ZOO302: CHAPTER 2

Cytoplasmic Organelles

In all tissues, cells themselves are the basic

structural and functional units, the smallest living
parts of the body
Eukaryotic (Gr. eu, good, + karyon, nucleus)
o with distinct membrane-limited nuclei
surrounded by cytoplasm containing various
membrane-limited organelles
Prokaryotic cells of bacteria
o typically have a cell wall around the
plasmalemma and lack other membranous
structures, including an envelope around their
DNA
Different cells become specialized in multicellular
organisms

Cell Differentiation

Specialization process
Cells synthesize increased quantities of specific
proteins and become very efficient in specialized
functions, often changing their shape accordingly
o muscle cell precursors elongate into fiber-like
cells containing large arrays of actin and
myosin
o All animal cells use actin filaments and
myosins; muscle cells are specialized for
using these proteins to convert chemical
energy into forceful contractions
Zygote- single celle form merging of spermatozoon
and oocyte
Blastomeres- produced by first zygotic cellular
division; give rise to all tissue types of the fetus
Embryonic stem cells- cells of the inner cell mass;
undergo specialization (?)

1)

Basic parts of cell: cytoplasm (Gk. cytos, cell;

plasma, think formed) and nucleus (L. nux, nut)
Plasma membrane- plasmalemma; separates
cytoplasm from extracelluar environment
o Integrins- proteins linked to cytoplasmic
protein components and ECM components;
produce continuous exchange between the
ECM and the cytoplasm (both directions)
Cytoplasm
o Cytosol- large, fluid part of cytoplasm; bathe
organelles; also contains enzymes (those of
glycolytic pathways)
Diffuse O2, CO2, electrolytic ions, lowmolecular-weight substrates, metabolites,
and waste products
o Organelles- metabolical structures;
membranous (e.g. mitochondria) or
nonmembranous (ribosomes and proteases)
o Cytoskeleton- determines shape and motility
Inclusions- deposits of carbohydrates,
lipids, or pigments
Plasma Membrane
Selective barrier
Keeps constant the ion content of cytoplasm
Specific recognition and signaling functions;
interactions of the cell with its environment
7.5 to 10 nm thickness; visible in electron
microscope
Membrane phospholipids- amphipatic; 2 nonpolar
fatty acid chains + polar head (bears phosphate
group)
o Most stable in bilayers; with nonpolar chains
directed toward middle and polar head facing
the water
Glycolipids- outer lipids; oligosaccharides extend
outward from cell surface and contribute to
glycocalyx (coating)
With TEM- the cell membrane and all organellar
membranes may exhibit a trilaminar appearance
after fixation in osmium tetroxide
Proteins- major component of membranes (~50%)
Integral proteins- incorporated with bilayer;
extracted with detergents
o Receptors- for cell adhesion, cell recognition,
and response to protein hormones
Peripheral proteins- looser; bound to one of two
membrane surfaces (usually inner); extracted by
salt solutions
Multipass transmembrane proteins- poly-peptide
chains of many integral proteins span the
membrane several times
Integration of proteins in the LB is due to
hydrophobic interactions between lipids and
nonpolar amino acids

ALL MEMBRANES IN THE CELL ARE

ASYMMETRIC
Fluid Mosaic Model- emphasizes that the
phospholipid bilayer of a membrane also contains
proteins inserted in it or associated with its surface
(peripheral proteins) and that many of these
proteins move within the fluid lipid phase
Lipid rafts- specialized membrane patches; have
higher concentrations of cholesterol and saturated
fatty acids which reduce lipid fluidity

Transmembrane Proteins and Membrane Transport

Simple diffusion- for small, lipohilic (fat-soluble)

molecules
o Transmembrane diffusion of water molecules
(by osmosis) involves their passive movement
through aquaporins (multipass
transmembrane proteins)
Active transport- require energy from ATP
o Ion channels or ion pumps- intergral
membrane proteins; for ions (e.g. Na+, K+, and
Ca2+ )
o Carrier proteins
Table 2-2

Exocytosis bulk movement of large molecules

from inside to outside the cell
Membrane-limited cytoplasmic vesicle fuses
with the plasma membrane; release of contents
to extracellular space
Triggered by transient increase in cytosolic Ca2+
Protein secretion:
o Constitutive secretion products that are
released from cells continuously (ex.
procollagen for ECM)
o Regulated secretion in response to
signals coming to the cells (ex. digestive
enzymes from pancreatic cells)
Membrane trafficking membrane movement
and recycling (returned to cell surface)
Multivesicular bodies small vesicles and
tubules that accumulate within the lumens of
vacuoles
o Merge with lysosomes for selective
degradation of their contents
o Fuse with plasma membrane and release
the intraluminal vesicles outside the cell
Exosomes small vesicles released that allow
transfer of membrane proteins to nearby cells

Vesicular Transport: Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Table 2-2 - Mechanisms of transport

Signal Reception & Transduction

Endocytosis- active process of folding and fusion

of membrane to form vesicles (enclose material
transported)
1. Phagocytosis- cell eating; macrophages and
neutrophils; involve pseudopodia (large folds)
engulf material into phagosome
(intracellular vacuole) fuses with a lysosome
for degradation
2. Fluid-phase endocytosis- pinocytosis (cell
drinking); smaller invagination entrap extra
cellular fluid and its dissolved contents
pinocytotic vesicles (~80 nm d) pinch off
inwardly either fuse with lysosome or move
to opposite cell surface and fuse with
membrane to release contents outside (process
in thin cells; trancytosis- bulk transfer of
material)
3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis- regulated
by specific peripheral membrane coat proteins;
Coated pits- contain several polypeptides
(e.g. clathrin
Coated vesicle- contains ligands and
receptors internally
Caveolae- invaginations in endothelial
cells; involve caveolin (membrane protein)
o Endosomal compartment- where vesicles
enter and fuse; dynamic system of
membranous vesicles located near cell surface
(early endosomes) or deeper in the cytoplasm
(late endosomes)

Gap junctions channels through which signals

may pass directly from cell to cell without reaching
the extracellular fluid
Target cells cells with receptors for a specific
ligand
Routes of signal molecules
Endocrine signalling hormones; carried in
the blood
Paracrine signalling act only on local cells
very close to the source
Synaptic signalling special kind of paracrine
interaction; neurotransmitters act only on
adjacent cells through special contact areas
called synapses
Autocrine signalling bind receptors on the
same cell type that produced the messenger
molecule
Juxtacrine signalling early embryonic tissue
interaction; signalling molecules remain part of
a cell membrane and bind surface receptors of
the target cell when the two cells make direct
physical contact
Hydrophilic signalling molecules (hormones &
neurotransmitters) receptors are usually
transmembrane proteins
Channel-linked receptors open upon ligand
binding to allow ion transfer across the
membrane

Enzymatic receptors ligand binding induces

catalytic activity
G-protein-coupled receptors upon ligand
binding change an associated G protein that
then binds the guanine nucleotide GTP and is
released to activate other cytoplasmic proteins
Signal transduction - hydrophilic ligands (first
messengers) binding receptor proteins activate a
series of intracellular intermediaries producing
changes in the cytoplasm, nucleus, or both
Hydrophobic signalling molecules (steroids &
thyroid hormones) bind reversibly to carrier
proteins in the plasma for transport through the
body

Smooth ER

Ribosomes

Small electron-dense particles

In cytosol: 4 rRNA segments + 80 proteins
Bound to mRNA: 2 subunits of different sizes + act
to catalyze translation
In eukaryotic cells, rRNA are synthesized within the
nucleus; proteins are synthesized in the
cytoplasm but then enter the nucleus and
associate with rRNAs
Polyribosomes or polysomes many ribosomes
occupy a single mRNA; basophilic b/c of numerous
phosphate groups of the RNAs

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Convoluted membranous network

Extends from the surface of the nucleus to the cell
membrane
Encloses a series of intercommunicating channels
and sacs called cisternae
Major site for vital cellular activities biosynthesis
of proteins and lipids
Cytosolic side of ER membrane is covered by
polyribosomes forming the polypeptides that enter
the adjacent cisterna during synthesis
Attached polysomes permit distinction between
smooth & rough ER

Prominent in cells specialized for protein secretion

pancreatic acinar cells (enzymes), fibroblasts
(collagen), plasma cells (immunoglobulin)
Consists of saclike & parallel stacks of flattened
cisternae
Principal activities: synthesis and segregation of
proteins not destined for the cytosol
Additional functions: glycosylation, posttranslational
modifications, assembly of multichain proteins
Protein synthesis begins on polyribosomes in the
cytosol
5 ends of mRNAs for proteins destined to be
segregated in the ER encode an N-terminal signal

Lack bound polyribosomes

Continuous with the RER but frequently less
abundant
Cisternae are often more tubular and more likely
to appear as interconnected channels of various
shapes and sizes
Functions: glycogen and lipid metabolism,
detoxification reactions, temporary Ca2+
sequestration
Phospholipid synthesis; transferred to other
membranes through:
Direct communication with RER
Vesicles that detach + fuse
Phospholipid transfer proteins
Steroid synthesis ex. adrenal cortex
Glycogen metabolism, detoxification reactions
(alcohol, barbiturates, etc.) liver cells
Sequester and release Ca2+ in a controlled manner
muscle cells (contraction), assumes a specialized
form called the sarcoplasmic reticulum

Golgi Apparatus

Rough ER

sequence of 15-40 amino acids that includes a

series of 6+ hydrophobic residues
Newly translated signal sequence is bound by a
protein complex called signal-recognition particle
(SRP), which inhibits further polypeptide elongation
Translocator complex (translocon or proteinconducting channel) translation continues with the
polypeptide chain transferred here

Camillo Golgi histologist

Smooth membranous saccules containing enzymes
Completes posttranslational modifications of
proteins synthesized in the RER and then
packages and addresses these to proper
destinations
2 distinct sides structurally and functionally
Cis face Golgi-receiving region; transport
vesicles merge with this face
Trans face shipping face; larger saccules or
vacuoles accumulate, condense and generate
other vesicles that carry protein to organelles
Transport vesicles small, membrane-enclosed
carriers; from RER cisternae to Golgi; transported
along cytoskeletal polymers by motor proteins
Coat protein COP-II forward movement
COP-I retrograde movements
Golgins interact with enzymes, receptors and
other binding proteins
Fusion-promoting proteins specify, organize,
and shape Golgi membranes
Enzymes for glycosylation, sulfation,
phosphorylation, limited proteolysis

Initiates packing, concentration, and storage of

secretory products

Secretory Granules

Originate as condensing vesicles in the Golgi

Found in cells that store a product until its release
by exocytosis
Zymogen granules secretory granules with
dense contents of digestive enzymes

Lysosomes

Sites of intracellular digestion and turnover of

cellular components
Membrane-limited vesicles that contain about 40
different hydrolytic enzymes
Proteases, nucleases, phosphatase,
phospholipases, sulfatases, -glucuronidase
Abundant in cells with great phagocytic activity
(e.g. macrophages, neutrophils)
Enzymes have optimal activity at acidic pH
(~5.0); leaked lysosomal enzymes are inactive at
the pH of cytosol (~7.2) and harmless to the cell
Hydrolases are synthesized in the RER and then
transferred to Golgi, where they are packaged in
vacuoles that form lysosomes
M6P or mannose-6-phosphate marker added by
a phosphotransferase in the cis Golgi only to the Nlinked oligosaccharides
Heterolysosome secondary lysosome;
composite, active organelle; fused with vesicles
produced by endocytosis that contain material to be
digested by the hydrolytic enzymes
Residual body small vacuolar remnant; can
accumulate (in neurons, heart muscle) as granules
of lipofuscin
Autophagy removal of excess or non-functional
organelles and other cytoplasmic structures
Autophagosome produced as a membrane
forms around the organelle or cytoplasmic portion
to be removed; fuse with lysosomes

Proteasomes

Very small abundant protein complexes not

associated with membrane
Degrade denatured/non-functional polypeptides
Cylindrical structure made of 4 stacked rings, each
composed of 7 proteins including proteases
Ubiquitin abundant cytosolic 76-amino acid
protein found in all cells; tags misfolded or
denatured proteins (to Lys residue)

bonds which supplies energy for most cellular

activities
Glycolysis converts glucose anaerobically to
pyruvate in the cytoplasm
Mitochondrial enzymes yield 15 times more
ATP than glycolysis
Usually elongated structures, highly plastic, rapidly
changing shape, fusing with one another and
dividing
Number of mitochondria is related to the cells
energy needs
2 compartments:
Innermost matrix
Narrow intermembrane space
Membranes:
Outer sieve-like, containing many
transmembrane proteins called porins that
form channels through which small molecules
such as pyruvate and other metabolites readily
pass from the cytoplasm to the intermembrane
space
Inner folded to form a series of long
infoldings called cristae which project into the
matrix and greatly increase surface area
Electron-transport chain (respiratory chain) oxidative phosphorylation (produces most of the
ATP in animal cells)
Chemiosmotic process formation of ATP by
oxidative phosphorylation enzymes
Electrochemical gradient across the inner
membrane
ATP synthase membrane-associated proteins
form large, multisubunit, globular complexes on
stalk-like structures that project from the matrix side
of the inner membrane
Hydrophilic pathway that allows protons to flow
down the electrochemical gradient
Passage of protons causes rotation of specific
polypeptides, converting proton flow energy
into mechanical energy
Apoptosis rapid cell death; triggered by the
release of cytochrome c from the inner membrane
in stressed cells
New mitochondria originate by growth and division
(fission) of pre-existing mitochondria
Partly autonomous of nuclear genes and activities
Mitochondrial matrix contains a small circular
chromosome of DNA, ribosomes, mRNA, tRNA
Protein synthesis occurs in mitochondria
Have certain bacterial characteristics

Mitochondria

Peroxisomes

Membrane-enclosed organelles with arrays of

enzymes specialized for aerobic respiration and
production of ATP, with high-energy phosphate

Spherical organelles enclosed by a single

membrane
Named for their enzymes producing and degrading
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

Oxidases oxidize substrates by removing

hydrogen atoms that are transferred to molecular

oxygen (O2), producing H2O2
Peroxidases such as catalase immediately break
down H2O2, which is potentially damaging to the cell
Inactivate potentially toxic molecules, including
prescription drugs (liver & kidney cells)

The Cytoskeleton

Complex array of microtubules, microfilaments,

and intermediate filaments
Shape & movements
Table 2-4 - Properties of cytoskeletal components

Microtubules

Organized into larger arrays called axonemes in

the cytoplasmic extensions called cilia and flagella
Hollow, rigid, maintains cell shape
Often linked side-by-side by protein arms or bridges
Protein subunit: heterodimer of and tubulin

Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)

directs polymerization of tubulins; contain tubulin
assemblies that act as nucleating sites
Centrosome dominant MTOC in most
somatic cells; organized around 2 cylindrical
centrioles, each composed of 9 highly
organized microtubular triplets
Dynamic instability continuous cycles of
polymerization and depolymerization at steadystate conditions, which depend on concentrations of
tubulin, Ca2+, Mg2+, and various microtubuleassociated proteins (MAPs)
Part of the system for intracellular transport of
membranous vesicles, macromolecular complexes,
and organelles
Motor proteins for transport; use ATP in moving
larger structures
Kinesins carry material away from the MTOC
near the nucleus toward the plus end of
microtubules (anterograde transport)
Dyneins carry material along the
microtubules in the opposite direction
(retrograde transport), toward the nucleus