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CHAPTER 3
QUARTER AIRCRAFT MODELING
3.1
GENERAL
In this chapter, the quarter aircraft model is developed and the
dynamic equations are derived. The quarter aircraft model is two degrees of
freedom model to deal with a single landing gear. The most commonly and
widely used model for representing any vehicle suspension system is a quarter
model. A quarter model is a simple model with two translational degree of
freedom, which can depict the basic principle involved in a ride problem. This
model essentially consists of a proper representation of controlling the
aircraft-body and landing gear variations during landing impact and taxing on
the surfaces with undulations. The advantage of using this model is that it
allows in controlling or modifying the landing gear parameters in a simple
manner, since it does not take into account any complex dynamics. However,
this model contains no representation of the geometric effects of an aircraft
and hence the effects of longitudinal and lateral interconnections cannot be
studied. Initially in this chapter, two system models representing the passive
and active landing gear system were modeled with the runway bump input for
parametric analysis of landing gear and for numerical simulations to compare
the dynamic response of passive and active landing gear.
Passive control of vibration is relatively simple, reliable, robust and
economical but it has its limitations. The control force generated in the
passive device, depends entirely on the natural dynamics. Once the device is
designed, after choosing the values of mass, stiffness coefficient, damping
coefficient, location, it is not possible to adjust the control forces that are
31
These two chambers are connected by an orifice. The upper chamber is filled
with pressurized nitrogen or air and the remaining upper and lower volume is
filled with hydraulic oil. The oil flow is regulated in the orifice area by
metering pin. This absorber produces spring and damping characteristics.
During the aircraft landing, the shock strut experiences compression and
extension. This motion forces the oil to pass through the orifice which
dissipates the large amount of energy created by landing impact. The oil flows
from the lower to upper chamber, compressing the nitrogen that stores the
remaining impact energy. This stored energy extends the shock strut and the
oil flows from the upper chamber thus dissipating the residual impact energy.
This compression and extension oscillation continues until all landing impact
energy dissipates. The schematic diagram of passive landing gear is as shown
in Figure 3.1.
33
2.
3.
Small motions.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
34
3.2.2
equations of motion are derived by using the free body diagram concept of
sprung mass
describing dynamics of the passive landing gear is written by using free body
diagram.
)+
)=0
(3.1)
35
)+
)+
=0
(3.2)
The equations of motion for the two degree of freedom system can
be written in matrix form as Equation (3.3)
0
0
+
3.2.3
=0
(3.3)
simulation are given in Table 3.1 to analyze the vertical vibration levels such
as acceleration, displacement and shock strut travel of the passive landing
gear.
Table 3.1 Quarter aircraft model parameters
Description
sprung mass (
Value
8800 kg
unsprung mass ( )
260 kg
4.08 10 N/m
41944 N.s/m
1. 59 10 N/m
37411 N.s/m
36
= 0.35,
= 41944
The unsprung mass damping ratio and the tire damping coefficient as
=
c2
c
2 (k + k )m
2 2 k2 m=
37411Ns
m
These parameters will yield the frequency for the body mode and
the wheel mode.
1
2
3.2.4
1
2
= 1.083
= 13.951
Bump Model
A widely used method to construct fortified runways is the casting of
large plates using liquid concrete. These plates are separated from each other by
gaps filled with rubber. Aging of concrete runways causes the plates to settle
unevenly, leading to long wavelength bumps, ramps and steps at the gaps. Figure
3.5 illustrates an assumed half sine type runway bump of height 0.06 m and wave
length 44 m (0.8*55 m/s) over which the airplane travels. Figure 3.5 shows the
runway profile, generated as a function of time for simulations based on the
relation Time=Distance/velocity. The ride dynamic behavior of the aircraft
37
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
10
time(s)
2.
38
3.
4.
5.
6.
through the
3.4.1
parameters constant, as specified in the Table 3.1 and changing the unsprung
mass. The quarter model un sprung mass changes from 50% of its nominal
value and through its nominal value and to a final 200% of the nominal mass.
These changes correspond to an unsprung mass to sprung mass change of
400%.The changing of un sprung mass is given in the Table 3.2.
39
Value(kg)
130
260
Un sprung to sprung
mass ratio
0.0147
0.0295
520
0.0591
50% of unsprungmaas
Base line
200% of unsprung mass
1.5
0.5
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
time(s)
40
Fuselage displacement for different unsprung mass
0.08
0.04
0.02
-0.02
-0.04
time(s)
50% of
unsprung mass
Base line
200 % of
unsprung mass
5.8
0.0773
5.9
0.0776
1.555
1.555
1.565
41
3.4.2
maintaining all other parameters constant, as shown in Table 3.1. The quarter
model spring stiffness changes from 50% of its value through the original
value and to a final 200% of the stiffness value. These changes correspond to
a stiffness change range of 400%.The sprung mass response to a bump input
shows that as the stiffness increases, the body mode is less damped and the
natural frequency value increases. Figure 3.8 shows the higher amplitude of
vibration when the stiffness value increases and Figure 3.9 shows the
increases in displacement. The results are tabulated in the Table 3.4.
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
5
time(s)
10
42
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
5
time(s)
10
Characteristic
Outcome
Body mode
frequency(rad/s)
Body settling time(s)
Body peak
displacement(m)
Body peak
acceleration(m/s)
50% of spring
200 % of spring
Base line
stiffness
stiffness
Body response is less damped .Higher natural
frequency and higher acceleration
4.5310
6.0705
7.814
4.6
0.067
5.8
0.0773
6.4
0.0855
0.939
1.555
3.072
43
3.4.3
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
10
time(s)
44
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
-0.02
-0.04
-0.06
10
time(s)
45
3.5
46
transducers and their signal input into the PID controller. This controller
directs the servo valve to regulate the oil flow into or out of the shock
absorber, hence producing the active control force to reduce the vibration
level and also the force transferred to the airplane (Freymann & Johnson
1985, Freymann 1987, 1991). The mathematical modeling of the active
landing gear system is as shown in Figure 3.13. By Newtons second law, the
dynamic equation of motion is derived,
47
From the Figure 3.14, the equation of motion for sprung mass is
written as Equation (3.4)
+
)+
=0
(3.4)
)+
)+
=0
(3.5)
+
0
1
= 0
1
(3.6)
(3.7)
48
where,
[ ] is the mass matrix given by
[ ]=
0
0
[ ]=
{ }=
{ }=
and
{ } is the force vector given by
49
{ }=
[ ] [ ]{ }
[ ] [ ]{ }
(3.8)
created by compressing the oil through metering orifice whose area is varied
by the metering piston on various loading conditions. The air/nitrogen in the
pneumatic chamber area is compressed by the hydraulic oil which provides
air cushion spring effect throughout its operation. Sliding movement of parts
in the system induces frictional forces adding to the shock strut forces. The
gear forces are obtained as follows
Air spring force is the force simulating the pressure of nitrogen gas
in the upper chamber of the cylinder (Jayarami Reddy et al 1984). It is
assumed that the pressure and volume of the gas satisfies the state of
polytrophic equation of gas (3.9).
=
where
= pressure in the cylinder
= area of the piston
= Initial volume of the cylinder
= stroke of the piston
n = polytrophic constant
(3.9)
50
(3.10)
where
=Density of hydraulic fluid
= area of the piston
= velocity of the piston stroke
= orifice coefficient
=area of the orifice
Friction force: The friction is proportional to the velocity and the air spring
force developed in the system. This friction model is accurate in dynamic
loading circumstances. The equation is written as Equation (3.11).
y
where
= co-efficient of friction
=air spring force
= velocity of the piston stroke
The total axial force in the shock absorber
(3.11)
51
3.7
CONTROLLER DESIGN
3.7.1
PID Controller
Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller (PID) is a generic
integral (I) and derivative (D) (Shinners 1964) are summed to calculate the
output of the PID controller. It is written as Equation (3.12)
( )+
=
3.7.2.1
( )+
( )
(3.12)
Proportional term
The proportional term
()
(3.13)
52
Integral term
The integral term is proportional to the magnitude of the error and
the duration of the error. The integral is the sum of instantaneous error over
time .which is known as accumulated error. The integral term is calculated by
multiplying the accumulated error and the integral gain( ).It is given by the
Equation (3.14)
=
()
(3.14)
Derivative term
It is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time and
( )
(3.15)
53
3.7.3
Tuning Method
Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters to
the optimum values for the desired control response. PID tuning is a difficult
problem, because it must satisfy complex criteria within the limitations of PID
control. Generally stability of response is required and the process must not
oscillate for any combination of process conditions and set points, though
sometimes marginal stability is accepted or desired. There are several
methods (Datta et al 2000) of tuning of PID controller. The most effective
methods generally involve the development of some form of process model,
with appropriate P, I and D based on the dynamic model parameters. The
different methods are manual method, Ziegler- Nichols method, Cohen coon
method and software tools as given in the Table 3.6. Manual tuning methods
can be relatively inefficient, particularly if the loops have response times on
the order of minutes or longer. In this work, Ziegler Nichols method is simple
and often used.
Table 3.6 Various tuning methods
Method
Manual tuning
Ziegler-Nichols
Advantages
No mathematical knowledge
required. Online method
Proven method. Online method
Disadvantages
Requires experienced
personnel
Process upset some trial
and error. Very
aggressive tuning
54
3.7.3.1
Ziegler-Nichols method
This method is introduced by John Ziegler & Nathaniel Nichols
and
and
Table 3.7.
Table 3.7 Ziegler Nichols method
Control type
P
0.5
PI
0.45
1.25
PID
0.60
/
/
/8
( )+
( )+
( )
(3.16)
and
is the proportional
measured from the sensors fitted in the landing gear. The simulink modeling
of PID controller is shown in Figure 3.16. The error function is written as
Equation (3.17)
( )= ( )
(3.17)
55
{ ()
{ ()
[ ()
[ ()
( )]} +
{ ()
()
( )]}
( )}
(3.18)
Nichols tuning rules to obtain the best control over the servo valve.
3.8
56
positive displacement pump. The gears of the pump are driven by the power
source, which could be an engine drive or electric motor drive. The fluid
trapped in the clearance between the gears and casing is forced through the
out port.
3.8.3
under pressure. It can serve one or more purposes. It dampens pressure surges
caused by the operation of an actuator. It can aid or supplement the system
pump when several units are operating at the same time and demand is
beyond the pump capacity. An accumulator can also store power for limited
operation of a component if the pump is not operating. Finally it can supply
fluid under pressure for small system leaks that would cause the system to
cycle continuously between high and low pressure. The accumulators are of
the diaphragm, bladder, and piston types. The pressure in the accumulator is
approximately 3000 psi.
3.8.4
Servo Actuator
Servo actuator is designed to provide hydraulic power and it
57
piston in the servo actuator depends on the control signal from the electronic
controller.
measured
(3.19)
is calculated by Equation (3.20)
58
(3.20)
when the displacement of the servo valve ( ) > 0, the hydraulic oil would
have positive flow from the accumulator in to the landing gear system and a
positive control force
BUMP MODEL
An assumed half sine type runway bump of height 0.10 m and wave
length 44 m (0.8*55 m/s) were generated over which the airplane travels. The
runway profile is generated as a function of time for simulations based on the
relation Time=Distance/velocity. 'The ride dynamic behavior of the aircraft
due to a sinusoidal excitation is investigated (Catt et al 1992). The excitation
frequency based on the vehicle speed and the wavelength is computed as
59
cos
) 1.0
1.8
otherwise
(3.21)
The half sine wave bump model with a height of 0.1m is designed
in Matlab/Simulink. The model is generated based on the above equation. The
product of step block and sine wave block is used in the bump model
generator. The profile generator of bump input for simulation is shown in
Figure 3.18.
Step1
Step2
1
Product
0.05
Constant
Sine Wave
Output