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What Causes Volcanoes to Erupt

What is the first picture that comes to your mind when you hear about a volcanic
eruption? I guess, it would be an image of orange-red lava spewing from the top of a
giant, cone-shaped mountain, in the middle of an ocean. The stunning display of color
and light, though captivating, is nature's most savage tool. Yet, attracted by the
fertile, mineral-rich soil, humans have settled close to volcanoes and have made them a
part of their lives, culture and religion. There are many mythical stories which explain
their formation and causes of eruption. But, to understand the scientific reasoning
behind this phenomenon, let's start with the basics.
A volcano is basically a vent from which, magma, gases, and volcanic ash escape to the
Earth's surface, through faults in the crust. They may erupt violently like Krakatoa in
1883, or just seep out lava like the Kilauea volcano. Formed as a result of plate
tectonics, volcanic eruptions can result in the formation of mountains, craters, crater
lakes, plateaus, and islands.
How are Volcanoes a Result of Plate Tectonics?
Earth is made of four concentric layers - inner core, outer core, mantle, and crust.
Outermost layer is the crust, on which we live. This layer is actually made up of
seven major tectonic plates. These plates float on the mantle - a semi-solid layer made
of molten rock, which we call magma. Convection currents are formed in the mantle as a
result of radioactive decay in the Earth's crust. These currents cause the plates in the
crust to either move towards each other, away from each other or slide past each
other. This movement of plates is called plate tectonics.

Formation of Volcanoes through Convergence

A convergent or destructive boundary is where two plates (usually a continental and
oceanic) move toward each other, forcing the denser (oceanic) plate to go under the
lighter (continental) plate and sink into the mantle. This is called subduction, and the
place where this happens is the subduction zone. When water and rocks from the
denser, subjugating plate, come in contact with the hot mantle, they transform into
magma. This magma, due to the various gases present, is lighter than the surrounding
material and might break through faults in the crust in an violent explosion. These
volcanic eruptions are violent and can cause immense damage to all living things in their
proximity. Mt. Fuji, in Japan is a volcano found at convergent boundary.

Volcanoes on Hotspot
Due to high pressure, lower mantle is mostly composed of solid rock. These solid rocks
rise upwards towards the crust, formingmantle plumes, due to heat from Earth's outer
core. As the pressure is lower towards the crust, the rocks begin to melt, transforming
into magma. The mantle plumes rise slowly until they break through the plates on
Earth's surface. These points of volcanic activity are called hotspots, and can form
near or far from the plate boundaries. While the hotspot is stationary, tectonic plates
move, resulting in a chain of islands when in the ocean; or a chain of extinct volcanoes,
if occurring on continental plates. The islands of Hawaii are a result of hotspot volcanic
eruptions.
What Causes a Volcano to Erupt?
Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes are a way for Earth to release pressure and heat,
much like a safety valve. There are three dominating theories to explain what causes a
volcano to erupt

Due to Density-difference in Magma

As per the first theory, due to heat and pressure in the Earth's mantle, solid rocks
melt, to form magma. Magma has the same mass as the solid rock, but more volume,
making it lighter and more buoyant. So, it will attempt to rise, if this magma continues
to encounter high-density material till it reaches the Earth's crust, volcanic eruption
occurs. It can either be in the form of a lava-flow or may be explosive.
Pressure of Released Gases
According to the second theory, magma contains dissolved substances such as water,
sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The solubility of magma decreases with the decrease
in pressure as it rises up towards the crust, and the gases get released in the form of
bubbles. When the volume of the gas bubbles in magma reaches around 75%, magma
disintegrates into pyroclasts, a mixture of partially molten and solid fragments. The
bursting of pyroclasts is very explosive and the cause of some of the most violent
eruptions on the surface of Earth.
Injection of New Magma
The third theory says that when new magma enters a chamber already brimming with
magma, the volcano erupts due to the additional pressure exerted by the injection of
new magma. This type of eruption can be placid or violent.
The intensity of eruption usually depends on the viscosity of magma and its gas content.
High-viscosity magma usually results in bigger, more intense eruptions, whereas magma
that flows easily will have lower pressure build-up, so a less violent eruption. Highly
viscous magma is characterized by the presence of more silicates and contains less
dissolved water. Another important factor is the amount of gases present in the
magma. Magma containing large amount of trapped gases will lead to a violent eruption,
and less gases in magma will result in an effusive flow.
What are the Types of Volcanic Eruption?
Depending on their intensity, volcanic eruptions can be divided into the following major
types;
Common to the islands of Hawaii, these eruptions are usually associated with hotspots,
and have non-explosive lava flowing out of fissures or vents, often on the slopes. When
the central vent erupts, the volcano throws up a fire fountain- bright orange lava
spraying into the air for several hours or few minutes. The lava has very little gas
content and crawls slowly to form a lava lake.

Strombolian Eruptions
Packing more power than the Hawaiian, Strombolian eruptions are characterized by
short explosive bursts accompanied by booming sounds. Caused by bursting gas bubbles,
the eruptions can form columns up to 100 meters tall and can last several centuries.

Vulcanian Eruptions
Vulcanian eruptions operate in a similar manner to the strombolian eruptions, except
that these are much stronger and consequently more destructive, but with time, their
dome gets damaged and leads to a more continuous lava flow instead of short bursts of
lava.

Plinian Eruptions
The most potent of all eruptions, they have caused massive damage, spreading
thousands of miles, obliterating cities and changing the climate. These eruptions are
caused by very viscous magma with a high gas content, forming tall columns of gas, and
ash, resembling mushroom clouds, from a nuclear explosion, over 35 miles high and can
last for days. The tephra, especially when combined with melted snow, flows
astonishingly fast and scorches everything in its way. These eruptions often occur
abruptly, remaining inactive for centuries, catching life forms unawares as they
scramble to escape its pyroclastic flow, poisonous gases and suffocating ash clouds.
Pelean Eruptions
These are very similar to the Plinian eruptions and are equally destructive. The Pelean
eruption's major damage comes from avalanches and landslides of glowing ash flowing
down the steep slopes at massive speeds whereas Plinian Eruption has tall columns of
ash and smoke.
Though geologists have explained many of the mysteries, newer discoveries
continuously challenge their theories. Vulcanologist continuously toil hard in an attempt
to better understand what causes a volcano to erupt. By understanding this
phenomenon, we might be able to reduce its impact on human life, and even harness its
power to generate electricity.

The Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

Negative effects

Eruptions occuring close to human settlements may spill and destroy lives and
property. People often have to be evacuated
Ash discharged very high into the stratosphere can have negative consequences
on the ozone layer
Landscape and natural sceneries be destroyed
Ash and mud can mix with rain and melting snow, forming lahars. Lahars are
mudflows flowing at very fast pace

Positive Effect

Different types of erupting volcanoes provide extraordinary scenery, so

beautiful and natural that they attract tourists to the area, bringing in some
economic value
Place close to volcanic activities tend to have higher potential for geothermal
energy, which can be an advantage to the towns and cities.
Some ash and lava breakdown become soils that are rich in nutrients and become
good areas for crop planting activities.