. Use
33

electronic mail or main bulletin board. Use cloth napkins instead of paper napkins. Use a dish cloth instead of paper towels.

34

35

4. Sustainable waste management: Compacting, drying, dewatering, bio-drying, composting, bioremediation, biodegradation
(chemicals and oil spillage).
Compacting: Waste compaction is the process of compacting waste, reducing it in size. Garbage compactors and waste collection
vehicles compress waste so that more of it can be stored in the same space. Waste is compacted again, more thoroughly, at the landfill to
conserve valuable airspace and to extend the landfills life span. A side effect of this is that important items, like evidence in a crime, may
be difficult to recover from the garbage due to reduced oxygenation, biodegradation of organic waste. Pre-landfill waste compaction is
often beneficial, both for people disposing of waste and the company collecting it. This is because waste collection companies frequently
charge by volume. A landfill compaction vehicle has two main functions: To spread the waste evenly in layers over the landfill and to
compact waste to reduce its volume and help stabilize the landfill. The higher the compaction rate, the more trash the landfill can receive
and store. This will also reduce landslides, cave-ins and minimize the risk of fire. Main compaction is produced by the landfill
compactors steel tooth on the wheel drums. Special teeth can penetrate the waste and deliver a focused compression point, providing
compaction and increased density. Ground pressure of the tooth can exceed over 4000 PSI. The design of the machine and more
importantly the wheels and the teeth is very critical in compaction. The steel wheels should be as wide as possible and have as many
teeth as possible.
Drying: Rolling bed dryers are used for efficiently processing large bulks of material that need their respective moisture levels reduced.
Rolling bed Dryers are most often used for drying wood chips and organic residues and are most often utilized in the biomass,
waste/recycling, wood particle board, pellet, and biofuels industries. This provides for efficiency and conservation in energy which
results in lower production costs. Biomass is being increasingly used throughout the world as an alternative fuel source as heat, light,
mobility, etc. Applications are wood chips, cropped biomass, alternative fuels, sugar beets pulp and green waste management industries.
The process of large bulks of biomass is permanently circulated and mixed by highly effective paddles. This basic idea combines the
flow of large bulks of product good heat transfer with continuous movement of the product for even drying results. The drying air is
supplied through a perforated plate under the moving bulk of product. Depending on the amount of ventilation, it is possible to separate
fine materials such as dust, fibers, and sand from the bulk material collecting this separately alongside the ongoing drying process. This
36

simultaneous cleaning occurs through the use of the material against itself to remove, separate and collect fine materials such as fibers,
sand and dust from the drying bulk material. Having this occur at the same time as the drying process saves not only time and energy, but
also maintains better the caloric value of the residual biomass and reduces ash content. After the drying process is completed the dried
output is suitable for direct firing and pelletizing/briquetting as well as for more demanding processes such as gasification or torrefaction
of biomass. The rotary dryer is a type of industrial dryer employed to reduce or minimize the liquid moisture content of the material it is
handling by bringing it into direct contact with a heated gas. Rotary dryer is suitable to dry metallic and nonmetallic mineral, clay in
cement industrial and coal slime in coal mine etc. Rotary dryer can be widely used to dry various materials, and it is simple to be
operated. Rotary Dryers have many applications but are most commonly seen in the mineral industry for drying sands, limestone, stones
and soil, ores, fertilizers, wood chips, coal, iron sulphate, filter cakes, sewage sludge, etc.
Dewatering: Dewatering is the removal of water from solid material or soil by wet classification, centrifugation, filtration or similar
solid-liquid separation processes, such as removal of residual liquid from a filter cake by a filter press as part of various industrial
processes. Construction dewatering, unwatering, or water control are common terms used to describe removal or draining groundwater or
surface water from a riverbed, construction site, caisson by pumping or evaporation. On a construction site, this dewatering may be
implemented before subsurface excavation for foundations, shoring, or cellar space to lower the water table. This frequently involves the
use of submersible "dewatering" pumps, centrifugal ("trash") pumps, eductors, or application of vacuum to well points. A deep well
typically consists of a borehole fitted with a slotted liner and an electric submersible pump. As water is pumped from a deep well, a
hydraulic gradient is formed and water flows into the well forming a cone of depression around the well in which there is little or no
water remaining in the pore spaces of the surrounding soil. The installation of horizontal dewatering systems is relatively easy. A trencher
installs an unperforated pipe followed by a synthetic or organic wrapped perforated pipe.
Bio-drying: Biodrying is the process by which biodegradable waste is rapidly heated through initial stages of composting to remove
moisture from a waste stream and hence reduce its overall weight. In biodrying processes, the drying rates are augmented by biological
heat in addition to forced aeration. The major portion of biological heat, naturally available through the aerobic degradation of organic
matter, is utilized to evaporate surface and bound water associated with the mixed sludge. This heat generation assists in reducing the
37

moisture content of the biomass without the need for supplementary fossil fuels, and with minimal electricity consumption. It can take as
little as 8 days to dry waste in this manner. This enables reduced costs of disposal if landfill is charged on a cost per tonne basis.
Biodrying may be used as part of the production process for refuse-derived fuels. Biodrying does not however greatly affect the
biodegradability of the waste and hence is not stabilised. Biodried waste will still break down in a landfill to produce landfill gas and
hence potentially contribute to climate change.
Composting: Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment. Compost is a key
ingredient in organic farming. At the simplest level, the process of composting simply requires making a heap of wetted organic matter
(leaves, "green" food waste) and waiting for the materials to break down into humus after a period of weeks or months. Modern,
methodical composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of water, air, and carbon and nitrogen rich
materials. The decomposition process is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper aeration by regularly
turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the material. Aerobic bacteria manage the chemical process by converting the
inputs into heat, carbon dioxide and ammonium. The ammonium is further converted by bacteria into plant-nourishing nitrites and
nitrates through the process of nitrification. Compost can be rich in nutrients. It is used in gardens, landscaping, horticulture, and
agriculture. The compost itself is beneficial for the land in many ways, including as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer, addition of vital humus
or humic acids, and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems, compost is useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation,
wetland construction, and as landfill cover. Organic ingredients intended for composting can alternatively be used to generate biogas
through anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion is fast overtaking composting in some parts of the world as a primary means of down
cycling waste organic matter. Composting organisms require four equally important things to work effectively:
Carbon for energy; the microbial oxidation of carbon produces the heat, if included at suggested levels. High carbon materials
tend to be brown and dry.
Nitrogen to grow and reproduce more organisms to oxidize the carbon. High nitrogen materials tend to be green (or colorful,
such as fruits and vegetables) and wet.
Oxygen for oxidizing the carbon, the decomposition process.
38

 Water in the right amounts to maintain activity without causing anaerobic conditions.
Micro-organisms - to break down organic matter into compost. There are many types of microorganisms found in active
compost of which the most common are:
Bacteria- The most numerous of all the micro organisms found in compost.
Actinomycetes- Necessary for breaking down paper products such as newspaper, bark, etc.
Fungi- Molds and yeast help break down materials that bacteria cannot, especially lignin in woody material.
Protozoa- Help consumes bacteria, fungi and micro organic particulates.
Rotifers- Rotifers help control populations of bacteria and small protozoans.
Vermicompost is the product of composting utilizing various species of worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and earthworms to
create a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding materials and vermicast. Vermicast, also known as
worm castings, worm humus or worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by species of earthworm.
Bioremediation: Bioremediation is the use of any organism metabolism to remove pollutants. Technologies can be generally classified as
in-situ or ex-situ. In situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex-situ involves the removal of the
contaminated material to be treated elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are phytoremediation, bioventing,
bioleaching, landfarming, bioreactor, composting, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation. Bioremediation can occur on its
own (natural attenuation or intrinsic bioremediation) or can be spurred on via the addition of fertilizers to increase the bioavailability
within the medium (biostimulation). Recent advancements have also proven successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to the
medium to enhance the resident microbe population's ability to break down contaminants. Microorganisms used to perform the function
of bioremediation are known as bioremediators. Recent experiment suggests that fish bones have some success absorbing lead from
contaminated soil. Bone char has been shown to bioremediate small amounts of Cadmium Copper and Zinc. The assimilation of metals
such as mercury into the food chain materials. Phytoremediation is useful in these circumstances because natural plants or transgenic
plants are able to bioaccumulate these toxins in their above-ground parts, which are then harvested for removal. The heavy metals in the
harvested biomass may be further concentrated by incineration or even recycled for industrial use. Mycoremediation is a form of
39

bioremediation in which fungi are used to decontaminate the area. The term mycoremediation refers specifically to the use of fungal
mycelia in bioremediation.
Biodegradation: Biodegradation is the chemical dissolution of materials by bacteria or other biological means. Although often conflated,
biodegradable is distinct in meaning from compostable. While biodegradable simply means to be consumed by microorganisms and
return to compounds found in nature, "compostable" makes the specific demand that the object break down in a compost pile. The term is
often used in relation to ecology, waste management, biomedicine, and the natural environment (bioremediation) and is now commonly
associated with environmentally friendly products that are capable of decomposing back into natural elements. Organic material can be
degraded aerobically with oxygen, or anaerobically, without oxygen. Biosurfactant, an extracellular surfactant secreted by
microorganisms, enhances the biodegradation process. Biodegradable matter is generally organic material such as plant and animal
matter and other substances originating from living organisms, or artificial materials that are similar enough to plant and animal matter to
be put to use by microorganisms. Some microorganisms have a naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade, transform or
accumulate a huge range of compounds including hydrocarbons (e.g. oil), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs), pharmaceutical substances, radionuclides, pesticides and metals. Decomposition of biodegradable substances may include both
biological and abiotic steps and the overall rate of biodegradation may be controlled by competing abiotic processes, such as adsorption
or volatilization. Major methodological break throughs in microbial biodegradation have detailed mechanism of genomic, metagenomic,
proteomic, bioinformatic and other high-throughput analyses of environmentally relevant microorganisms providing insights into key
biodegradative pathways and the ability of microorganisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions.
5. Waste to energy: Energy recovery by incineration, gasification, pyrolysis and bio-gasification
Waste-to-energy or energy-from-waste is the process of generating energy in the form of electricity and/or heat directly through combustion, or produce a
combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol, synthetic fuels. Etc.

40

41

42

43

44

6. Bioconversion: To clean energy (biofuels).

Clean energy may also be called renewable energy or green energy, and it specifically refers to energy produced from renewable
resources without creating environmental debt. There are several other ways that this term can be defined, however. It may refer to
energy processes that pollute less or, alternately, to energy that doesnt pollute at all and doesnt use resources that cant be easily
renewed.
A biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically recent carbon fixation. These fuels are produced from living organisms.
Examples of this carbon fixation occur in plants and microalgae. These fuels are made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to
recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy
containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass
conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in
popularity because of rising oil prices and the need for energy security.

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such
as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is
also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but
it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in
the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin portion of plant raw materials to
fuel components by fermentation.
Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of
particulates, carbon monoxide, andhydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats
using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009, and biofuels
provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel.
Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil
as the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is
the European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010. As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels
exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces. The International Energy Agency has a goal for
45

biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum
and coal.
First-generation biofuels
'First-generation' or conventional biofuels are made from sugar, starch, or vegetable oil.
Ethanol
Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol, and less commonly

propanol and butanol, are

produced by the action of microorganisms and enzymes through the fermentation of sugars or starches (easiest), or cellulose (which is
more difficult). Biobutanol (also called biogasoline) is often claimed to provide a direct replacement for gasoline, because it can be used
directly in a gasoline engine (in a similar way to biodiesel in diesel engines).
Ethanol fuel is the most common biofuel worldwide, particularly in Brazil. Alcohol fuels are produced by fermentation of sugars
derived from wheat, corn, sugar beets, sugarcane, molasses and any sugar or starch from which alcoholic beverages such as whiskey, can
be made (such as potato and fruit waste, etc.). The ethanol production methods used are enzyme digestion (to release sugars from stored
starches), fermentation of the sugars, distillation and drying. The distillation process requires significant energy input for heat (often
unsustainable natural gas fossil fuel, but cellulosic biomass such as bagasse, the waste left after sugar cane is pressed to extract its juice,
can also be used more sustainably).
Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most
existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than
that of gasoline; this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol
(CH3CH2OH) is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase
of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of
gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.
Ethanol is also used to fuel bioethanol fireplaces. As they do not require a chimney and are "flueless", bioethanol fires are
extremely useful for newly built homes and apartments without a flue. The downsides to these fireplaces is that their heat output is
slightly less than electric heat or gas fires, and precautions must be taken to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning.
In the current corn-to-ethanol production model in the United States, considering the total energy consumed by farm equipment,
cultivation, planting, fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides made from petroleum, irrigation systems, harvesting, transport of
feedstock to processing plants, fermentation, distillation, drying, transport to fuel terminals and retail pumps, and lower ethanol fuel
energy content, the net energy content value added and delivered to consumers is very small. And, the net benefit (all things considered)
46

does little to reduce imported oil and fossil fuels required to produce the ethanol.
Although corn-to-ethanol and other food stocks have implications both in terms of world food prices and limited, yet positive,
energy yield (in terms of energy delivered to customer/fossil fuels used), the technology has led to the development of cellulosic ethanol.
According to a joint research agenda conducted through the US Department of Energy, the fossil energy ratios (FER) for cellulosic
ethanol, corn ethanol, and gasoline are 10.3, 1.36, and 0.81, respectively.
Even dry ethanol has roughly one-third lower energy content per unit of volume compared to gasoline, so larger (therefore
heavier) fuel tanks are required to travel the same distance, or more fuel stops are required. With large curre nt unsustainable,

unscalable subsidies, ethanol fuel still costs more per distance traveled than current high
gasoline prices in the United States.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is the most common biofuel in Europe. It is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is a liquid
similar in composition to fossil/mineral diesel. Chemically, it consists mostly of fatty acid methyl (or ethyl) esters
(FAMEs). Feedstocks for biodiesel include animal fats, vegetable oils, soy, rapeseed, jatropha and algae, Pure biodiesel
(B100) is the lowest-emission diesel fuel. Although liquefied petroleum gas and hydrogen have cleaner combustion, they
are used to fuel much less efficient petrol engines and are not as widely available.
Biodiesel can be used in any diesel engine when mixed with mineral diesel. In some countries, manufacturers cover their
diesel engines under warranty for B100 use, although Volkswagen of Germany, for example, asks drivers to check by
telephone with the VW environmental services department before switching to B100. B100 may become more viscous at
lower temperatures, depending on the feedstock used. In most cases, biodiesel is compatible with diesel engines from
1994 onwards, which use 'Viton' (by DuPont) synthetic rubber in their mechanical fuel injection systems.
Electronically controlled 'common rail' and 'unit injector' type systems from the late 1990s onwards may only use
biodiesel blended with conventional diesel fuel. These engines have finely metered and atomized multiple-stage injection
systems that are very sensitive to the viscosity of the fuel. Many current-generation diesel engines are made so that they
can run on B100 without altering the engine itself, although this depends on the fuel rail design. Since biodiesel is an
effective solvent and cleans residues deposited by mineral diesel, engine filters may need to be replaced more often, as the
biofuel dissolves old deposits in the fuel tank and pipes. It also effectively cleans the engine combustion chamber of
carbon deposits, helping to maintain efficiency. In many European countries, a 5% biodiesel blend is widely used and is
47

available at thousands of gas stations. Biodiesel is also an oxygenated fuel, meaning it contains a reduced amount of
carbon and higher hydrogen and oxygen content than fossil diesel. This improves the combustion of biodiesel and reduces
the particulate emissions from unburnt carbon.
Biodiesel is also safe to handle and transport because it is as biodegradable as sugar, one-tenth as toxic as table salt, and
has a high flash point of about 300F (148C) compared to petroleum diesel fuel, which has a flash point of 125F (52C).
In the USA, more than 80% of commercial trucks and city buses run on diesel. The emerging US biodiesel market is
estimated to have grown 200% from 2004 to 2005. "By the end of 2006 biodiesel production was estimated to increase
fourfold [from 2004] to more than" 1 billion US gallons (3,800,000 m3).
Other bioalcohols
Methanol is currently produced from natural gas, a nonrenewable fossil fuel. It can also be produced from biomass
as biomethanol. The methanol economy is an alternative to the hydrogen economy, compared to
today's hydrogen production from natural gas.
Butanol (C4H9OH) is formed by ABE fermentation (acetone, butanol, ethanol) and experimental modifications of the
process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol as the only liquid product. Butanol will produce more energy
and allegedly can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), and is less
corrosive and less water-soluble than ethanol, and could be distributed via existing infrastructures. DuPont and BP are
working together to help develop butanol. E. coli strains have also been successfully engineered to produce butanol by
modifying their amino aci metabolism.
Green diesel
Green diesel is produced through hydrocracking biological oil feedstocks, such as vegetable oils and animal
fats. Hydrocracking is a refinery method that uses elevated temperatures and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to
break down larger molecules, such as those found in vegetable oils, into shorter hydrocarbon chains used
48

in diesel engines. It may also be called renewable diesel, hydrotreated vegetable oil or hydrogen-derived renewable
diesel. Green diesel has the same chemical properties as petroleum-based diesel. It does not require new engines,
pipelines or infrastructure to distribute and use, but has not been produced at a cost that is competitive
with petroleum. Gasoline versions are also being developed. Green diesel is being developed
in Louisiana and Singapore byConocoPhillips, Neste Oil, Valero, Dynamic Fuels, and Honeywell UOP.
Biofuel gasoline
In 2013 UK researchers developed a genetically modified strain of Escherichia coli which could transform glucose into
biofuel gasoline that does not need to be blended. Later in 2013 UCLA researchers engineered a new metabolic pathway
to bypass glycolysis and increase the rate of conversion of sugars into biofuel, while KAIST researchers developed a
strain capable of producing short-chain alkanes, free fatty acids, fatty esters and fatty alcohols through the fatty acyl (acyl
carrier protein (ACP)) to fatty acid to fatty acyl-CoA pathway in vivo. It is believed that in the future it will be possible to
"tweak" the genes to make gasoline from straw or animal manure.
Vegetable oil
Straight unmodified edible vegetable oil is generally not used as fuel, but lower-quality oil can and has been used for this
purpose. Used vegetable oil is increasingly being processed into biodiesel, or (more rarely) cleaned of water and
particulates and used as a fuel.
Also here, as with 100% biodiesel (B100), to ensure the fuel injectors atomize the vegetable oil in the correct pattern for
efficient combustion, vegetable oil fuel must be heated to reduce its viscosity to that of diesel, either by electric coils or
heat exchangers. This is easier in warm or temperate climates. Big corporations like MAN B&W Diesel, Wrtsil,
and Deutz AG, as well as a number of smaller companies, such as Elsbett, offer engines that are compatible with straight
vegetable oil, without the need for after-market modifications.
Vegetable oil can also be used in many older diesel engines that do not use common rail or unit injection electronic diesel
injection systems. Due to the design of the combustion chambers in indirect injectionengines, these are the best engines
49

for use with vegetable oil. This system allows the relatively larger oil molecules more time to burn. Some older engines,
especially Mercedes, are driven experimentally by enthusiasts without any conversion, a handful of drivers have
experienced limited success with earlier pre-"Pumpe Duse" VW TDI engines and other similar engines with direct
injection. Several companies, such as Elsbett or Wolf, have developed professional conversion kits and successfully
installed hundreds of them over the last decades.
Oils and fats can be hydrogenated to give a diesel substitute. The resulting product is a straight-chain hydrocarbon with a
high cetane number, low in aromatics and sulfur and does not contain oxygen.Hydrogenated oils can be blended with
diesel in all proportions. They have several advantages over biodiesel, including good performance at low temperatures,
no storage stability problems and no susceptibility to microbial attack.
Bioethers
Bioethers (also referred to as fuel ethers or oxygenated fuels) are cost-effective compounds that act as octane
rating enhancers."Bioethers are produced by the reaction of reactive iso-olefins, such as iso-butylene, with
bioethanol." They also enhance engine performance, whilst significantly reducing engine wear and toxic exhaust
emissions. Greatly reducing the amount of ground-level ozone emissions, they contribute to air quality.
When it comes to transportation fuel there are six ether additives- 1. Dimethyl Ehters (DME) 2. Diethyl Ether (DEE) 3.
Methyl Teritiary-Butyl Ether (MTBE) 4. Ethyl ter-butyl ether (ETBE) 5. Ter-amyl methyl ether (TAME) 6. Ter-amyl
ethyl Ether (TAEE)
The European Fuel Oxygenates Association (aka EFOA) credits Methyl Tertiary-Butyl Ether (MTBE) and Ethyl ter-butyl
ether (ETBE) as the most commonly used ethers in fuel to replace lead. Ethers were brought into fuels in Europe in the
1970s to replace the highly toxic compound. Although Europeans still use Bio-ether additives, the US no longer has an
oxygenate requirement therefore bio-ethers are no longer used as the main fuel additive.
Biogas
Biogas is methane produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by
50

anaerobes. It can be

biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed intoanaerobic

digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid byproduct, digestate, can be used as a biofuel or a fertilizer.
produced either from

Biogas can be recovered from mechanical biological treatment waste processing systems.

Note: Landfill gas, a less clean form of biogas, is produced in landfills through naturally
occurring anaerobic digestion. If it escapes into the atmosphere, it is a
potential greenhouse gas.
Farmers can produce biogas from manure from their cattle by using anaerobic digesters.

Syngas
Syngas, a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons, is produced by partial combustion of biomass,
that is, combustion with an amount of oxygen that is not sufficient to convert the biomass completely to carbon dioxide
and water. Before partial combustion, the biomass is dried, and sometimes pyrolysed. The resulting gas mixture, syngas,
is more efficient than direct combustion of the original biofuel; more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted.

Syngas may be burned directly in internal combustion engines, turbines or hightemperature fuel cells. The wood gas generator, a wood-fueled gasification reactor, can be
connected to an internal combustion engine.
Syngas can be used to produce methanol, DME and hydrogen, or converted via the FischerTropsch process to produce a diesel substitute, or a mixture of alcohols that can be blended
into gasoline. Gasification normally relies on temperatures greater than 700C.
Lower-temperature gasification is desirable when co-producing biochar, but results in
syngas polluted with tar.

Solid biofuels
51

Examples include wood, sawdust, grass trimmings, domestic refuse, charcoal, agricultural waste, nonfood energy crops,
and dried manure.
When raw biomass is already in a suitable form (such as firewood), it can burn directly in a stove or furnace to provide
heat or raise steam. When raw biomass is in an inconvenient form (such as sawdust, wood chips, grass, urban waste
wood, agricultural residues), the typical process is to densify the biomass. This process includes grinding the raw biomass
to an appropriate particulate size (known as hogfuel), which, depending on the densification type, can be from 1 to 3 cm
(0 to 1 in), which is then concentrated into a fuel product. The current processes produce wood pellets, cubes, or pucks.
The pellet process is most common in Europe, and is typically a pure wood product. The other types of densification are
larger in size compared to a pellet, and are compatible with a broad range of input feedstocks. The resulting densified fuel
is easier to transport and feed into thermal generation systems, such as boilers.
Industry has used sawdust, bark and chips for fuel for decades, primary in the pulp and paper industry, and also bagasse
(spent sugar cane) fueled boilers in the sugar cane industry. Boilers in the range of 500,000 lb/hr of steam, and larger, are
in routine operation, using grate, spreader stoker, suspension burning and fluid bed combustion. Utilities generate power,
typically in the range of 5 to 50 MW, using locally available fuel. Other industries have also installed wood waste fueled
boilers and dryers in areas with low cost fuel.
One of the advantages of biomass fuel is that it is often a byproduct, residue or waste-product of other processes, such as
farming, animal husbandry and forestry. In theory, this means fuel and food production do not compete for resources,
although this is not always the case.
A problem with the combustion of raw biomass is that it emits considerable amounts of pollutants, such
as particulates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Even modern pellet boilers generate much more pollutants than oil
or natural gas boilers. Pellets made from agricultural residues are usually worse than wood pellets, producing much larger
emissions of dioxins and chlorophenols.
In spite of the above noted study, numerous studies have shown biomass fuels have significantly less impact on the
environment than fossil based fuels. Of note is the US Department of Energy Laboratory, operated by Midwest Research
52

Institute Biomass Power and Conventional Fossil Systems with and without CO2 Sequestration Comparing the Energy
Balance, Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economics Study. Power generation emits significant amounts of greenhouse
gases (GHGs), mainly carbon dioxide (CO2). Sequestering CO2 from the power plant flue gas can significantly reduce the
GHGs from the power plant itself, but this is not the total picture. CO 2 capture and sequestration consumes additional
energy, thus lowering the plant's fuel-to-electricity efficiency. To compensate for this, more fossil fuel must be procured
and consumed to make up for lost capacity.
Taking this into consideration, the global warming potential (GWP), which is a combination of CO2, methane (CH4),
and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, and energy balance of the system need to be examined using a life cycle assessment.
This takes into account the upstream processes which remain constant after CO 2 sequestration, as well as the steps
required for additional power generation. Firing biomass instead of coal led to a 148% reduction in GWP.
A derivative of solid biofuel is biochar, which is produced by biomass pyrolysis. Biochar made from agricultural waste
can substitute for wood charcoal. As wood stock becomes scarce, this alternative is gaining ground. In eastern Democratic
Republic of Congo, for example, biomass briquettes are being marketed as an alternative to charcoal to protect Virunga
National Park from deforestation associated withcharcoal production.
Second-generation (advanced) biofuels
Second generation biofuels, also known as advanced biofuels, are fuels that can be manufactured from various types
of biomass. Biomass is a wide-ranging term meaning any source of organic carbon that is renewed rapidly as part of
the carbon cycle. Biomass is derived from plant materials but can also include animal materials.
First generation biofuels are made from the sugars and vegetable oils found in arable crops, which can be easily extracted
using conventional technology. In comparison, second generation biofuels are made from lignocellulosic biomass or
woody crops, agricultural residues or waste, which makes it harder to extract the required fuel.

7. Some examples: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) digestion for waste water treatment and biogas production.
53

Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket

(UASB) reactors are anaerobic centralised
or
decentralised industrial
wastewater or blackwater treatment systems achieving high removal of organic pollutants. The wastewater flows
upwards in a vertical reactor through a blanket of granulated sludge.Bacteria living in the sludge break down organic
matter by anaerobic digestion, transforming it into biogas. Solids are also retained by a filtration effect of the blanket.
The upflow regime and the motion of the gas bubbles allow mixing without mechanical assistance. Baffles at the top of
thereactor allow gases to escape and prevent an outflow of the sludge blanket. As all aerobic treatments, UASB require
a post-treatment to removepathogens, but due to a low removal of nutrients, the effluent water as well as
the stabilised sludge can be used in agriculture.
In countries with a warm climate throughout the whole year, high wastewater temperatures which are a
requirement for anaerobic degradation allow and favour an anaerobic treatment of the entire sewage flow, not only
the sludge portion (TBW 2001b). Anaerobic treatment systems (e.g. UASB, anaerobic biogas reactors/digesters) do not
require an energy consuming aeration system and can be constructed much simpler than aerobic treatments. They
convert the organic matter into biogas, which can be recovered. The nutrient-rich effluent can be used for
agricultural irrigation (ROSE 1997) and produced sludge, even though only minimal, isstabilised (mineralised) and can
be used as an organic soil fertiliser or directly proceeded for dewatering.
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactors are such anaerobic treatment systems based on break-down
of organic pollutants by anaerobic digestion. They can treat high-strengthindustrial wastewater. They can also be used
in decentralised and centralised treatment systems for domestic wastewaters; yet this use is still relatively new and
not always successful as their performance is highest for high-load influents (www.training.gpa.unep.org).
UASB can retain a high concentration of active suspended biomass, leading to a good removal performance
of organics (biological
oxygen
demand, BOD, and chemical
oxygen
demand, COD) and total
suspended
solids (TSS). Pathogens and nutrients however, are not removed.

Treatment Process and Basic Design Principles of UASB reactors

54

Figure 1: Cross-section of an Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor. Source: TILLEY et al. (2008)

UASB Reactors are constructed out of concrete or another watertight material and can be designed in a circular
or rectangular way. Wastewater is pumped from the bottom into thereactor where influentsuspended solids and
bacterial activity and growthlead to the formation ofsludge. The upflow regimeallows for an intense contact of
the influent sewage with the sludge blanket or sludgebed. Anaerobicmicroorganisms living in thesludge blanket digest
theorganic pollutants in the incoming sewage. Anaerobic digestion produces biogas (a mixture of methane, CH4,
carbon dioxide, CO2, and trace gases). The upflow stream and the gas bubbles keep the sludge in suspension and mix
the reactor without mechanical assistance. Upstream velocity and settlingspeed of the sludge is in equilibrium and
forms a locally rather stable, but suspended sludgeblanket (SASSE 1998). After some weeks of maturation,
granular sludge forms (SASSE 1998). The formation of granules is very important because bacteria in granules are
more efficient for biogas production than flocculated biomass (WENDLAND 2008). Additionally, granules enhance the
filter capacity of the sludge. Sludge granules are also heavier than single sludgeparticles and a granular sludge bed
remains more stable (SASSE 1998). Baffles in the upper part of the reactor act as deflectors and prevent
the sludge to wash out and a gas-liquid-solids separator (GLSS) separates the gas from the treated wastewater and
the sludge (ROSE 1997, SANIMAS 2005). Because of the upflow regime, granule-forming organisms are preferentially
accumulated as the others are washed out (TILLEY et al. 2008).
55

Figure 2: UASB reactors are separated in three phases: granules, liquid and gas (left). They can be constructed circular or rectangular (right). Source: TBW (2001b)

Produced biogas can be collected and used as anenergy source for cooking, heating or other, but scrubbing
before use is required (UNEP 2004). If thebiogas is converted to electricity, the heat produced as a by-product can be
reused to heat the reactor, favouring anaerobic digestion. Sludge production is relatively low (WSP 2008) and desludging of the UASBreactor is required only ever few years and can even be counterproductive, as the
granular sludge mass guarantees proper performance (SANIMAS 2005). The residual sludge can be reused as
an organic solid fertiliser in agriculture (TBW 2001b). The effluent is rich innutrients and is therefore adapted to be
reused in agriculture for irrigation.
To maintain the reactor well-mixed and allowing the formation of granules and a good contact of the
active sludge blanket and the influent sewage, it is critical that the influent is equally distributed in the bottom before
moving upwards (see Figure 1). Besides these design requirements, the main influencing parameters
are pH, temperature, chemical oxygen demand(COD), volumetric COD loads, HRT and flow, upflow velocity,
concentration of ammonia and start-up phase (TBW 2001b).
The pH-value needs to be between 6.3 and 7.85 (TBW 2001b) to allow bacteria responsible foranaerobic
digestion to grow. The pH-value is also important because at high pH-values, ammoniac (NH4+) dissociates
to NH3 which inhibits the growth of the methane producingbacteria. For an optimal growth of these bacteria and thus a
optimal anaerobic digestion, thetemperature should lie between 35 to 38C. Below this range, the digestion rate
56

decreases by about 11% for each 1C temperature decrease and below 15C the process is not sufficient efficient
anymore (ALAERTS et al. 1990 in TBW 2001b), although bacterial activity can still be noticed at temperatures less than
10C (TBW 2001b). Influents should have concentrations of above 250 mg COD/Lm, as for lower rates, anaerobic
digestion is not beneficial. Optimuminfluent concentrations are above 400 mg COD/L and an upper limit is not known
(TBW 2001b). The hydraulic retention time (HRT) should not be less than 2 hours. Anaerobicmicroorganisms, especially
methane producing bacteria, have a slow growth rate. At lower HRTs, the possibility of washout of biomass is more
prominent (BAL & DHAGAT 2001). The optimal HRT generally lies within 2 to 20 hours (TBW 2001b). The upflow
velocity in UASB is an important design parameter as the process plays with the balance of sedimentation and upflow
(SASSE 1998). On one hand, sludge should not be washed out the reactor, and on the other hand, a minimum speed
needs to be maintained to keep the blanket in suspension, and also for mixing (TBW 2001b). Typically, upflow velocity
should be in the range of 0.2 to 1 m/h (TBW 2001b). BOD removal is generally high in UASBs, and lies between 60 to
90 % depending on the influent (SCHELLINKHOUT et al. 1999; ROSE 1997; UNEP 2004).

Figure 3: Large-scale UASBreactor followed by a post-treatment in trickling filters. Source: http://www.entec-biogas.com/de/leistungen/technik-system-uasb.php

However, the treatment process is mostly adapted forinfluents with a high BOD and COD content and the
removal is much lower for low-strength effluent, as the UASB reactorsare able to bring the BOD content only down to
70 to 100 mg/L (TARE & NEMA n.y.; WSP 2008). Total suspended solid(TSS) removal is also high due to a straining
effect of the formed granules, and lies between 60 to 85 % (TBW 2001b; UNEP 2004). The degradation
of nutrients such as nitrogen(N) and phosphorus (P) is almost negligible. Because nitrogenand phosphorous are not
effectively reduced in anaerobictechnologies, this primary treatment approach is particularly apt when used in parallel
with agriculture or aquaculture(ROSE 1997). As in all anaerobic treatment processes, sludgeis stabilised and if not used
in agriculture, has good dewatering characteristics and can be treated in thickening ponds and drying beds or
57

by composting before safe disposal (ROSE 1997; WSP 2008). As the destruction of pathogens is not considered high,
restricted reuse of the effluent according toWHO (WHO 2006) must be considered for agricultural application. To meet
higher effluentstandards, the effluent may be post-treated in pond systems (e.g. wastewater stabilisation
ponds), constructed wetlands or anaerobic treatment units (e.g. trickling filter). The most common post-treatment
alternatives for effluents are maturation ponds where nutrients are further reduced, their primary function however
being pathogen removal (TBW 2001b). Pre-treatment (e.g. screening or grit chamber) prior to UASB is advisable
for municipal wastewater in order to reduce the coarse and inorganic fractions (sand).

Applicability
UASB are suited for centralised or decentralised treatment systems at community level if skilled labour and electricity are available. They are particularly
adapted for densely populated urban areas as they have low land requirements.
UASB can treat industrial wastewater (brewery, distillery, food processing and pulp and paper waste) (TARE & NEMA n.y.) and blackwater, even though its
application to domestic sewage is still relatively new and they are not resistant to shock loading and are not adapted for low strength influent. As anaerobic
digestion strongly depends on temperatures, UASB are not adapted for colder climates. UASB reach high treatment levels regarding organics and the
produced biogas can be used for energy conversion. Pathogens, however, as well as nutrientsare not removed. Due to the low nutrient removal, the effluent is
adapted for reuse in agriculture.

Advantages

High treatment efficiency for high-strength wastewater

Biogas can be used for energy (but usually requires scrubbing first)
No aeration system required (thus little energy consumption)
Low sludge production, treated sludge is stabilised (can be used for soil fertilisation)
Effluent is rich in nutrients and can be used for agricultural irrigation
Low land demand, can be constructed underground and with locally available material
Reduction of CH4 and CO2 emissions
Low odour emissions in case of optimum operation

Disadvantages

Requires skilled staff for construction, operation and maintenance (control of feeding pump and influent organic load)
Treatment may be unstable with variable hydraulic and organic loads
Insufficient pathogen removal without appropriate post-treatment
Long start-up phase

58

Not resistant to shock loading

Constant source of electricity and water flow is required
Not adapted for cold regions

8. Technology to reduce pollution: Reduction of SO2/CO2 by smoke-scrubber in coal thermal plants, chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and
incandescent bulb replacement.
Scrubber is a device used to entrap a targeted object using a scrubbing medium. The scrubbing medium can be selected based on the
properties of the pollutant and the carrier gas in the exhaust.
In a scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with the suitable scrubbing medium, by spraying, by forcing through, by
sucking out or by some other contact method. The scrubbing media entraps the targeted pollutant by physical phenomenon like simple
capture, adsorption, etc. or by chemical phenomenon like absorption, dissolution, ion exchange, etc.
Based on the type of scrubbing media used, the scrubbers are of two types, dry scrubbers and wet scrubbers. In dry scrubbers solid
scrubbing media like activated granular charcoal, activated alumina, zeolt, etc. been used
Scrubbers can be designed to collect particulate matter and/or gaseous pollutants. Wet scrubbers remove dust particles by capturing them
in liquid droplets. Wet scrubbers remove pollutant gases by dissolving or absorbing them into the liquid. Wet scrubbers are widely used
in cleaning contaminated gas streams because of their ability to remove effectively both particulate and gaseous pollutants. They are
designed to incorporate small dust particles into larger water droplets, which can then be removed by simple mechanisms such as gravity,
impaction on baffles, or by centrifugal collectors. The droplets are produced, for example, by spray nozzles, by the shearing a liquid film
with the gas stream, or by the motion of a mechanically driven rotor, and principles used to incorporate the dust into droplets include
inertial impaction, direct interception, diffusion,

59

60

61

9. Renewable energy sources: Wind, Solar, Tidal waves and Biomass energy.

alternative energy sources

Alternative energy refers to energy sources that have no undesired consequences such for example fossil fuels or nuclear energy.
Alternative energy sources are renewable and are thought to be "free" energy sources. They all have lower carbon emissions, compared
to conventional energy sources. These include Biomass Energy, Wind Energy, Solar Energy, Geothermal Energy, Hydroelectric Energy
sources. Combined with the use of recycling, the use of clean alternative energies such as the home use of solar power systems will help
ensure man's survival into the 21st century and beyond.
1. Bio Energy
Biomass is yet another important source of energy with potential to generate power to the extent of more than 50% of the
countrys requirements. India is predominantly an agricultural economy, with huge quantity of biomass available in the form of husk,
straw, shells of coconuts wild bushes etc. With an estimated production of 350 million tons of agricultural waste every year, biomass is
capable of supplementing coal to the tune of about 200 million tonnes producing 17,000 MW of power and resulting in a saving of about
Rs.20,000 crores every year. Biomass available in India comprises of rice husk, rice straw, bagasse, coconut shell, jute, cotton, husk
etc. Biomass can be obtained by raising energy farms or may be obtained from organic waste.
The biomass resources including large quantities of cattle dung can be used in bio-energy technologies viz., biogas, gasifier,
biomass combustion, cogeneration etc., to produce energy-thermal or electricity. Biomass can be used in three ways one in the form
of gas through gasifiers for thermal applications, second in the form of methane gas to run gas engines and produce power and the
third through combustion to produce steam and thereby power.
2. Wind Energy
The evolution of windmills into wind turbines did not happen overnight and attempts to produce electricity with windmills date
back to the beginning of the century. It was Denmark which erected the first batch of steel windmills specially built for generation of
electricity. After World War II, the development of wind turbines was totally hampered due to the installation of massive conventional
power stations using fossil fuels available at low cost. But the oil crisis of 1973 heralded a definite break through in harnessing wind
energy.
Many European countries started pursuing the development of wind turbine technology seriously and their development efforts
are continuing even today. The technology involves generation of electricity using turbines, which converts mechanical energy created
by the rotation of blades into electrical energy, some times the mechanical energy from the mills is directly used for pumping water from
well also. The wind power programme in India was started during 1983-84 with the efforts of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy
62

Sources. In India the total installed capacity from wind mills is 1612 MW.
3. Solar Energy
Solar Power was once considered, like nuclear power, too cheap to meter but this proved illusory because of the high cost of
photovoltaic cells and due to limited demand. Experts however believe that with mass production and improvement in technology, the
unit price would drop and this would make it attractive for the consumers in relation to thermal or hydel power. The Solar Photo Voltaic
(SPV) technology which enables the direct conversion of sun light into electricity can be used to run pumps, lights, refrigerators, TV
sets, etc., and it has several distinct advantages, since it does not have moving parts, produces no noise or pollution, requires very little
maintenance and can be installed anywhere. These advantages make them an ideal power source for use especially in remote and
isolated areas which are not served by conventional electricity making use of ample sunshine
available in India, for nearly 300 days in a year.
A Solar Thermal Device, on the other hand captures and transfers the heat energy available in solar radiation. The energy
generated can be used for thermal applications in different temperature ranges. The heat can be used directly or further converted into
mechanical or electrical energy.
4. Other Sources
The other sources of renewable energy are geothermal, ocean, hydrogen and fuel cells. These have immense energy potential,
though tapping this potential for power generation and other applications calls for development of suitable technologies.
(i) Geo-Thermal Energy
Geo-Thermal energy is a renewable heat energy from underneath the earth. Heat is brought to near surface by thermal
conduction and by intrusion into the earths crust. It can be utilised for power generation and direct heat applications. Potential sites for
geo-thermal power generation have been
identified mainly in central and northern regions of the country. Suitable technologies are under development to make its exploitation
viable.
(ii) Ocean thermal and Tidal energy (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion OTEC)
The vast potential of energy of the seas and oceans which cover about three fourth of our planet, can make a significant
63

contribution to meet the energy needs. Ocean contains energy in the form of temperature gradients, waves and tides and ocean
current, which can be used to generate electricity in an environment-friendly manner. Technologies to harness tidal power, wave power
and ocean thermal energy are being developed, to make it commercially viable.
(iii) Hydrogen and Fuel Cells
In both Hydrogen and Fuel Cells electricity is produced through an electro-chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
gases. The fuel cells are efficient, compact and reliable for automotive applications. Hydrogen gas is the primary fuel for fuel cells also.
Hydrogen can be produced from the
electrolysis of water using solar energy. It can also be extracted from sewage gas, natural gas, naptha or biogas. Fuel cells can be very
widely used once they become commercially viable.
(iv) Bio fuels
In view of worldwide demand for energy and concern for environmental safety there is need to search for alternatives to petrol
and diesel for use in automobiles. The Government of India has now permitted the use of 5% ethanol blended petrol. Ethanol produced
from molasses/ cane juice, when used as fuel will reduce the dependence on crude oil and help contain pollution. Further, technology is
also being developed to convert different vegetable oils especially non-edible oils as bio-diesel for use in the transport sector. They are
however, in R & D stage only.

10. Emerging technologies: Geo-engineering - ocean iron fertilization, green cement, bioremediation by terminator insects and
synthetic biology.
ocean iron fertilization
Iron fertilization is the intentional introduction of iron to the upper ocean to stimulate a phytoplankton bloom. This is intended to enhance biological productivity,
which can benefit the marine food chain and is under investigation with regards to being a successful means of facilitating increased carbon dioxide removal from
the atmosphere. Iron is a trace element necessary for photosynthesis in all plants. It is highly insoluble in sea water and is often the limiting nutrient for
phytoplankton growth. Large phytoplankton blooms can be created by supplying iron to iron-deficient ocean waters. A number of ocean labs, scientists and
businesses are exploring fertilization as a means to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide in the deep ocean, and to increase marine biological productivity
which is likely in decline as a result of climate change. Since 1993, thirteen international research teams have completed ocean trials demonstrating that
phytoplankton

blooms

can

be

stimulated

by

iron

addition. [1] However,

64

controversy

remains

over

the

effectiveness

of

atmospheric CO

2sequestration

and ecological effects.[2] The most recent open ocean trials of ocean iron fertilization were in 2009 (January to March) in the South Atlantic by

project LOHAFEX, and in July 2012 in the North Pacific off the coast of British Columbia, Canada, by the HaidaSalmon Restoration Corporation (HSRC)
The maximum possible result from iron fertilization, assuming the most favourable conditions and disregarding practical considerations, is 0.29W/m2 of globally
averaged negative forcing, which is almost sufficient to reverse the warming effect of about 1/6 of current levels of anthropogenic CO
2 emissions. It is notable, however, that the addition of silicic acid or choosing the proper location could, at least theoretically, eliminate and exceed all man-made CO2.

Role of iron
About 70% of the world's surface is covered in oceans, and the upper part of these (where light can penetrate) is inhabited by algae. In some oceans, the growth and
reproduction of these algae is limited by the amount of iron in the seawater. Iron is a vital micronutrient for phytoplankton growth and photosynthesis that has
historically been delivered to thepelagic sea by dust storms from arid lands. This Aeolian dust contains 35% iron and its deposition has fallen nearly 25% in recent
decades.
The Redfield ratio describes the relative atomic concentrations of critical nutrients in plankton biomass and is conventionally written "106 C: 16 N: 1 P." This expresses
the fact that one atom of phosphorus and 16 of nitrogen are required to "fix" 106 carbon atoms (or 106 molecules of CO2). Recent research has expanded this
constant to "106 C: 16 N: 1 P: .001 Fe" signifying that in iron deficient conditions each atom of iron can fix 106,000 atoms of carbon, or on a mass basis, each
kilogram of iron can fix 83,000 kg of carbon dioxide. The 2004 EIFEX experiment reported a carbon dioxide to iron export ratio of nearly 3000 to 1. The atomic ratio
would be approximately: "3000 C: 58,000 N: 3,600 P: 1 Fe".
Therefore small amounts of iron (measured by mass parts per trillion) in "desolate" HNLC zones can trigger large phytoplankton blooms. Recent marine trials suggest
that one kilogram of fine iron particles may generate well over 100,000 kilograms of plankton biomass. The size of the iron particles is critical, however, and particles
of 0.51 micrometer or less seem to be ideal both in terms of sink rate and bioavailability. Particles this small are not only easier for cyanobacteria and other
phytoplankton to incorporate, the churning of surface waters keeps them in the euphotic or sunlit biologically active depths without sinking for long periods of time.

Volcanic ash as a source of iron

Large amounts of eolian (wind deposited) sediment are deposited annually in the worlds oceans. These deposits have long been thought to be the main source of
iron to the surface ocean, and therefore the main source of iron for biological productivity. Recent studies suggest that volcanic ash has a significant role in supplying
the worlds oceans with iron as well. Volcanic ash is composed of glass shards, pyrogenic minerals, lithic particles, and other forms of ash which release nutrients at
different rates depending on structure and the type of reaction caused by contact with water.
Murray et al. recently assessed the relationship between increases of biogenic opal in the sediment record with increased iron accumulation over the last million
years. In August 2008, an eruption in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska deposited ash in the nutrient-limited Northeast Pacific. There is strong evidence that this ash and
iron deposition resulted in one of the largest phytoplankton blooms observed in the subarctic.

Carbon sequestration
Previous instances of biological carbon sequestration have triggered major climatic changes in which the temperature of the planet was lowered, such as the Azolla
event. Plankton that generate calcium orsilicon carbonate skeletons, such as diatoms, coccolithophores and foraminifera, account for most directcarbon
sequestration. When these organisms die their carbonate skeletons sink relatively quickly and form a major component of the carbon-rich deep sea precipitation

65

known as marine snow. Marine snow also includes fish fecal pellets and other organic detritus, and can be seen steadily falling thousands of meters below active
plankton blooms.
Of the carbon-rich biomass generated by plankton blooms, half (or more) is generally consumed by grazing organisms (zooplankton, krill, small fish, etc.) but 20 to
30% sinks below 200 meters (660 ft) into the colder water strata below the thermocline. Much of this fixed carbon continues falling into the abyss, but a substantial
percentage is redissolved and remineralized. At this depth, however, this carbon is now suspended in deep currents and effectively isolated from the atmosphere for
centuries. (The surface to benthic cycling time for the ocean is approximately 4,000 years.)

Green cement
Green cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional performance capabilities of Ordinary Portland Cement
(OPC) by incorporating and optimizing recycled materials, thereby reducing consumption of natural raw materials, water, and energy,
resulting in a more sustainable construction material. OPC is mixture of compounds produced by burning limestone and clay together in
a rotary kiln at about 1450C. The manufacturing process for green cement succeeds in reducing, and even eliminating, the production
and release of damaging pollutants and greenhouse gases, particularly CO 2. Growing environmental and increasing cost of fuels of fossil
origin has resulted in many countries in sharp reduction of the resources needed to produce cement and effluents (dust and exhaust
gases).
Commonly used supplementary cementous materials (SCM) instead of Portland cement:
1) Ground limestone cement: it is a low cost material & easier to grind than clinker and leads to improved particle packing and
hydration. They contain about 20% limestone and can reduce carbon emission by 10% compared to Portland cement
2) Fly ash and pulverized fuel ash (PFA): Both are essential the same, it is ash produced from coal and some other solid fuel
combustion systems.fly ash is a mixture of silicon oxides (SiO 2), aluminum oxides (Al2O3) and iron oxides (Fe2O3 & Fe3O4). Fly
ash replaces 30% of Portland cement in a concrete mix to lower permeability & reduce initial heat evolution.
3) Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS): this is a byproduct of iron and steel industry while pig iron is extracted from
melted raw iron ore, the left over material that floats on top is called slag. It consists of calcium, magnesium aluminosilicates and
also has pozzolanic properties. Granulated slag is formed by by quenching molten slag with water that results in glassy sand like
that when ground to fine powder & contacted with lime or Portland cement. GGBS reduce CO2 emission significantly.
4) Silica fume: silicafume or microsilica is a byproduct of production of silicon and silicon alloys in electric arc furnaces. It is added
to cement to produce high performance concretes that are much stronger & durable than other concretes made using blend
cements. Helps in reduced CO2 emissions. Drawback is that greatly increases water demand.
66

Limestone based novel cements

1) Calcium sulfoaluminate cement (4CaO.3Al2O3.SO3 , Ca2SiO4 , C2 (A,F)):
Less CO2 emissions, less heat requirement (energy savings by about 25% as compared to Portland cement)
2) Calcium aluminate (CaAl2O4) and calcium alumina silicate cements:
Made in rotary kiln by using bauxite instead of calcium silicates found in clays. The limestone & bauxite mix is fused in a cement
clinker in same way as Portland cement to result in high strength. It is more expensive & less readily available in comparison to
Portland cement and generally are blended with GGBS except in refractory applications.
3) Magnesium oxide based cement as carbon negative cement: The precursor material is carbonated in an autoclave process at
180C and 150 bars. The process produces MgCO3 which is further heated I air at 700C to produce MgO. The final product is a
blend of MgO and hydrated magnesium carbonates. It is referred to as carbon negative not just because the fuel it uses but also
because the CO2 produced is recycled back into the process.
4) Alkali activated cements/geopolymers(AAC): It consists of sand, water natural or synthetic pozzolans and alkali activator as
composition. The activator is mixed with water before mixing. The alkaline solution decomposes the precursors into silicates and
aluminium units which then recombine to produce geopolymers. These Aluminium and Silicate polymers grow into high
molecular weights creating strong binder.
5) Sequestrated carbon cement: Calcium and magnesium in seawater and captured CO 2 from effluent gases are used to form
carbonates of Mg & Ca(cement). It is stronger than Portland cement.
bioremediation by terminator insects and synthetic biology
Insects are essential to global ecology and show remarkably varied adaptations to their environment. They are also responsible for
economic and social harm worldwide through the transmission of disease to humans and animals, and damage to crops. Their genetic
modification has been proposed as a new way of controlling insect pests. However, regulatory guidelines governing the use of such
technology have not yet been fully developed.
Economic Impact of Insects
Insect-borne diseases cause significant economic losses in countries where they are endemic through lost productivity and healthcare
expenditure. Malaria alone can decrease gross domestic product (GDP) by as much as 1.3% in countries with high levels of transmission
and is a serious barrier to economic development. Insects also cause economic harm through direct damage and disease. transmission to
crops. Field vegetables, grasses and citrus fruit are all seriously affected by insects and insect-borne diseases.
Major Insect-borne Diseases
The World Health Organisation (WHO) publishes data on the incidence of insect-borne human diseases those where an infectious
67

agent such as a virus or parasite is transmitted by an insect. Exact figures are difficult to obtain due to the difficulty of collecting
complete
data in many countries.
Malaria is caused by parasites transmitted by several species of mosquito. In 2008, there were 247 million cases of malaria worldwide
and nearly one million deaths, most of these in Africa.
Dengue Fever is caused by viruses transmitted by mosquitoes. It infects 50-100 million people annually with 2.5 billion worldwide at
risk; it causes severe fever and may be fatal.
Chagas Disease is caused by a parasite spread by assassin bugs in the Americas. It can cause lifelong debilitating medical problems. 1618 million people are infected and 21,000 die annually.
Human African Trypanosomiasis, also known as sleeping sickness, is caused by a parasite spread by certain species of tsetse fly in subSaharan Africa. Millions are at risk and 50-70,000 infections occur every year; causing neurological symptoms and death if untreated.
Current Insect Control Strategies
Insecticides
Chemical insecticides are the primary means of controlling insect pests for agriculture and public health. For example, two important
control strategies targeting mosquitoes are indoor spraying of residual insecticides, such as DDT, and the use of insecticide-treated bed
nets. However, some insecticides are linked to environmental harms, such as the decline of beneficial insect pollinators (POSTnote 348).
This has lead to tighter regulation of their use globally, such as by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and the
EU Directive on the Sustainable Use of Pesticides (POSTnote 336). This has resulted in many products being taken off the market and
some scientists fear that the current lack of alternative insecticides may lead to an increase in insecticide resistance in insect pests, a
problem that is already occurring in mosquito control programmes around the world.
Alternative Control Strategies
An insecticide-free method to control insect pests is the Sterile Insect Technique in which laboratory-reared male
insects, sterilised by radiation, are released over an area. These compete with fertile wild males to mate with wild females in a form of
area-wide birth-control that can be used for elimination of an insect population from an area. This is a widely used method but can be
employed only for a limited number of insect species. Environmental management is also an important control method. For example,
removal of breeding sites around human habitations can be an effective way of controlling mosquito populations in urban areas.
Genetic Modification of Insects
Genetically modified (GM) insects are produced by inserting new genes into their DNA. Many genes have been identified that can alter
the behaviour and biology of insects. When these genes are inserted into an insects genome they are called transgenes and the insect is
described as transgenic or genetically modified. Transgenes are usually inserted using short sequences of DNA that randomly integrate
into the insects genome, carrying the transgenes with them. By injecting DNA containing the desired genes into the eggs of insects,
genetically modified strains can be created carrying complex arrangements of transgenes. Researchers use a wide variety of transgenes,
68

derived from a variety of organisms, to modify insects:

Marker genes are used to make the insects fluoresce. These allow researchers to distinguish them from the unmodified variety,
which is important for monitoring them in the environment.
Lethal genes cause the insect to die, or make it unable to reproduce.
Refractory genes confer resistance to a particular pathogen rendering the insect unable to transmit the disease any longer.
Novel methods to manipulate genes over the last ten years have allowed many insects to be genetically engineered including agricultural
pests such as the Mediterranean fruit fly as well as disease vectors such as mosquitoes. Researchers are preparing some GM insects for
trial releases into the environment, with the 2006 release of a GM pink bollworm moth (a pest of cotton), containing a marker gene, in
the United States being the first use of GM insects in a plant pest control programme.
Potential Control Strategies
Scientists have proposed two distinct strategies involving the release of GM insects: population suppression and population replacement.
Population suppression strategies are potentially an improvement of the Sterile Insect Technique that does not require radiation
sterilisation. They are also applicable to a wide range of pest insects as the design of the genes inserted may be readily adapted to
new species. This strategy is the furthest forward in development. A UK company, Oxitec ltd. has engineered GM mosquitoes for
suppressing the vector of dengue fever. Trial releases into the wild are imminent in several countries.
Population replacement technologies are more applicable to public health applications than agricultural ones. Mosquitoes less
able to transmit dengue fever have already been created and scientists believe they are close to the more technically challenging
goal of creating mosquitoes less able to transmit malaria.
The Potential Benefits of GM Insect Strategies
Proponents of GM insects consider them to be a tool to complement existing control methods. Several unique benefits of GM insects
have been proposed:
they would target only a single insect pest species, leaving beneficial insects unharmed
by using insects natural propensity to find one another, pest populations inaccessible to traditional control methods could be
eliminated
GM insects could reduce the need for insecticides and any associated toxic residues in the environment
when used in disease control programmes GM insects would protect everyone in the release area, irrespective of socio-economic
status.
69

disease control using GM insects would require less community involvement and so would be less vulnerable to the failure of
individuals to participate in a control programme.

Possible Risks of GM Insects

Several organizations have raised concerns about the release of GM insects:
new insects or diseases may fill the ecological niche left by the insects suppressed or replaced, possibly resulting in new public
health or agricultural problems
the new genes engineered into the insects may jump into other species, a process called horizontal transfer, causing unintended
consequences to the ecosystem.
releases would be impossible to monitor and irreversible, as would any damage done to the environment.
insects would be deployed only if they were able to reduce successfully the targeted harm and that any ecological impacts would
be detected during trial releases.
horizontal transfer is a concern. However, no study has yet identified a mechanism through which it could occur in insects and
furthermore methods have been developed to inactivate transgenes to prevent their jumping into other species.
self-limiting strategies are designed to remove themselves from the environment after release, preventing persistence of any GM
individuals in the wild.
although self-propagating strategies are designed to maximise the transgenes spread in the environment,
recall mechanisms are being designed that should allow their spread to be reversed if need be.
Efforts to Develop Guidance on the Release of GM Insects
The WHO Special Programme in Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, in collaboration with the US Foundation for the
National Institutes of Health, is developing guidance on the safety, efficacy, regulation and ethical, social and cultural issues
surrounding the release of GM mosquitoes.
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is constructing guidelines for the environmental risk assessment of GM insects for
commercial use in the EU.
The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety has just released the conclusions of an ad hoc technical expert group on risk
assessment and management of GMOs that includes provisions for GM insects.
MosqGuide is a project funded to develop guidance on the potential deployment of different types of GM mosquitoes to control
vector borne disease, specifically malaria and dengue fever.

70

Unit 3
Design and Modeling for Development of Environment
1. Environmental Design: Principles, benefits and motivation.

6 hrs

2. Environmental design for manufactured products: Building and for developmental planning.
3. Systems Engineering: Analysis-Design-synthesis-applications to environmental Engineering Systems.
4. Environmental Modeling: Introduction, forecast modeling, growth modeling and sensitivity analysis.
5. Application of remote-sensing: Geographic information systems (GIS) in environmental modeling.
Unit 4
Introduction to cell and organ systems
6 hrs
1. Cell Types: Structure of plant, animal and microbial cell and specialized cells like stem cells and nerve cells.
2. Biological macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids.
3. Special biomolecules: Hormones, enzymes, vitamins and antibiotics.
4. Introduction to organ systems: Digestive, respiratory, excretory nervous and circulatory.
5. Nervous systems: Control and coordination.
6. Sensory organs: Auditory, vision, olfactory, touch and taste.
Unit 5
Bio-Inspired engineering (BIE) or Bionics
1. Biological phenomena and innovative engineering.

8 hrs

2. Introduction to Bioelectronics, Biocomputing, Biophotonics and Biomechatronics.

3. Locomotion and Bio-inspired Robotics, Prosthesis and biomedical implants, Aerodynamics and flight muscle functioning (birds &
Drosophila).
4. Signaling: Enzymes and recognition receptors in biosensors; Neurotransmission and neural networks (artificial intelligence, signal
71

processing and imaging);

5. Bioelectric signals and cardiac generator.
6. Sound: Ultrasonics in biology (echolocation in bats, sonar in whales & dolphins) and instrumentation (medical ultrasonography ultrasound imaging).
7. Light: Photosynthesis and photovoltaic cells.

72