INTERNATIONALJOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL A N D ANALYTICAL METHODS IN GEOMECHANICS,VOL.

16, 247-263 (1 992)

A NON-LINEAR NUMERICAL MODEL FOR

SOIL MECHANICS
T.-T. NG*

Department of Civil Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N M 87131, U.S.A

AND

R. DOBRY
Department of Civil Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N Y 12180, U.S.A.

SUMMARY
A new computer program (CONBAL-2) is developed for 2D numerical simulations of granular soil by
random arrays of spheres. CONBAL-2 uses the discrete-element method and is based on 3D program
TRUBAL, previoudy presented by Cundall. As in TRUBAL, the new program models a random array of
elastic spheres in a periodic space. The main modification of TRUBAL is the implementation by the authors
of a rigorous solution for the force-displacement relation at the interparticle contacts. This
force-displacement relation is a function of the elastic constants, friction coefficient and sizes of the spheres,
with the properties of quartz used to simulate sand. Other specific features of CONBAL-2 include its 2D
character, the lack of particle rotation and its capability to simulate shear loading on any plane. Simulated
laboratory test results are presented using CONBAL-2 and several random arrays of 531 spheres having two
particle sizes. These simulations include monotonic loading drained and undrained (constant volume)
triaxial experiments, as well as a cyclic-loading, constant-volume torsional shear test. The stress-strain
curves, effective stress paths, volume changes, as well as the pore water pressure build-up behaviour
obtained in the simulations compare favourably-qualitatively and in some aspects quantitatively-with
similar laboratory results on sands. However, the simulated soil is somewhat stiffer and stronger due to the
perfectly rounded particles, limited range of grain sizes, lack of particle rotation and 2D character of the
model.

INTRODUCTION

In a granular medium such as sand, forces are typically transferred through the contacts between
particles. This discrete nature of the behaviour under loading makes the constitutive relation of
the granular medium very complex, and many laboratory tests may be necessary in order to
understand it in detail. An alternative way has been to model the soil as an assemblage of
particles, using a variety of simple shapes such as discs, spheres, and oval-shaped rods. Analytical,
physical, and numerical models have been utilized for this purpose.
Analytical models of regular arrays of spherical grains (simple-cubic, body-centered cubic, facecentered cubic, and cubical tetrahedral arrays) have been studied by a number of researchers
(Duffy and Mindlin, Deresiewicz, R ~ w e H, ~e n d r ~ n Maklhouf
,~
and S t e ~ a r tKO
, ~ and Scott,6
B r a ~ n sBrauns
,~
and Leussnink* and Petrakis and Dobry). These studies have provided useful
insights into the pressure-dependent, non-linear and hysteretic stress-strain response of granular
*Assistant Professor.
Professor.

0363-906 1/92/040247-17$08.50
0 1992 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 3 August 1990

Revised 21 February 1991

248

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

soils. However, the analytical approach is usually restricted to regular arrays and to spheres of
uniform size, and only a few simple loading paths can be solved.
Granular media can also be modelled by physically testing assemblies of optically sensitive
discs and optically measuring the contact forces. This technique was proposed by Dantu" and
Wakabayashi." Measured force distributions were analysed and reported by De Josselin de Jong
and Verruijt." In their work, the granular material was simulated by an assembly of cylinders
made of photoelastic material, packed at random in a 2D simple shear apparatus. A detailed
study of fabric changes due to shear has been reported by Oda and K ~ n i s h i . Aluminium
'~
rods
and oval-shaped discs have also been used in physical modelling of granular media (Matsuoka
and Geka'" and Oda et al."). Although photoelastic testing is simple and straightforward and
provides an accurate measurement of displacements and contact forces, the interpretations are
very time consuming.
Given these difficulties, the most promising approach for modelling assemblies of discs or
spheres is by numerical simulation. Computational models are more flexible in their application
than the analytical models. Also, unlike physical modelling, numerical simulations can provide
essentially any desired piece of information (stresses, strains, and detailed micromechanical
statistics and spatial distributions of fabric parameters) at any time throughout loading. In
addition, parallel 'tests' on truly identical specimens can be performed to study the effect of any
parameter, thus avoiding the scatter inherent in the testing of supposedly identical specimens in
the laboratory.
Serrano and Rodriguez-Ortiz'6 and R~driguez-Ortiz'~
developed a numerical model based on
a finite-element scheme for assemblies of discs and spheres. They computed the increments of
contact forces caused by incremental relative displacements between the centres of adjacent
particles using Hertzian contact compliances for the normal forces. Tangential contact forces
were calculated using the theories of Mindlin and Deresiewicz'* and Nayak." A major drawback
of this method is that a major computational effort is spent rearranging and reformulating the
whole stiffness matrix for the contacts whenever any new contact is formed or an old one
disappears.
An alternative to the finite-element scheme is the discrete-element method, originally developed by Cunda1120,2 to analyse rock mechanics problems. This is an explicit finite-difference
scheme which can handle particles of different shapes. It has been used to study the flow of
granular media down inclined chutes (Campbell and Brenneq2' HawkinsZ3and W a l t ~ nand
~~)
stresses around tunnel openings (Lorig and Brady2'). In the discrete-element technique, the
interaction between particles is considered as a transient problem, with states of equilibrium
developing when the internal forces balance.

THE DISCRETE-ELEMENT METHOD AND PROGRAM TRUBAL

In the discrete-element method, the equilibrium contact forces and displacements are found in a
stressed assembly of particles through a series of calculations tracing the movements of each
individual particle. These movements are the result of diffusing the disturbance due to the
external application of forces or displacements. Each particle tries to move towards equilibrium.
In modelling this dynamic process numerically, the velocity and acceleration of the particle are
assumed to be constant over a small time interval, At. During At, the disturbance arising from any
particle propagates only to those immediate neighbours that are in contact with the particle.
Thus, the resultant force and moment acting on one particle are calculated considering only the
interaction between the particle and its neighbours.

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

249

Two discrete-element programs available to the authors at the outset of the current investigation are of interest here: BALL, due to Strack and Cunda11,26and TRUBAL, due to Strack and
C~ndall.'~
A linear spring is used in both programs to relate contact forces and relative
displacements between adjacent particles, in directions normal and tangential to the contact.
Program BALL has been used to determine the static response of a 2D random array of
spheres to a boundary displacement (Strack and Cunda1lZ6and Cundall and StrackZ8).
A periodic space with no boundaries was introduced in 3D program TRUBAL (Strack and
CnndallZ7).The space periodicity is obtained by numerically connecting the opposite faces of a
cubically shaped representative box containing the spheres, i.e. spheres leave the box through the
left side and re-enter the box through the right side. More details of the periodic-space
formulation are presented elsewhere (Strack and CundallZ7 and Ng2'). During loading, a
prescribed uniform strain field is applied to the periodic space and the stress field is computed. As
a consequence of this uniform strain field, the average strains in the medium are identical to those
obtained from the deformed shape of the box. Although normal and shear strains can be specified
in program TRUBAL, the representative box of the periodic space is not allowed to distort under
shear loading (that is, its right angles before straining remain right angles after straining). This
limits TRUBAL to simulations of compression or extension in directions parallel to the box sides.
The original program TRUBAL, utilized for the development of program CONBAL-2
presented herein, used a linear force-displacement relation at the contact. However, a later
version of TRUBAL modified it to incorporate a non-linear, normal-force-dependent
force-displacement relationship (Zhang and Cundal13'). This non-linear relation is based on the
expression given by Mindlin and Deresiewicz18for the special case in which the normal contact
force is kept constant while the tangential force oscillates. More recently, the tangential stiffness at
the contact has been replaced by Mindlin's initial incremental tangential stiffness (Cundal13')
which depends only on the normal contact force; that is, by a linear, normal7force-dependent
relation at the contact. Both recent modifications of TRUBAL by Zhang and C ~ n d a l l . ~are
'
approximations to the more complicated picture at the contact, which arises in the general case
involving arbitrary variations of the normal and two tangential contact force components
(Mindlin and Deresiewicz").

CONTACT LAWS USED IN THE DISCRETE-ELEMENT METHOD

A key aspect of any discrete-element simulation of granular media by spherical particles is the
contact law between any two adjacent grains (Figure l(a)). Two formulations have been used for
the incremental contact normal stiffness K,, and four formulations have been used for the
incremental contact tangential stiffness K,, including those incorporated into the various versions
of TRUBAL.
For the normal direction, these formulations are:
(1) a linear elastic contact law using an arbitrary constant, K , , and
(2) a non-linear elastic contact law based on Hertz theory,32 i.e.
K,

2G,a
1 - v,

where G, and v, are the shear modulus and Poisson's ratio of the spheres, respectively, and
a = [3(1 - v,)N R/8G,]"3 is the radius of the contact area, N is the normal force and R is
the radius of the two spheres.

250

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

N

I
N

Figure 1. (a) Forces and displacements at the contact between two identical rough elastic spheres; (b) proposed
elastic-plastic model relating forces and displacements at the contact between two spheres (Dobry et al. 1991)

For the tangential direction, the formulations are:

(a) a linear elastic law using an arbitrary constant K , (Strack and Cunda1lZ8)
(b) a linear normal-force-dependent law using the initial tangential stiffness given by Mindlin
and Deresiewicz18for the case of a small increment of tangential force superimposed on a
purely normal force (Cundal13' and Ng and D ~ b r y ~i.e.
~),

K, =

2G,a

2 - v,

(c) the complete solution of Mindlin's (Mindlin and DeresiewiczI8) contact problem as
described in the next section (Ng")
(d) the simplified Mindlin solution used by Zhang and Cundal13' based on the case of N
constant and T increasing monotonically or decreasing from a maximum T*. In this

25 1

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

simplification, the tangential stiffness K , is made a function of the value T* of the tangential
force at the point of last reversal:
K, =

w)
; TI
")

2G a (1 - I TI
2 - v,

K, =2
2G a (1 2 - v,

for loading ( T > T*)

for unloading ( T < T * )

where T is the current tangential force and T * is the value of T a t the point of last reversal,
and
(e) the simplified Mindlin solution used by Thorton and Randall 34 where the current
tangential stiffness is a function of the past maximum and minimum values of the tangential
force.
As shown by Mindlin and Deresiewicz'8 the normal contact stiffness K , = [2G,a/(l - v,)] is
independent of the history of tangential loads. Therefore, the use of this expression for K , is
rigorous. On the other hand, for the tangential stiffness K , only the complete solution of Mindlin's
formulation, listed in (c) above and described in the next section, provides an accurate description
for arbitrary monotonic and cyclic variations of the normal and the two tangential contact force
components. All other approximations based on Mindlin's formulation listed above in (b), (d) and
(e), while computationally convenient, must pay a price in order to simplify the contact law.
Solution (b) replaces a non-linear inelastic situation by a linear one until failure of the contact
occurs. In solution (d), only changes in T can generate a tangential displacement at the contact,
while in the complete solution both changes in T and N can have this effect. Finally, solution (e),
which is the closest to the complete solution, is probably not applicable to 3D simulations as it is
restricted to only one of the two tangential components.

PROGRAM CONTACT

A key aspect of the numerical simulation procedure developed by the authors is the use of the
exact force4isplacement relation at the contact between two identical elastic rough spheres. This
solution consists of an incremental elastic-plastic model relating the three components of the
contact force (N, T,, q,)
to the corresponding components of the relative displacement between
the centres of the two spheres. As illustrated in Figure l(b), the conical yield surfaces of the model in
the 3D force space, N, T,, T,, are infinite in number and translate during loading following a
kinematic strain-hardening law. The flow rule of the model is
dD

dN

= -__

2G,a
1 - v,

+ fdN
-n
+ dT,-fdN
~

HO

dT,

i+-t

HD

where ii = unit vector normal to current yield circle, t = unit vector tangential to current yield
circle, dT, = dT.ii, dT, = dT.t, and the rest of the parameters in the equation depend on the
properties of the spheres, the current values of N and T and the loading history (Dobry et aI.j3).
In equation (l), H o , H , H , are the initial tangential stiffness, elasto-plastic stiffness, and elastic
stiffness in the t direction, respectively. The values of these stiffnesses can be found in Dobry
et a1.j3
This model was implemented through program CONTACT, which has been described
elsewhere (NgZ9and Dobry et aLj3).These references describe the model, its implementation and

252

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

Figure 2. Two-dimensionalmodel for CONBAL-2 immediately after generation(no external force).The box representation of the periodic space contains 531 spheres of two sizes ( R , and R2), with R , / R , = 1.5

the validation of CONTACT. The algorithm contained in program CONTACT is as follows:

calculates the normal-force increment through the contact from the normal component of
the displacement increment and the Hertzian contact law,
determines the type of loading (elastic or elastic-plastic) and uses the corresponding contact
tangential stiffness to calculate the tangential displacement increment between the centers,
and
finds the new positions, sizes, and associated tangential stiffnesses of yield surfaces after the
load increment, through an algorithm which groups the infinite conical yield surfaces into a
finite number of families reflecting the whole prior loading history of the contact.
Program CONTACT can also handle in an approximate way spheres in contact of moderately different sizes that have identical elastic and friction properties, by using the equivalent
radius R e ,

where R , and R , are the radii of the two spheres (Thornton and Randall34 and NgZ9).
PROGRAM CONBAL-2
The discrete-element method has demonstrated its ability to simulate soil behaviour qualitatively,
specially for monotonic loading including relatively large strains (Strack and Cundall,z6 Cundall
and StrackZ8and Zhang and C ~ n d a l l ~In~ )order
.
to improve the simulation of granular soil
behaviour by taking into account the non-linear force-deformation relation at the interparticle

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

253

contacts, program TRUBAL was modified by the authors by attaching to it as a subroutine

existing program CONTACT. The name of the resulting code, CONBAL-2, results from
CQNTACT + TRUB&
in two dimensions. Therefore, in CONBAL-2, the linear
forcedisplacement relation at the contacts between the spheres contained in original program
TRUBAL is replaced by the generalized Mindlin's solution. It was anticipated that this improved
modelling of the contact would be especially important for small-strain and cyclic-loading
simulations.
The main reason for starting with two dimensions was the large computation time that would
have been involved in a 3D simulation using complex program CONTACT for every pair of
touching spheres. In the development stage of CONBAL-2, many preliminary runs were
conducted, and the elimination of one dimension allowed saving much computation time.
Furthermore, it seems reasonable to study first the response of the simpler 2D case before
attempting an extension of the program to three dimensions.
CONBAL-2 is based on TRUBAL and uses most of the concepts found in the original.
TRUBAL program (Strack and C ~ n d a l lsuch
~ ~ )as grid masking to identify particle neighbours,
data structures and link-list data structures to store neighbour information, secondary displacement accumulators to maintain greater accuracy, and the calculation cycle. All real variables in
CONBAL-2 are in double precision because program CONTACT requires high accuracy.
Spheres are used in CONBAL-2 instead of disks because the formulation of Mindlin's contact law
is based on two spheres. As spheres of different sizes can be used, the model consists of a 2D
random array of spheres such that all spheres' centres are always contained in a common plane.
Particle generator

The original particle generator in TRUBAL generates a prescribed set of particles corresponding to the desired grain size distribution. The large particles are first located randomly without
touching each other, smaller particles are then generated and located to fit between the existing
large particles, then even smaller particles are generated to fit between the existing particles, and
so on until the specified total number of spheres is achieved (or there is no space for more
particles).
The new generator in CONBAL-2 locates the spheres from the centre of the periodic space
toward the periodic boundaries. The generated particles initially touch each other. Any required
grain size distribution is achieved by a single command call. For example, the specimen shown in
Figure 2 is a two-size array with radii R , and R , ( R , = 1-5R,,and with the array consisting of
168 spheres of size R , and 363 spheres of size R , ) . The spheres are generated in groups of three,
consisting of one particle of radius R , and two of radius R , . Then the order in which the three
spheres will be placed is selected randomly and the spheres are located in the space one by one.
This procedure is repeated until all spheres are generated and located, or until no more spheres
can be fitted in the existing space, whichever occurs first.
As illustrated in Figure 3, the generator places the first sphere in the middle of the 2D box. The
centre of the box is the origin of a local Cartesian co-ordinate system with axes X and Y parallel to
the sides of the box. For any new sphere after the first, a random number with uniform probability
distribution determines the angle 8 between the X-axis and the line connecting the centre of the
new sphere to the centre of the box (0" I
f3 I360"). The new sphere moves radially from outside
the box toward the centre of the box along that line until it touches an existing sphere. This new
sphere becomes a new generated particle of the array if and when two conditions are met:

(I) the centre of the new sphere lies inside the box, and
(2) there is no overlap between the new sphere and any existing sphere. To fulfil this condition,

254

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

Ybox

The first sphere

is placed at the
center of the box

Figure 3. Particle generation scheme in CONBAL-2

the distance between the centre of the new sphere and the centre of all other spheres must be
greater than or equal to the sum of their radii. The corresponding expression is
JC(Xi - X n e w ) z

+ ( K - new)'^ 2 Ri + Rnew

(2)

where i = 1,2,3, . . . , for already existing spheres in the 2D box, Xi,& give the location of
existing sphere i of radius R , , X,,,, Y,,, give the location of the new sphere and RneWis the
radius of the new sphere.
If the above two conditions are met, the position of the new sphere is mapped to the coordinate system of the box (Xboxand y,,, shown in Figure 3). This procedure is repeated until
either the number of spheres specified by the user has been reached, or the above two conditions
(1) and (2)cannot be satisfied even after a large number of trials (5000 trials are used in CONBAL2). The user should ask for enough spheres to make sure that the box is filled. This can be checked
by plotting all spheres and the box on the computer screen. This generation scheme in CONBAL2 produces a uniform and isotropic structure around the centre of the box, with contacts forming
evenly in every direction. As the particles initially touch each other, it also reduces the computer
time needed for the initial consolidation of the sample.
Other diflerences between CONBAL-2 and TRUBAL

Other differences between CONBAL-2 and TRUBAL include:

(1) CONBAL-2 is a 2D program while TRUBAL is 3D. By eliminating one degree of freedom
for the spheres, the simulated medium is made stiffer and stronger than 3D arrays and
actual soils. It has been observed in sands in the laboratory that the shear strength
measured in a plane-strain test-where the particles can only move on the average in two
directions, is higher than that measured in a triaxial test-where the particles can move in
all three directions ( C ~ r n f o r t h ~ ~ ) .

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

255

(2) The tangential contact forces are computed in CONBAL-2 through CONTACT described
above, which is based on Mindlin's solution (Mindlin and Deresiewicz"). This is a sliding
contact law which does not account for rotation. Thus, rotation, and hence also rolling of
the spheres is prohibited in the calculations with CONBAL-2, with only translation and
sliding being allowed. This is equivalent to specifying an infinite polar moment of inertia for
all particles. Therefore, in program CONBAL-2 no calculation is done for rotation and
moment. On the other hand, TRUBAL, which does not use Mindlin's law, permits rotation
and rolling. By preventing rotation, the medium simulated in CONBAL-2 is also made
stiffer and stronger.
( 3 ) The actual friction coefficient of the spheres is reduced to account in an approximate way
for the stiffening effects of the lack of rotation and of the third dimension. The friction
coefficient of quartz used for the spheres, was reduced from ,u = 0.5 (actual value) to ,u
= 0.35 (used in simulations).
(4)In CONBAL-2, the user inputs the Poisson's ratio and the shear modulus of the spheres,
instead of the linear contact normal and tangential springs contained in the version of
TRUBAL available to the authors.
(5) In CONBAL-2, the box deforms when a shear strain is applied, and thus, a square changes
to a rhombus and a rectangle to a parallelogram. In TRUBAL, the box does not deform.
(6) As mentioned before, in CONBAL-2, all centres of spheres are on the same plane so that all
forces acting at the interparticle contacts are on this plane only. For arrays of identical
spheres, this is a 'natural' medium, corresponding, say, to all spheres lying on a table, while
for arrays of spheres of different radii, it is a rather artificial medium.
(7) The following print-out options are added in CONBAL-2.
(a) A file is generated containing information on the locations of all spheres, the magnitude
and direction of the force at every contact, and the distribution of number of contacts
per particle.
(b) Unbalanced forces, maximum velocity of each sphere, maximum overlap of contacts,
total number of contacts, and the total memory used by the history of contacts, can be
displayed.
(8) Program CONBAL-2 has been fine tuned and optimized to take advantage of the vector
and parallel facilities in the supercomputer. Based on the current version, a parallel code
run with six processors is about 2 1/2 times faster than the same run using one processor.
This ratio is expected to increase when more particles are used.
PRELIMINARY RUN AND NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
As a first step, an existing analytical result was simulated with CONBAL-2. A regular simplecubic array of identical quartz spheres was chosen. The quartz properties assigned to the spheres
were: shear modulus G , = 28,957 MPa, Poisson's ratio v, = 0.15 (White36 and KO and Scott6)
and friction coefficient = 05. The array was first isotropically consolidated under an all around
pressure (T, = 98.1 kPa, and then an additional oscillating shear stress, z, was applied as
shown in Figure 4. The numerical stress-strain prediction (CONBAL-2) reproduced identically
Deresiewicz' * theoretical solution.
Monotonic drained and constant-volume loading simulations

In the numerical simulations described in the rest of the paper, a value p = 0 3 5 was used to
approximately compensate for the 2D character of the array and the lack of rotation. All
simulations are conducted in the absence of gravity forces.

256

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

50 1

Figure 4. Simple-cubic array subjected to pure shear (CONBAL-2)

After particle generation and location, the array of Figure 2 was isotropically consolidated to
132 kPa, achieving an overall 2D porosity n = 0.16, determined in the plane containing all
sphere's centres, and an average co-ordination number Cn (total number of load transmitting
contacts/number of particles) of 3.2. The geometry and the corresponding contact forces of this
specimen after isotropic consolidation are shown in Figure 5. The rectangular bars between the
spheres represent the relative magnitudes of the contact forces. There are four different bar
thicknesses, with each corresponding to a specific force range. If the maximum contact force for
the whole array is P,,,, the narrowest bar stands for the contact force being in the range between
0 and P,,,/4, the next wider bar for the force range between P,,,/4 and P,,,/2, etc. Some
darkened bars come out from the box in this figure: they correspond to the forces acting on
spheres at opposite sides of the box, a key feature of the periodic space.
The micromechanical statistics of the same specimen are shown in Figure 6, including:
no=

(a) a histogram of the distribution ofthe contact angle in polar co-ordinates. It shows the total
numbers of contact normals (taken positive in counterclockwise direction from the X-axis
as defined in Figure 3) between 0" and 180",in 10" intervals. The range 180"-360" contains a
mirror image of the same plot. This histogram allows the possibility of checking for any
anisotropy in the geometry of the array. A circular shape implies isotropy, while an oval
shape indicates anisotropy.
(b) the distribution of the co-ordination number for the 53 1 particles. An approximately lognormal distribution is observed, similar to what has been experimentally observed for
randomly packed spheres (Bernal and Mason37).The peak is at about 4 contacts/sphere
for this 2D array.
(c) a histogram showing the distribution ofthe mobilized angle (angle between contact force and
contact normal). The horizontal scale in this plot is normalized by the friction angle,
tan-' 035. That is, a mobilized angle of zero means a purely normal force, P = N , while a
mobilized angle of 1 has a tangent equal to p = 035. A low degree of mobilization at the
contacts is observed for this isotropically compressed array, similar to observations in a
physical experiment on optic discs (Oda and K ~ n i s h i ' ~ ) .

251

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

(4

(b)

Figure 5. CONBAL-2 specimen after isotropic consolidation to 132 kPa (a) geometry and (b) contact forces

40

5 30
t

V
2
W

20

10
0
0

10

CONTACTS PER PARTICLE

60

- 50
- 40
# 30

.
s

t.
3

20
10

0
0 .o

0.5

1.o

NORMALIZED MOBILIZED ANGLE

6.0

0.5

1.0

NORMALIZED CONTACT FORCE

Figure 6. Micromechanical statistics of the specimen shown in Figure 5 at a consolidation pressure of 132 kPa

(d) a histogram of the distribution of the normalized contact force (PIPmax).

Similar results have
been presented by Cundall and Strack using 2D program BALL.
These plots, which can be generated at any loading step, are an extremely important aspect of
the numerical simulations. They provide direct insight into what is happening to the microstructure during loading, and this information can be used to interpret the macroscopic response
of the particulate medium and to model it better.

258

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

After isotropic consolidation to go = 132 kPa, four different simulations were conducted in
which this specimen was compressed monotonically in a vertical direction, thus approximately
representing 'compressive triaxial' laboratory tests. Three are drained simulations and one is a
constant-volume simulation.
The constant-volume simulation (CU) was done by compressing the box in the vertical
direction with a strain c1 while extending it in the horizontal direction with strain E, = - This
kind of numerical biaxial, 2D constant-volume loading is similar to the undrained triaxial
compression test typically run in soil laboratories. The stresses (5, and (5, calculated in the
simulation are effective stresses, as they are fully transmitted through interparticle contacts.
Under the basic soil mechanics assumption that these effective stresses during an undrained test
on a fully saturated soil are not affected by the total stress path imposed on the sample (Lambe
and Whitman3*)a 'pore water pressure' Au can be calculated from the simulation, for the typical
triaxial test loading in which o2 = 0, is kept constant. That is, Au = 0, - C2. From these, the
effective stress path parameters @ = (gl + 5,)/2, and q = (al - g2)/2 can be calculated as done
in the laboratory.
400 -j

400

d
R
3

4:

cv

I:
?"

Lu

2:

200

200

b"

0.0

0.5
(&

1.0
-&

1.5

6 4

1
0.0

-1

L
0.0

0.5

(&

1.0
-&

) %

(c)

600

kPa

(if +U )/2
1 2

O.O

300

) %

1.5

0.5

(E

1.0

-&

1.5

) %

(4

Figure '7. Computed results from numerical simulations of 'triaxial compression' tests using CONBAL-2 of: drained tests
using three different stress paths (- - -), and a constant-volume (undrained) test (-)

259

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

In the drained simulations, three different stress paths were used (in these, r~ = 6 always and no
bars are needed). They were, (a) a compression loading test (CID-L), where o1 increased and a,
was constant; this is similar to the 'isotropically consolidated drained test'; (b) a constant mean
stress test (MS), where o1 increased and a2 decreased so as to keep al a, constant; and (3) a
compression unloading test (CID-U), where a2 decreased and a1 was kept constant.
The results of these three monotonic drained simulations and the single constant-volume
simulation are shown in Figure 7, which includes: stress-strain curves (Figure 7(a)), effective
stress paths p - q (Figure 7(b)), obliquity q / p versus shear strain (Figure 7(c)),and co-ordination
number versus shear strain (Figure 7(d)). The solid line corresponds to the constant-volume
simulation while the dashed lines are the drained simulations. The drained stress-strain behaviour for the three different stress paths is similar. On the other hand, the stress-strain curve of the
constant volume simulation shown in Figure 7(a) is quite different. In all drained simulations, the
shear stress increases and reaches a maximum value, while in the constant volume case the shear
stress keep increasing with strain. These four stress-strain curves are quite like those of dense
sands observed in the laboratory, except that the peak stress occurs at a much smaller strain in
the numerical simulations. This stiffer behaviour is not surprising because of the 2D nature of the
simulations, the use of perfectly rounded grains, the presence of only two sizes, and the lack of
rotation; while laboratory tests of actual sands are 3D, they correspond to non-spherical particles
having many sizes, and rotation does occur.
A unique failure envelope of angle $p = 41" was found from these four simulations as shown in
Figure 7(b). This value is in agreement with the range of $p measured in dense sands, especially in
plane-strain tests (Cornforth3' and Lambe and whit ma^^^^). A single relation between q / p and
maximum shear strain c1 - E~ is observed in Figure 7(c).
In Figure 7(d), the co-ordination number Cn for all four loading conditions decreases as the
strain increases, except for compression loading where Cn increases at the beginning of the test
and then decreases as the strain increases. A comparison of Figures 7(b) and 7(d) reveals
that at failure Cn is related to 0: the higher the value of p at failure, the higher the co-ordination
number Cn.
The monotonic loading results presented above are similar to those obtained by Cundal13'
using a linear normal-force-dependent contact law.

Cyclic loading simulation

The array of Figure 2 was isotropically consolidated to a porosity n = 0.182. The consolidation
pressure and average co-ordination number for this new specimen were 296 kPa and 3.528,
respectively. Then, a constant cyclic shear strain amplitude yc = & lo-' per cent was applied to
the vertical-horizontal planes with no volume change allowed, so as to simulate an undrained
cyclic torsional shear of the strain-controlled type. Similar to that done for the monotonic
constant-volume simulation already discussed, the 'pore pressure build-up' of this simulated
cyclic torsional test was calculated as Au = I?@ - 6,. A comparison of definitions of total and
effective stresses for the numerical simulation and the laboratory test being simulated is presented
in Figure 8.
The resulting calculated normalized build-up pore pressure ratio ( I , = 1 - 6,/6,)with number
of cycles, shown in Figure 9, is similar to that observed in cyclic strain-controlled laboratory tests
on sands. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first successful simulation of cyclic undrained
testing using the discrete-element method. The rate of pore pressure build-up in the first cycle is
the highest and it decreases with number of cycles. There are two peaks and two valleys per cycle
in this figure. The peak corresponds to the maximum contraction when the shear strain is around

260

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

I NUMERICAL SIMULATION I

Effective Stress

Total Stress

Figure 8. Cyclic 'undrained' torsional shear test in the laboratory and in the numerical simulation. In both straincontrolled tests, a cyclic strain is applied to the horizontal and vertical planes in constant-volume condition and the cyclic
stress is measured or computed

1 .o

b
N
'
b

0.0
0

12

Number of Cycles N
Figure 9. Pore pressure ratio versus number of cycles calculated in cyclic constant-volume simulation with a constant
cyclic strain of 0.1 per cent (CONBAL-2)

zero, and the valley to the maximum dilation when the shear strain is at a maximum ( f yc). This
behaviour corresponds exactly to that observed in simple and torsional shear tests on sands (Finn
et
and Cho et ~ 1 . ~ ' ) As
. in the laboratory experiments, at the end of each cycle the calculated
pore pressure increases in Figure 9 over its value at the beginning of the cycle, and the pore
pressure build-up eventually approaches the consolidation pressure, where ru 'v 1 and 'initial
liquefaction' (also called the '6 z 0 condition') occurs.

26 1

NUMERICAL MODEL FOR SOIL MECHANICS

100

50

= ( F +d )/2

150

kPa

Figure 10. p-4 diagram calculated in cyclic constant-volume simulation, constant cyclic strain
(CONBAL-2)

0.1 per cent

The effective stress path for this simulation, shown in Figure 10, moves progressively toward
the origin. It defines an effective stress failure envelope both in the compression and extension
regions, with the calculated angle of these two envelopes being the same friction angle
(& = 32.6") found in monotonic loading tests on the same specimen (Ng29).
A careful study of the stress path shows that there exists an effective stress ratio line, both in the
compression and extension regions (shown shaded in the figure), beyond which the specimen
dilates during the undrained cyclic loading. Whenever the specimen is unloaded below this line, a
large positive pore pressure develops. This corresponds to the 'line of phase transformation'
found experimentally in sands (Ishihara et ~ 1 . ~The
~ ) value
.
of the effective stress ratio for this line
in Figure 10 is about 2.6, which is very similar to the experimental result (2.67) reported on a
medium dense sand under cyclic loading by Vaid and Cherr~.~'
CONCLUSION
The results presented are very encouraging. They clearly show that CONBAL-2, despite the
crudeness of the two-sized, spherical particle shape, 2D random array model used and the lack of
particle rotation, captures some of the main features of actual uniform sand response under a
wide range of small and large strain loading patterns. In addition, the results show the potential of
discrete element computer programs having the correct force-displacement law at the interparticle contacts, to serve as general unifying tools in the study of cohesionless soil behaviour at
both small and large strains, monotonic and cyclic loading, and drained and undrained
conditions. Finally, the wealth of micromechanical and statistical information that can be
generated by such programs means that the micromechanical phenomena responsible for the
observed macroscopic stress-strain response can be studied in detail and with a degree of
precision and confidence not attainable before.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

'The authors want to thank Dr. Peter Cundall who provided the TRUBAL code which the
CONBAL-2 is based on. They would also like to thank Dr. Emmanuel Petrakis for his fruitful

262

T.-T. NG AND R. DOBRY

comments and discussions during the preparation of this paper. Much of the development work
on CONBAL-2 was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant MSM-8620334.
All numerical simulations were conducted using the Cornell National Supercomputer Facility (in
Cornell university). All this support is gratefully acknowledged. The authors also thank the
reviewers for their valuable comments.
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