Professional Documents
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MATH
2010
DO
IN
GO
EDITION
UR
BEST
,S
OY
OU
CA
ND
OY
OU
POWER GUIDE
RS
MATH WRITERS EDITORS
Julia Ma & Steven Zhu Dean Schaffer & Sophy Lee
ALGEBRA
THROUGH CONTRIBUTIONS ALPACA-IN-CHIEF
CALCULUS & REVISIONS
Daniel Berdichevsky
Michael Nagel
the World
Scholar’s Cup ®
MATH
®
POWER GUIDE
I. WHAT IS A POWER GUIDE?........................................................ 2
II. CURRICULUM OVERVIEW............................................................3
III. GENERAL MATH..............................................................................4
IV. ALGEBRA…........................................................................................ 10
V. GEOMETRY………….......................................................................... 40
VI. TRIGONOMETRY.............................................................................49
VII. CALCULUS……………………………………………………………………..... 56
VIII. POWER LISTS................................................................................... 66
IX. POWER TABLE..................................................................................73
X. POWER STRATEGIES…………………………………………………………74
XI. ABOUT THE AUTHORS..................................................................76
BY
JULIA MA STEVEN ZHU
CALIF. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ALTA HIGH SCHOOL FRISCO HIGH SCHOOL
EDITED BY
DEAN SCHAFFER SOPHY LEE
STANFORD UNIVERSITY HARVARD UNIVERSITY
TAFT HIGH SCHOOL PEARLAND HIGH SCHOOL
DEDICATED TO ALPACAS
© 2009 DEMIDEC
DemiDec, The World Scholar’s Cup, Power Guide, and Cram Kit are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation.
Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association.
DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon.
Math Power Guide | 2
That’s the sound of 10,000 points looming silently at your doorstep. Although they don’t have weapons,
they do arrive armed with ideas—vague but powerful ones, like “Liberty,” “Equality,” and “Fraternity.”
You can net 3,000 of these points through Speech, Interview, and Essay. That leaves 7,000 that you’ll
have to earn, question by question, test by test.
Do you run? No! Do you hide? No! Do you catch ‘em all? Yes!
After all, you have on your side 10 formidable Power Guides. Each is stocked with every single testable
fact that you will need to know this year. DemiDec Resources will teach you the material. Workbooks
will drill the information. Power Guides will make sure that not a single nuance from the curriculum
falls through the cracks. At the very end of the Power Guide, you will find a collection of Timelines,
Power Tables, and glossary-like Power Lists to help you sweep up every point possible.
Math. The very word strikes fear into the hearts of many. But don’t be discouraged—math, like any
other event, can be mastered through studying, and perhaps more than any other event, through test-
taking. Sounds simple, right?
Unfortunately, Decathlon math is so broad that no guide could possibly hope to cover all of nooks and
crannies. This Power Guide, then, is meant as a quick review tool, a cram kit writ large, not a learning
tool. I advise you to go through this guide with textbooks nearby. I’ve found time and time again that
doing example problems is the best way to reinforce the concepts that you learn.
So what are you waiting for? It’s now or never: pick up your calculators, sharpen your pencils, and
rebel—er—review!
Sincerely,
Sophy Lee
DemiDec, The World Scholar’s Cup, Power Guide, and Cram Kit are registered trademarks of the DemiDec Corporation.
Academic Decathlon and USAD are registered trademarks of the United States Academic Decathlon Association.
DemiDec is not affiliated with the United States Academic Decathlon.
Math Power Guide | 3
CURRICULUM OVERVIEW
The breakdown of exam questions will be as follows: general math, 10%; algebra, 30%; geometry, 30%;
trigonometry, 20%; and differential calculus, 10%. This is shown in the pie chart below.
Calculus questions tend to be simple (and, thus, mastered with limited studying), but not many of them
appear on the test. The same goes with the general math portion. Algebra and geometry will
undoubtedly form the core of the test, so knowing these areas is key to scoring well.
For math, it’s especially important to remember that many concepts will appear in other sections. While
“general math” is technically only supposed to be tested in five questions, general math concepts can
(and definitely will) appear in problems from the other categories, such as algebra and trig.
Differential
General Math
Calculus
10%
10%
Trigonometry
20%
Algebra
30%
Geometry
30%
Math Power Guide | 4
GENERAL MATH
POWER PREVIEW POWER NOTES
The topics covered in general math are relevant in our daily According to the USAD outline, 3-4
lives, though we often don’t realize it. Whether you are questions (10% of the test) will come from
figuring out how much to tip a waiter or trying to decide on this section
matching socks, math lurks in the corner of countless General math is not covered in the USAD
activities. math basic guide
1
A note on rounding: remember that rounding depends on the place to which you are asked to round. Look only at the digit
after that one. Were we to round this number to an integer, it would be 5 because there is a 4 in the tenths place. Somewhere,
some poor elementary math teacher is confusing students by telling them that the 5 in the hundredths place would make the
4 in the tenths place round up to 5, which would then cause the 5 in the ones place to round up to 6. This is NOT how to
round, as 0.45 is obviously less than half and could only round down the ones place.
Math Power Guide | 6
Example: Any item at 30% off with a sales tax of 6% will always be
(0.70) (1.06) = 0.742 = 74.2% of the original price
Another typical problem asks about the original price of an item before a discount
Example: What is the price of a shirt that costs $10.32 after a 20% discount and
7.5% tax?
$10.32
( )
Here’s the set-up: p = 1 + 0.075 = $12
1 - 0.20
Since tax is included, we had to divide it from the final price
The order of division, however, does not matter, just as with multiple discounts
$10.32
( )
p = 1 - 0.20 = $12 as well
1 + 0.075
ATTENTION: Excise taxes (taxes on specific items) do not compound other taxes
Excise taxes are based on the item’s original price
Example: A meal has an original price of $10, an 8% sales tax, a 10% tip, and a 4%
excise tax; what is its final price?
With the sales tax and tip, the cost is $10 × (1 + 0.08) × (1 + 0.10) = $11.88
The excise tax is calculated from the original price: $10 × 0.04 = $0.40
The final cost is $11.88 + $0.40 = $12.28
Counting
The multiplication principle
The multiplication principle helps us find the total number of possibilities when we are
choosing one item from each of several groups
Multiply the total number of items in each group to find the total number of possibilities
Example: There are 3 kinds of computers, 4 kinds of monitors, and 2 types of mice
The total number of ways to pick a unique combination of each is 3 × 4 × 2 = 24
Permutations
We use permutations to find the total number of possible arrangements of a given set of
objects
Order is important
Example: ABCD is a different arrangement from DBAC
To find the total number of possible arrangements for r objects out of n total objects,
n!
calculate n Pr =
(n - r)!
n! = (n)(n-1)(n-2)…(2)(1)
2
n! is called a factorial
Take the number n and keep multiplying by the integers between n and 0
9! would be 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 362,880
Example: There are 5 runners in a race; how many different possibilities are there for the top
three places?
2
The exclamation point is, sadly, not for emphasis. N!!! – Steven
Math Power Guide | 7
For the same r and n, there will be fewer combinations than permutations by a factor of
r!
n Pr
n Cr =
r!
Example: There are 10 students in Mr. Jacob’s class, and three will get to serve on the
student council; in how many ways can the students be selected for the council?
Order does not matter, so do a combination
10! (10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
10 C 3 = = = 120
(3! )(7! ) (3 × 2 × 1)(7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1)
The arrangement principle
The arrangement principle allows us to calculate the total number of possible arrangements
when some of the items we are examining are identical
To arrange n objects where r objects are indistinguishable, divide n! by r!
Each set of identical objects should be considered as a separate r!
6!
Example: The number of arrangements for the letters in the word “choose” is = 360
2!
There are 6 letters with 2 non-distinct o’s
Example: The number of arrangements for the letters in the word “Mississippi” is
11!
= 34,650
( 4! )(4! )(2! )
There are 11 letters total, with 4 s’s, 4 i’s, and 2 p’s
Arranging objects in circles
Test questions occasionally ask the total number of ways to arrange items around a circle
For example, a question might ask how many different ways 7 people can sit around a
circular table
When we arrange objects in circles, we need to make sure that our arrangements are actually
different in order rather than just rotated clockwise or counter-clockwise
3
The word “combination” might get you thinking about your locker combination. Interestingly enough, locker
combinations are actually permutations: the order in which you enter the numbers does matter. – Dean
Math Power Guide | 8
1 4 1
4 A 2 3 B 1 2 C 4
3 2 3
In the above diagram, circle B has the same order as circle A, just rotated clockwise
Starting with 1 and moving clockwise, their orders are both 1, 2, 3, 4
The figures cannot be distinguished from each other by order, so we must not count
both of them when finding the total number of arrangements
Figure C, however, has a different order
Starting with 1 and moving clockwise, its order is 1, 4, 3, 2
To make sure that we only count different orders in circular arrangements, we will have
one object stay in the same place so we can tell that the other objects have moved around
Since we’re keeping one object in place for circles, we will use (n – 1)! to find the total
number of arrangements that have different orders
When we arrange objects in lines, we use n! to find the total number of arrangements
Example: How many different ways can five people sit around a circular table?
We keep one person in place and let the other four move around
(5 – 1)! = 4! = 24! different arrangements
Example: How many different ways can five keys be arranged on a circular keychain?
Like the table problem, we keep one key in place and move the other four around
Unlike the table problem, we also need to divide the arrangements in half because half of
the arrangements are repeated if we flip the keychain over4
(5 - 1)! 4! 24
= = = 12 different arrangements
2 2 2
Calculator strategy
Most scientific and graphing calculators have factorials, combinations, and permutations as
programmed functions
Being familiar with the keys to access these functions will save you time on the test if you can
identify which ones to use for each problem
4
Watch for similar scenarios such as beads on a bracelet or necklace (both of which can be flipped over).
Math Power Guide | 9
Probabilities
Introduction
Probability is the chance that a certain event will happen
The probability of event A occurring is defined as P(A), where
number of total outcomes
P( A ) =
total possible number of outcomes
Note that this formula only works when all outcomes are equally likely
Example: A player rolls a standard die, wanting a number greater than 3
Event A is “getting a number greater than 3” (rolling a 4, 5, or 6)
3 1
The probability this will happen is P( A ) = = = 0.5
6 2
More examples
Use the counting principles to help calculate probability
Example: A club of 10 people wants to select a president
If the president is randomly selected, then the probability of a specific person being
1 1
selected is P( A ) = =
10 C1 10
Example: When calculating poker probabilities for a 52-card deck and a 5-card hand, the
denominator will always be the total number of hands possible, in this case 52 C5
The 52 on the lower-left hand corner of the C stands for the total number of items
from which you can choose (52 cards in the entire deck)
The C denotes “combination”
The 5 on the lower-right hand corner of the C stands for the total number of items
that we are choosing (5 cards in a hand)
Often, problems ask about the probability of rolling a certain sum with two dice
In these cases, the denominator will always be 6 × 6 = 36
To find the numerator, the easiest way is to list the outcomes for the desired sum
Example: Find the probability of rolling a sum of 7 with two dice
The possible outcomes for a sum of 7 are 1-6, 6-1, 2-5, 5-2, 3-4, and 4-3
6 1
So, with six total outcomes, the probability is =
36 6
Math Power Guide | 10
ALGEBRA
POWER PREVIEW POWER NOTES
Algebra was brought from ancient Babylon, Egypt, and India According to the USAD outline, 10-11
to Europe via the Arabs. The term derives from the Arabic al- questions (30% of the test) will come from
jabr or, literally, “the reunion of broken parts.” In addition to this section
its mathematical meaning, the word also refers to the surgical Covers pages 4-25 in the USAD math
treatment of fractures.5 basic guide
Polynomial Equations
Introduction
An equation is a mathematical statement that two expressions are equal
Example: 4 + 1 = 5
Example: 2x + 2 = 10
Linear and quadratic equations
A linear equation is an equation in which the highest power of the variables is 1
y = x is a linear equation
The graph is a straight line
2
y = x is not a linear equation because x has a power of 2
The graph is a parabola
Often, a problem will ask you to solve for a variable
To do this, isolate the variable in question by performing equivalent operations on
both sides of the equation
Example: Solve y = mx + b for m for m
Subtract b from both sides: y – b = mx
y -b
Then divide both sides by x to get m =
x
A linear equation is graphed as a straight line
The slope-intercept formula of a linear equation is y = mx + b
m is the slope of the line
y -y
m = 1 2 for points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
x1 - x 2
Vertical lines have no slope (or infinite slope)
Another way to put it is that the slope is “undefined”
A vertical line looks like an “I” (for “Infinite slope”)
A vertical line is also the first stroke of “N” (for “No slope”)
Horizontal lines have 0 slope
A horizontal line is the first stroke of “Z” (for “Zero slope”)
Do not confuse 0 slope with “no slope”
“No slope” means that the slope is nonexistent
Zero slope has a value, which is 0
5
Hopefully, surgical treatment won’t be necessary when you’re done with this section. – Dean
Math Power Guide | 11
-a c
is the slope and (0, ) is the y-intercept
b b
In the example above, the answer rewritten in standard form is x + 3y = 6
A quadratic equation is an equation in which the highest power of the variables is 2
Notice that if the product of two expressions is 0, then one or both of the expressions
must also be 0
To solve an equation, use factoring: use the distributive property backwards
2
If the equation’s form is Ax + Bx + C = 0, factor it out to (ax + b)(cx + d) = 0
ac = A, bd = C, and (ad + bc) = B
2
If the form of the equation is x + Bx + C = 0, factor it out to (x + c)(x + d) = 0
cd=C and (c + d)=B
Once the equation is factored, each factor can be set to 0 to solve for x
Example: If (x + a)(x – b) = 0, then (x + a) = 0 or (x – b) = 0
This means x = -a or x = b
a and b are each called roots of the quadratic equation
They are also called zeros (because the equation equals zero when they are
plugged in for x) and x-intercepts
6
The quadratic formula can also be used to find roots
- b ± b 2 - (4ac)
Given ax2 + bx + c = 0, x =
2a
2
Example: Solve for the roots of 12x – 7x – 10 = 0
We can factor the equation into (4x – 5) and (3x + 2)
Then, we set each factor equal to 0 to find the roots
5
4x – 5 = 0, x =
4
2
3x + 2 = 0, x = -
3
We can also use the quadratic formula to get the same answer
6
Many algebra students become familiar with this formula by singing it to the tune of “Pop Goes the Weasel.” It goes: x
equals negative b/ plus or minus the square root/ of b squared minus 4ac/ all over 2a. – Steven
Math Power Guide | 13
7
Remember, when division is written as a fraction, the dividend is on the top, and the divisor is on the bottom.
Math Power Guide | 14
If your calculator allows you to store variables, storing –3 as a variable may help
you avoid mistakes and speed up your typing because then you won’t need
parentheses
The remainder is 1963
Factor theorem: if you use the remainder theorem, and the remainder equals 0, then (x –
c) is a factor of f(x)
The rational roots theorem is used to determine all the possible rational roots of a
polynomial
n n-1
We apply the rational roots theorem to polynomials in the form of Ax + Bx +…C
In this form, A is the leading coefficient—the number in front of the term with the
highest power—and C is the constant
Both A and C must be integers
We must first find all the factors of A and all the factors of C
We’ll use q to represent all the factors of C, and we’ll use p to represent all the factors
of A
According to the theorem, all of the rational real roots can be found with the
q
expression ±
p
To find all the possible roots, plug the various factors into the above expression
3 4 2
Example: Find the possible rational roots of 36 + 2x + x – 11x – 12x
First, we make sure that we spot the correct coefficient for A
The highest power is 4, and the coefficient for that term is 1
Thus, A = 1
The constant C is 36
Now, we list all the factors of C over all the factors of A
1 2 3 4 6 9 12 18 36
The possible rational roots are ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ±
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Luckily, A was 1 in this case
Had A been 6, we would’ve had to list all the factors of C over 1, 2, 3, and 6,
resulting in four times as many possible rational roots
After listing all the possible rational roots, we can use the factor theorem to find the
actual roots
Sometimes you will need to find the sum or product of the roots, but not the roots
themselves
b
The formula to find the sum of the roots is - for all polynomials, where a is the
a
leading coefficient, and b is the coefficient of the second-highest degree term
Example: Find the sum of the roots of 4x2 – 7x + 5
b
We will use -
a
a=4
b = –7
-7 7
The sum of the roots is – =
4 4
Example: Find the sum of the roots of x3 + 3x2 – 4x – 12
Math Power Guide | 15
b
We will use -
a
a=1
b=3
3
The sum of the roots is =3
1
c
The formula to find the product of the roots is - for odd-numbered polynomials
a
c
and for even-numbered polynomials, where a is the leading coefficient, and c is
a
the constant
Example: Find the product of the roots of 5x2 + 8x – 2
a=5
c = –2
2
The product of the roots is -
5
Solving Inequalities
Inequality: a definition
An inequality states that two expressions are not equal
Example: 4 + 5 < 12
Example: 4x + 2 > 3y – 4
Linear and quadratic
To solve a linear inequality, treat the inequality as an equation and isolate the variable
Be careful to flip the sign if you multiply or divide by a negative number
Example: –3x + 7 > 5
We subtract 7 from both sides to get the term with x by itself
–3x > –2
Then we divide both sides by -3 and flip the sign
2
x<
3
Math Power Guide | 16
In the above graph, the inequality is true in the shaded area, which is the region
2
to the left of, but not including, x =
3
The answer may also appear in the form of a number line
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
2
The open circle means that the value is not included in the solution
3
2
If the inequality were x ≤ , then the number line would look like this:
3
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
2
The darkened circle means that the solution includes
3
Linear inequalities can have more than one variable
1
Example: y ≤ x +2
3
To graph this inequality, we must plot the line and then shade the region above
it
At the line, y is equal to the function
Math Power Guide | 17
We shade above the line because y can also be greater than the function
Usually in graphs, “less than” looks the same as “less than or equal to,” and
“greater than” looks the same as “greater than or equal to”
Sometimes when y is not equal to the function, the line of the function is
dotted rather than solid
But really, the shading is the important part
Math Power Guide | 18
To solve a quadratic inequality, treat it like an equation and solve for the roots
After finding the roots, place them on a number line
The roots will partition the number line into different regions
Test numbers in each region
The ones that make the inequality true will be part of the solution
Example: x2 + 6x – 7 < 0
First, we factor
(x + 7)(x – 1) < 0
Our roots are -7 and 1
We will place these roots on a number line
-7 1
Notice that the roots divide the line into three regions: x < –7, –7 < x < 1, and x > 1
We will choose a number in each region to test the inequality
Let’s use -8, 0 and 2
Rule of thumb8: whenever you can choose 0 as a test value, do so, as it is usually
very easy to plug into the inequality
When we plug -8 into the inequality, we get 9 < 0, which is false
When we plug 0 into the inequality, we get –7 < 0, which is true
When we plug 2 into the inequality, we get 9 < 0, which is false
On the number line, we will place an x where the inequality is false and a check
where the inequality is true
-7 1
8
If you’ve ever seen The Boondock Saints, the line at the beginning about “rule of thumb” is most excellent. – Steven
Math Power Guide | 19
Example: y ≤ x 2 + 2
We can represent this inequality graphically
Since y is less than or equal to the function, we shade the area below the curve,
and the area includes the curve itself
Absolute value
A number’s absolute value is essentially its distance from 0 on a number line
It is always non-negative
Example: - 45 = 45
Example: 0 = 45
When the expression inside the absolute value signs is a function, we set the function equal
to two opposite values
Example: x - 3 = 2
x–3=2
x – 3 = –2
x = 1 or x = 5
When we have inequalities with absolute values, we have to be careful with the direction of
the inequality symbol
Example: x + 6 ≥ 7
For the first inequality, we just remove the absolute value signs
x+6 ≥ 7
For the second inequality, however, we have to flip the symbol of inequality because
we change the sign of the value to the right of the symbol
x + 6 ≥ –7
The value to the right of the inequality is now negative 7, and the symbol is now
less than or equal to
Math Power Guide | 20
Thus, x ≥ 1 or x ≤ 3 – 13
Example: 2x - 7 < –3
Since an absolute value can never make an expression negative, the inequality can
never be true
Watch out for trick questions like this one
Example: y = f(x) = x
f(9) = 9 = 3
f(9) = 9 = –3
In this case, y may not equal both 3 and -3
For an equation to be a function, it must pass the vertical line test
A vertical line placed anywhere on the graph of a function can cross the function in at
most one point
If the line intersects the graph at more than one point, then it isn’t a function
We can place a vertical line anywhere on the graph above, and it would only cross
the graph at one point, which means that the graph represents a function
Math Power Guide | 21
A vertical line will cross the graph above at two places when x > 0
This graph, therefore, does NOT represent a function
The domain of a function is all possible values of x (the independent variable)
Any value of x that causes a mathematical error in the function is NOT included in the
domain
Possible limitations on domain include dividing by 0, taking the square root of a negative
number, and taking the logarithm of a non-positive number
The range of a function is all possible values of y (the dependent variable)
There are several limitations on range
Square roots and exponential functions only give non-negative values, for example
Asymptotes can graphically illustrate range limitations
1
Example: Given f(x) = 3x + 2 and g(x) =
x
1
f(g(x)) = 3( ) + 2
x
1
g(f(x)) =
3x + 2
The only time the above two composite functions are equal is when x = –1
Inverses
An inverse is the “undo” of a function: it takes the output of a function and returns the
input
The inverse of the function f(x) is denoted as f-1(x)
f(f–1(x)) = (f f–1)(x) = x
The domain of a function is the range of its inverse
The range of a function is the domain of its inverse
Not all inverses are functions
The graph of an inverse is the mirror image of the function across y = x (see graph below)
The above graph is f(x) = x2, which is a function because it passes the vertical-line test
It does not, however, pass the horizontal-line test, so its inverse is not a function
You could also say that its inverse does not pass the vertical-line test
To find the inverse of a function, let y = f(x), change all x’s to y’s and all y’s to x’s
3
Example: f(x) = x
3
Let y = x
To find the inverse, we switch the variables
x = y3
Solving for y, we get the inverse function y = 3 x
Thus, f-1(x) = 3 x
Sometimes we do not need to actually find the inverse equation
Example: Given that f(x) is a one-to-one function, if f(3) = 7, what is f(3) = 7, what is
f-1(7)?
The answer is simply 3, since all we do in an inverse is switch the x and the y
Rational function
The domain of a function includes all of its possible x-values
To determine the domain of a function, find the x-values at which the denominator
equals 0
These values will be the only ones excluded from the domain
Division by zero causes a mathematical error
Any division by zero produces either a removable or a non-removable discontinuity
Removable discontinuities are “holes” in the graph
If a factor (x – c) is in both the numerator and denominator, the two cancel
each other out, producing a “hole” at x = c
Non-removable discontinuities are asymptotes
If a factor (x – c) is only in the denominator, an asymptote exists at x = c
In both cases, c must be a real number
Math Power Guide | 24
x 2 - x - 12
Example: What is the domain of y = ?
x2 + x - 6
We must factor the denominator
x2 + x – 6 = (x – 2)(x + 3)
The denominator has two roots, 2 and -3
Thus, the domain includes all values of x except 2 and -3
If we factor the numerator, we can find out more details about the graph
( x - 4)(x + 3)
y=
( x - 2)(x + 3)
Both the numerator and the denominator have a factor of (x + 3)
Thus, -3 is the location of a removable discontinuity
At x = –3, a hole exists in the graph
The other root, x = 2, is the location of a vertical asymptote
We cannot cancel (x – 2) out of the expression
The range of a function includes all of its possible y-values
The range of rational functions can be limited by a horizontal asymptote
If the exponent degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
there is no horizontal asymptote
x3 + x + 2
Example: y =
x -1
The degree of the numerator is 3
The degree of the denominator is 1
The degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator, so
there is no horizontal asymptote
The range, therefore, includes all real numbers
If the degree of the numerator is the same as the degree of the denominator, then an
c
asymptote exists at y =
b
c is the leading coefficient of the numerator, and b is the leading coefficient of the
denominator
3x 4 + 7 x 2
Example: What is the horizontal asymptote of y = ?
6x 3 - x 4
Both the numerator and the denominator have a degree of 4
c = 3 and b = –1
Remember that the leading coefficient comes before the variable with the
highest power
In the denominator, the term with the highest power is –x4
3
The horizontal asymptote is y = or y = –3
-1
Note that even though y = –3 is a horizontal asymptote, it is still in the range
7
because f( - ) = –3
18
If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, an asymptote
exists at y = 0 (the x-axis)
Math Power Guide | 25
As x increases, the numerator will increase at a slower rate than the denominator will
because the denominator has a higher exponent
1
Eventually, the ratio of the numerator to the denominator will approach - ,
∞
which effectively equals 0
The inverse of a rational function is not necessarily a function
P( x ) Q (x )
Given rational function , the inverse is NOT simply
Q(x) P(x)
We must find the inverse by interchanging variables and solving for the new
dependent variable (as before)
Exponential function
Logarithmic functions
Complex Numbers
Definitions
A complex number is any number in the form a + bi
a and b are real numbers, and i is the imaginary unit
i= - 1 or i2 = -1
All pure real numbers and all pure imaginary numbers are technically complex numbers,
with b = 0 and a = 0, respectively
Math Power Guide | 28
i1 = i
i2 = –1
i3 = –i
i4 = 1
i5 = i
- b ± discriminant
The roots are
2a
If the discriminant is 0, the roots are real and identical
-b
The root is
2a
If the discriminant is negative, the roots are complex conjugates
In the quadratic equation, taking a square root of a negative discriminant creates an
imaginary unit
1
Therefore, the above graph represents y = – x – 1
2
Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions (quadratic equations) are U-shaped graphs
These functions have x raised to the second power
The above graph shows a parabola that follows the standard form y = a(x – h)2 + k
Standard form is also known as vertex form because the point (h, k) is the vertex, the
turning point of the parabola
To find the equation of the parabola, we must find the vertex first
Since the parabola opens upwards, we look for the lowest point
The lowest point is (2, -3)
2
Putting the vertex into the standard form equation, we have y = a(x – 2) – 3
To find a, we need to plug in another point
We can read from the graph the point (0, -1)
2
–1 = a(0 – 2) – 3
1
a=
2
1
The graph above represents y = (x – 2)2 – 3
2
Higher order functions
Higher order functions (higher order equations) fall into two general types of graphs
If the order (degree of the highest exponent) is even, the graph will start and end on the
same side of the y-axis
Math Power Guide | 31
The above graph starts and ends on the same side, the positive side, of the y-axis,
which means the order is even
1 4 3
The graph shows the function y = x + x – 2x2
2
If a test question ever asks you to find the equation from a graph like this one,
eliminate the answer choices whose orders cannot possibly be correct
In this case, we would eliminate all the choices with odd orders
Then, graph the remaining choices on your calculator to find the equation that
matches
Alternatively, you can plug points from the graph into the remaining equations
and see if they solve correctly
If the order is odd, the graph will start and end on opposite sides of the y-axis
Math Power Guide | 32
The above graph starts on the negative side of the y-axis and ends on the positive side,
which means the order is odd
5 4
The graph shows the function x + 2x
Exponential functions
Exponential functions create curves that have a horizontal asymptote
The above graph shows y = ln(x), the natural logarithm of x, and the asymptote is x = 0
Notice that this graph is the inverse of the exponential graph
Flipping the exponential graph on the x = y line will yield the above logarithmic
graph
If we think of the terms as fence posts separated by uniform gaps, then we would
know the number of posts by adding one to the number of gaps
To find the number of gaps then, we must take the distance between the last post
and the first post and divide that distance by the length of a gap
97 - 31
We see that the difference d = 3, and our set-up is n = + 1 = 23
3
Now that we know n = 23, we can use the summation formula to find the sum of the
series
23(31 + 97)
Sum = = 1472
2
Often, summation problems will use sigma notation
The Greek letter sigma is ∑
10
We can express the sum of the numbers 1 to 10 as ∑k
k =1
The index k starts at 1, the lower bound, and increases by 1 for each term until it
reaches 10, the upper bound
The bounds are also called limits of summation
Our expression is the same as 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10
12
Example: Find ∑3m
n=7
Listing the terms, we find that they are 21, 24, 27, 30, 33, 36
From m = 7 to m = 12, we have 6 terms (12 – 7 + 1 = 6)
6(21 + 36)
Again, we can use the summation formula, sum = = 171
2
Arithmetic mean
An arithmetic mean is the average of two or more numbers
Example: What is the arithmetic mean of 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13?
We can solve this problem by adding up all the terms and dividing by the number of
terms
5 + 7 + 9 + 11 + 13
=9
5
An alternative strategy is to recognize the terms as an arithmetic sequence
The term in the middle will equal the average
In this case, the middle of the five terms is 9
If the problem had an even number of terms, we would only need to average the
middle two terms to find the average of the whole sequence
Given a set of unrelated numbers, of course, the arithmetic sequence approach will
not work
Geometric sequence
Geometric sequences are patterns of numbers with a common ratio r
Example: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16…
Here, the common ratio r is 2
2
=2
1
Math Power Guide | 35
4
=2
2
n–1
To find the nth term of a geometric sequence, use the formula nth term = (1st term)r
th
Example: What is the 13 term in the sequence that begins with 1024, 512, 256, 128…?
1
The common ratio r is
2
512 1
=
1024 2
256 1
=
512 2
th 1 13–1 1
The 13 term is (1024)( ) =
2 4
Geometric series
A geometric series is the sum of a geometric sequence
(first term)(1 - r n )
The formula to find the sum of the first n terms is , where r is the
1- r
common ratio
5
Example: Find ∑3(-2) p
p=1
1
The sum is 20 = 1 = 2
1 - 12 12
We were able to find a number for the sum, which means that the series converged
An infinite series can also diverge
Divergent series do not add up to a nice number
9
The harmonic series is a common example of a divergent series
∞
1 1 1 1 1 1
Its progression is + + + + … or ∑
1 2 3 4 5 x =1 x
Even though the terms become smaller, they don’t scale down like the terms the
convergent example, in which each term was half of the previous one
In the harmonic series, the terms keep adding up to infinity
Geometric mean
1
A geometric mean is the product of n terms raised to
n
Example: What is the geometric mean of 3 and 27?
3 × 27 = 81
811/2 = 81 = 9
Thus, the geometric mean of 3 and 27 is 9
The answer makes sense because 3, 9, and 27 form a geometric series with a common
ratio of 3
9
The harmonic series gets its name from the way a string vibrates. The wavelengths of the harmonics (the frequencies that
naturally resonate) are a half, a third, a fourth, etc. of the length of the string.
Math Power Guide | 37
Graphing
The following are graphs of various sequences and series
Arithmetic Sequence
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
We can tell the above graph represents an arithmetic sequence because the terms have
equal vertical distances between each other
If we connected the dots, they would form a straight line: the y-values are increasing
at a constant (linear) rate
Arithmetic Series
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
10
The above graph models the series ∑n
n=1
The dots no longer have equal vertical distances between each other
Math Power Guide | 38
Geometric Sequence
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
In the above geometric sequence, each term is twice as large as the previous one
Geometric Series
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
10
This graph models the geometric series ∑ 24 n
n=1
The series sums to 3.996094, and we can see that the graph approaches 4
Math Power Guide | 39
Harmonic Series
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
1 1 1
This harmonic (infinite) series starts at 1 and keeps adding + + +…
2 3 4
The harmonic series ALWAYS diverges
Math Power Guide | 40
GEOMETRY
POWER PREVIEW POWER NOTES
Geometry is the study of figures (both two- and three- According to the USAD outline, 10-11
dimensional). Of particular interest are triangles (specifically questions (30% of the test) will come from
right triangles) and quadrilaterals. In this section, we will this section
explore how to find the area and volume of such figures, in Covers pages 26-32 in the USAD math
addition to several other topics. basic guide
Right Triangles
The Pythagorean theorem
The Pythagorean theorem states a special relationship that applies to all right triangles:
a 2 + b2 = c2
a and b are the two leg lengths of the right triangle; c
is the length of the hypotenuse c
We can also use the Pythagorean theorem to determine
a
whether a non-right triangle is acute or obtuse
2 2 2
If a + b > c , then the triangle is acute
c is the length of the triangle’s longest leg; a and b b
are the lengths of the other two lengths
2 2 2
If a + b < c , then the triangle is obtuse
A Pythagorean triple is a set of three integers that satisfy the Pythagorean theorem
Examples of common Pythagorean triples:
3, 4, 5
5, 12, 13
7, 24, 25
9, 40, 41
8, 15, 17
Any multiple of a Pythagorean triple also satisfies the Pythagorean theorem
6, 8, 10 is a multiple of 3, 4, 5, so it is also a Pythagorean triple
3 4
, , 1 is also a multiple of 3, 4, 5
5 5
Special triangles: 45-45-90 and 30-60-90
The 45-45-90 right triangle is an isosceles right triangle
Two angles are 45, and the 3 angle is 90
rd
x
Math Power Guide | 41
x
Coordinate Geometry
Lines
The midpoint of a line segment is the point equidistant from both ends
Given a line segment with two end points (a, b) and (c, d), the midpoint is found by
a+c b+d
taking the average of the two coordinates: ,
2 2
Slope is a line’s ratio of vertical to horizontal change
d - b Δy
Slope can be found given any two points (a, b) and (c, d) on a line: m = =
c - a Δx
If a = c, then the slope is undefined, and the two points lie on a vertical line
If b = d, then the slope is 0, and the two points lie on a horizontal line
Remember this equation as “rise over run”
We use the distance formula to find the distance between any two points
d= ( x 2 - x 1 )2 + ( y 2 - y 1 )2 between two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)
d is the distance
This formula is derived from the Pythagorean theorem
We can use a variation of the distance formula to find the distance between two points
(x1, y1, z1) and (x2, y2, z2) in three-dimensional space
d = ( x 2 - x 1 )2 + ( y 2 - y 1 )2 + ( z 2 - z 1 )2
Lines can be parallel or perpendicular
Parallel lines are lines in the same plane that never intersect
If lines m and n are parallel, it is notated as m || n
Parallel lines have the same slope
180)
10
Same-side interior angles (4 and 5, 3 and 6) are supplementary
Properties and types of quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is a four-sided polygon
The measures of the interior angles of a quadrilateral add up to 360
The formula for the number of angles in a polygon is (n – 2)/180
A trapezoid is a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides
b1
The parallel sides are called bases
The non-parallel sides are called legs h
An isosceles trapezoid has congruent legs, base angles, and diagonals
A right trapezoid has one right base angle b2
1
Area = ( )(b1 + b 2 )( h )
2
b1 and b2 are the lengths of the bases and h is the height
In a coordinate system, the two bases have the same slope (since they are parallel)
The two legs have different slopes
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides
Opposite angles and sides are congruent
Consecutive angles are supplementary
The diagonals bisect each other
To bisect means to halve an angle
Area = bh
b is the length of a base and h is the perpendicular height
In a coordinate system, opposite sides have the same slope and length
A rectangle is a parallelogram with four right angles
All properties of parallelograms apply to rectangles
Its diagonals are congruent
Area = Lw, where L is the length and w is the width
In a coordinate system, opposite sides have the same slope and length, and the slopes of
adjacent sides must be perpendicular
A rhombus is a parallelogram with four congruent sides
All properties of a parallelogram apply to a rhombus
Its diagonals are perpendicular to each other
10
The Princeton Review sums all of the above stuff really nicely in “Fred’s Theorem”: all the small angles are congruent. All
the big angles are congruent. A small angle and a big angle are supplementary. – Dean
Math Power Guide | 43
The triangle is rotated and flipped several different ways, but the figure’s shape and
area remain the same
Similarity
Two figures are similar if they have the same shape
The following figures are all similar
Math Power Guide | 44
The ellipses are different sizes, but they all have the same shape
2
arc measure
If you have the arc measurement in degrees, A = πr
360
“Arc measure” is the degree measure of the “crust” of the sector slice
arc measure
2
If you have the arc measurement in radians, A = πr
radians
Area of regular polygons
Regular polygons have sides of equal length and angles of equal size
We can divide these polygons into isosceles triangles, with each side of the polygon as a
base
11
This formula is notoriously difficult to type into calculators. Be careful. – Steven
Math Power Guide | 45
We can then find the area of each isosceles triangle and multiply it by the number of
triangles to find the area of the whole polygon
Example: Find the area of a regular heptagon with a side length of 4 and an apothem
length of 4.153
A heptagon (sometimes called a septagon) has 7 sides
12
This is actually the definition of a regular prism. Most basic math (including Decathlon math), however, focuses almost
exclusively on regular prisms, so we will, too.
Math Power Guide | 46
1
Volume = ( 3 )(area of the base)(height)
4
3
Volume =
3 πr
A cone is a pyramid with a circular base
SA = πr2 + πr r 2 + h 2
r is the radius of the base, and h is the height
r 2 + h 2 is the lateral height, the distance from the edge of the base to the top point
1
2
Volume =
3 πr h
Properties of similar figures
Corresponding parts of similar figures are proportional
There are a few ways to test triangles for similarity
SSS similarity theorem: if two triangles exist such that all three pairs of corresponding
side lengths form a constant ratio, then the two triangles are similar
SAS similarity theorem: if two triangles exist such that two pairs of corresponding side
lengths form a constant ratio and the angles included between those sides are congruent,
then the two triangles are similar
AA similarity theorem: if two triangles exist such that two pairs of corresponding angles
are congruent, then the triangles are similar
These theorems can be extended to other geometric figures, too
If all the corresponding angles in two figures are congruent, then the two figures are
similar
Properties of circles
Angle measures are an important part of circle geometry
A circle has 360 or 2 radians
radians = 180
Example: How many degrees is 1 radian?
180
(1)( ) = 57.3
π
The measure of a central angle is equal to the measure of the intercepted arc
The measure of an inscribed angle is equal to the half the measure of the intercepted arc
The measure of an angle in the interior of the circle is half the sum of the two
intercepted arcs (see circle diagrams on the last page of this section)
The measure of an angle in the exterior of the circle is half the difference of the two
intercepted arcs
Tangents, secants, and chords are the main three types of lines associated with circles
Math Power Guide | 47
B
Two intersecting chords form four line
D
P segments such that the product of one
E chord’s line segments equals the product of
O the other chord’s line segments; here, BP x
PI = DP x PE.
[Chord-Chord Power Theorem]
I 1
m∠BPE = ( )(m∠DI = m∠BE )
2
L
Two tangents from a common
exterior point are congruent; in
this case, DL DY
D
O Any radius drawn to a point of
tangency is perpendicular to the
tangent; in this case, OL⊥ DL
and OY ⊥ DY
Y
TRIGONOMETRY
POWER PREVIEW POWER NOTES
Trigonometry is the study of angles and the angular According to the USAD outline, 7
relationships of planar figures. The trigonometric functions questions (20% of the test) will come from
are also called the circular functions because they can all be this section
derived from the unit circle. Covers pages 33-35 in the USAD math
basic guide
13
An easy way to remember these three properties is with the mnemonic “SOH-CAH-TOA.”
Math Power Guide | 50
Trigonometric Functions
Trig functions and quadrants
The sign of the value of a function depends on the quadrant of the angle
All three main functions (sine, cosine, tangent) are
positive in Quadrant I
Sine is positive in Quadrant II S A
Tangent is positive in Quadrant III
14
Cosine is positive in Quadrant IV
Each of the three reciprocal functions (cosecant, secant,
and cotangent) is positive in the same quadrants as its T C
corresponding “main” function
Trig functions and reference angles
We can use the reference angle to determine the value
of a trigonometric function
If the angle is in Quadrant I, is the reference angle
Example: 60 is in Quadrant I, so its reference angle is 60
14
My Algebra II teacher taught me a trick to remember this. If you go in order from quadrants I to IV, the order of positive
functions is all functions, sine, tangent, and cosine. All students take classes. – Dean
Math Power Guide | 51
1 π π 3
arcsin = and cos =
2 2 6 2
Notice that we use just the principal value of arcsin
5π 3
Otherwise, cos =- would also be an answer
6 2
The domains and ranges of inverse trig functions
Trig functions don’t pass the horizontal line test, so their inverses are not functions
To be able to work with the inverse functions as functions, we must limit their domains and
ranges (see table below)
These limitations ensure that the inverse functions pass the vertical line test
Arccos [– 1, 1] [0, ]
π π
Arctan (, ) (- , )
2 2
π π
Arccsc (– ,–1] 1, ) [ ,0) (0, ]
2 2
π π
Arcsec (– ,–1] 1, ) [0, ) ( , π]
2 2
Graphs
Period
The period of a function is the interval over which it repeats
All trigonometric functions are periodic
π
Example: the period of tan(kx) is
k
Amplitude
The amplitude of a cyclical function is half the distance between the maximum and
minimum height of a wave
Since amplitude measures distance, it is always positive
Sin and cos have amplitudes that can be determined by the coefficient of the function
Example: the amplitude of kcosx is |k|
The other functions don’t really have an “amplitude” because their range is unbounded, but
the coefficient can stretch the graph vertically
Horizontal shifts
A constant term inside the function can horizontally shift a function’s graph
Example: the horizontal shift of sec(x – k) is k to the right
Note that the shift is positive (to the right) even though the coefficient ( – k) is
negative
If the function were sec(x + k), the shift would be negative (to the left)
Vertical shifts
A constant term outside the function can vertically shift the function’s graph
Example: the vertical shift of sin(x) + k is k upward
Note that this shift is positive shift
If the function were sin(x) – k, the shift would be negative (down)
Combining all these properties
7π
Example: f(x) = 3cos(7x + ) -1
2
The first thing we need to do is factor out the coefficient attached to the x
π
f(x) = 3cos[7(x + )] - 1
2
Only when x is by itself can we find the period and horizontal shift
2π π
This function has a period of , an amplitude of 3, a shift of to the left, and a shift
7 2
of 1 down
Graph of Bsin(Cx + D) + A
amplitude = B
amplitude = B
vertical shift = A
* 2
period =
C
D
*phase displacement =
C
Math Power Guide | 53
Identities
Purpose
Oftentimes, problems with trig functions in them will not be solvable as presented
You’ll have to convert functions using the identities below to solve the problem
Reciprocal identities
1 1
sin x = csc x =
csc x sin x
1 1
cos x = sec x =
sec x cos x
1 1
tan x = cot x =
cot x tan x
Quotient identities
sin x sec x
tan x = =
cos x csc x
cos x csc x
cot x = =
sin x sec x
Pythagorean identities
sin2x + cos2x = 1
tan2x + 1 = sec2x
1 + cot2x = csc2x
Sum identities
sin(x + y) = (sinx)(cosy) + (cosx)(siny)
cos(x + y) = (cosx)(cosy) + (sinx)(siny)
tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 - (tan x )(tan y )
Difference identities
sin(x – y) = (sinx)(cosy) – (cosx)(siny)
cos(x – y) = (cosx)(cosy) + (sinx)(siny)
tan x - tan y
tan (x – y) =
1 + (tan x )(tan y )
Double angle identities
sin(2x) = 2(sinx)(cosx)
cos(2x) = cos2x – sin2x = 1 – 2sin2x = 2cos2x – 1
2 tan x
tan(2x) =
1 - tan 2 x
Half angle identities
x 1 - cos x
sin( ) = ±
2 2
x 1 + cos x
cos( ) = ±
2 2
x 1 - cos x
tan( ) = ±
2 1 + cos x
Phase identities
π
sinx = cos( - x )
2
Math Power Guide | 54
π
cosx =sin( - x )
2
Odd/even properties
sin(–x) = –sinx
csc(–x) = –cscx
tan(–x) = –tanx
cot(–x) = –cotx
cos(–x) = cosx
sec(–x) = secx
Sum-to-product identities
x+y x-y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin( ) cos( )
2 2
x+y x- y
sin x - sin y = 2 cos( ) sin( )
2 2
x+y x- y
sin x - sin y = 2 cos( ) cos( )
2 2
x+y x- y
cos x - cos y = - 2 sin( ) sin( )
2 2
Product-to-sum identities
sin( x + y ) + sin( x - y )
sin x cos y =
2
sin( x + y ) + sin( x - y )
sin x cos y =
2
cos( x - y ) - cos( x + y )
sin x sin y =
2
Trigonometric Equations
Law of Sines
The law of sines states that in a triangle, the ratio of the sine of an angle to the length of the
opposite side is the same for all three angles
A
c
b
C
a B
sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c
As long as we have one angle-side pair (A and a, B and b, or C and c) and another side or
angle, we can find the rest of the variables
Math Power Guide | 55
Law of Cosines
The law of cosines is a general form of the Pythagorean theorem
Whereas the Pythagorean theorem only works for right triangles, the law of cosines
works for any triangle
Given two sides and the angle between them, we can find the length of the third side
(refer to the above triangle for the following formula)
2 2 2
c = a + b – 2ab(cosC)
In a right triangle, c is the hypotenuse, which means C is the right angle
The cosine of ninety degrees is 0, which is why the last term in the formula
disappears in the Pythagorean theorem
Algebraic equations involving trig functions
Unless there are restrictions on domain and range, an infinite number of possible solutions
exist to a trigonometric equation
To solve for all solutions, remember that the functions are periodic
CALCULUS
POWER PREVIEW POWER NOTES
Ideas related to calculus have been around since Archimedes, According to the USAD outline, 3-4
but it was through the independent work of Newton and questions (10% of the test) will come from
Leibniz that modern calculus was developed. this section
Covers pages 36-37 in the USAD math
basic guide
15
Also spelled “L’Hospital,” this rule is “derived” from its common usage in infirmaries and clinics across France. Just
kidding. – Sophy
Math Power Guide | 57
The second derivative of displacement taken with respect to time is the acceleration of
the function at that point
The second derivative can reveal details about the graph of the function, such as concavity
and points of inflection
If the second derivative is positive in a region, then the function is concave up
If the second derivative is negative in a region, then the function is concave down
Concave Concave
up down
A point of inflection is a point in the graph of a function where the function’s concavity
changes (from up to down or down to up)
The zeros of the second derivative are possible points of inflection
Antiderivative
An antiderivative is a possible function that has a known derivative
Antiderivatives are also called integrals
Finding an antiderivative is called integration
To integrate, we reverse the steps of differentiation
∫3x
2
Example: + 5dx
1
The integral is the same as the example above except for the limits of integration
Originally, we found that the antiderivative is f(x) = x3 + 5x + C
Now, we have to plug in the limits and find the difference
f(5) = (5)3 + 5(5) + C = 150 + C
f(1) = (1)3 + 5(1) + C = 6 + C
f(5) – f(1) = 150 + C – (6 + C) = 144
Definite integrals always cancel out the C
Regardless of what value C may be, we know that it is the same in both f(b) and
f(a)
For this reason, the subtraction always gets rid of C
L’Hopital’s rule17
As mentioned earlier, if a limit is indeterminate, we can use L’Hopital’s rule to convert the
limit into a determinate one
L’Hopital’s rule takes the derivative of the numerator and denominator (separately)
After the derivatives, we plug in c again to see if the limit has become determinate
16
In other words, one unknown number plus another unknown number equals a third unknown number.
17
Also spelled “L’Hospital,” this rule is “derived” from its common usage in infirmaries and clinics across France. Just
kidding. – Sophy
Math Power Guide | 60
x2 - 9
Example: lim
x →3 x - 3
If we plug in 3, we get 0 on the top and the bottom, which is an indeterminate form
We will take the derivative of the numerator and the denominator
2x
Our limit becomes lim
x →3 1
Graphing
By looking at graphs of derivatives, we can gain information about their original function
Below are three graphs: a function, its derivative, and its second derivative
3 2
The graph on the left, the parabola, is the original function, x
2
The graph in the middle, the sloped line, is the first derivative, 3x
This graph starts negative and ends positive, with a critical point at 0
The change in sign lets us know that the original function decreases until x = 0
and then increases
x = 0 is the location of a minimum
At this point, the original function’s slope changes from negative to positive
The graph on the right, the horizontal line, is the second derivative, 3
This graph stays positive over its entire domain
We can tell that the original function is concave up over its entire domain
Math Power Guide | 61
Rates of Change
Definitions
Rate of change is the rate at which one variable changes with respect to another variable
under certain conditions
Problems involving rates of change with two variables are often called related rate problems
Solving single variable problems
Single variable rate of change problems usually involve displacement, velocity, and
acceleration
Example: If the velocity of a rocket is defined as v(t) = 300t2 + 20t + 100, where t is time,
what is the acceleration of the rocket when t = 4?
Notice that the function only has one variable, t
Acceleration is the derivative, or the rate of change, of velocity
Thus, we need to take the derivative of the velocity function to arrive at the
acceleration function
a(t) = v’(t) = 600t + 20
a(4) = 600(4) + 20 = 2420
Solving related rate problems
A related rate word problem usually sets up a situation
A typical problem might concern an inflating balloon or a plane in flight
It will give at least one rate
This rate might be the rate at which the radius of the balloon is increasing as the balloon
inflates or the speed of the plane
Initial parameters will set up the problem
In our examples, this parameter could be the radius of the balloon at a certain time or the
distance the plane is from an observer at a certain time
The problem will ask the rate something else is changing given the above parameters
For example, it might ask the rate at which the volume of the balloon is changing at t = 5
seconds
Math Power Guide | 62
In another example, the problem might ask the rate at which the plane’s distance from
the observer is changing at v = 50 meters per second
Drawing a picture will help us set the problem up
Establish relationships between the given information and what we are supposed to find to
solve the problem
4 3
For our balloon, V = πr relates the volume of the balloon to its radius
3
2 2
For our plane, (distance from observer) = (horizontal distance to plane) + (vertical
2
distance to plane)
Implicitly differentiate the equation with respect to time to get a relationship between the
rate we want to find and the rate we are given
dV dr
= 4 πr 2 gives the relationship between the rate of volume change and the rate of
dt dt
radius change of the balloon
d(dist. from observer ) d( horiz. dist.)
(2)(dist.) = (2 )( horiz. dist. to plane )( )+ 0
dt dt
Note that the derivative of the vertical distance component is 0 because it does not
change
Substitute the known values and solve for the unknown rate
An example
A 13 ft ladder is leaning against a wall. The ladder is sliding down the wall at a rate of 2 ft
per second. How fast is the bottom of the ladder moving along the ground when the bottom
of the ladder is 5 ft from the wall?18
Physical relationship: set x as the distance from the bottom
of the ladder to the wall, y as the distance from the top of 13
the ladder to the ground, and l3 as the length of the ladder y
Using the Pythagorean theorem, we establish the
equation x2 + y2 = 132 = 169 ft
dx dy x
Implicit differentiation: 2x + 2y =0
dt dt
dy
Given rate: = –2 ft/second
dt
Initial conditions: x = 5 ft, and (from the Pythagorean theorem) y = 12 ft
dx
Solve: (2)(5ft)( ) + (2)(12 ft)( –2 ft/second) = 0
dt
dx
= 4.8 ft/second
dt
18
The trick answer choice would be 2 ft/second. Don’t fall for it.
Math Power Guide | 63
19
Meaning the domain has to have two inclusive endpoints.
Math Power Guide | 64
The second derivative test involves examining the sign of the second derivative at a critical
point
First, take the second derivative of the function
Then, plug the critical point(s) from the first derivative into the second derivative
equation
If f''(x) at a critical point is positive, that point is a relative minimum
If f''(x) at a critical point is negative, that point is a relative maximum
If f''(x) at a critical point is zero, then there is no extrema at that critical point
Max/min word problems
Word problems often involve some sort of optimization (making some quantity the
biggest/smallest) under some kind of constraint
To solve: write down an equation for the quantity you’re maximizing/minimizing, take the
derivative, find the critical points, and then test those points out
Example: A farmer has 20 ft of fence and wants to have a rectangular fence that encloses the
largest possible area. What should the dimensions of his fence be?
The constraint is given by the perimeter: for length L and width w, 20 = 2L + 2w
The quantity we’re trying to optimize is area: A = Lw
Through substitution, we can rewrite the equation for area in terms of one variable: A =
(L)(10 – L)
Now we can take the derivative: A’ = 10L – 2L
Setting the derivative equal to 0 yields 10 – 2L = 0, or L = 5 ft
L = 5 ft (and w = 5 ft) will give us the largest fence in terms of area enclosed
That the length and width are equal is no surprise: when the 4 sides of a rectangle are
limited to a specific perimeter, squares maximize area
When only 3 sides of a rectangle are limited to a set perimeter, however, squares will
not maximize area
Example: A farmer has 20 ft of fence and wants to build a rectangular pigpen that
encloses the largest possible area. He will build the pen next to his 20 ft-long barn,
which will provide one side of the pen. What should the dimensions of his pen be?
The area formula remains the same: A = Lw
The perimeter formula changes, since only one length and two widths are limited
20 = L + 2s
L = 20 – 2w
Only one length is limited because the barn is 20 ft long
The farmer has only 20 ft of fence, so he would not be able to build past the
length of the barn
We substitute L in the area formula to get A = (20 – 2w)(w)
A = 20w – 2w2
Now we take the derivative to find the maximum
A’ = 20 – 4w
0 = 20 – 4w
w=5
Plugging w = 5 into the perimeter equation, we find that L = 10
Notice that the maximum area was not achieved by creating a square
Math Power Guide | 65
d d -1 u'
2
(tan(u)) = (sec (u))(u’) (sin (u)) =
dx dx 1 - u2
d d -1 u'
2
(cot(u)) = -(csc (u))(u’) (cos (u)) = –
dx dx 1 - u2
d d -1 u'
(sec(u)) = (sec(u))(tan(u))(u’) (tan (u)) =
dx dx 1 + u2
d d -1 u'
(csc(u)) = -(cot(u))(csc(u))(u’) (cot (u)) = –
dx dx 1 + u2
d u d -1 u'
u
(a ) = ln(a)(a )(u’) (sec (u)) =
dx dx | u | u2 - 1
d 1 1 d -1 u'
loga(u) = ( )( )(u’) (csc (u)) = –
dx ln(a) u dx | u | u2 - 1
Math Power Guide | 66
POWER LISTS
TERMS – GENERAL MATH
Arrangement principle To find the total number of arrangements of n objects where r objects
are indistinguishable, divide the total number of arrangements by r!:
n!
r!
Combination An arrangement of a collection of objects in which order does not
n!
matter; n C r =
(r! )(n - r )!
Factorial The product of a non-negative integer n with all of the positive
integers less than n; this is expressed as n!
Multiplication principle To find the total number of possibilities when picking one each of
several different objects (each with several choices), multiply the total
number of choices for each object
Percentage n
Represents of the whole
100
Permutation An arrangement of a collection of objects in which order matters;
n!
n Pr =
(n - r)!
Probability The chance that a given event will happen; equal to the number of
outcomes in which the event occurs divided by the total number of
possible outcomes
TERMS – ALGEBRA
Absolute value The non-negative value of a number; in other words, how far a
number is from 0 on the number line
Arithmetic sequence A pattern of numbers that have a common difference
Arithmetic series The sum of an arithmetic sequence
Arithmetic mean The average of two or more numbers
Asymptote A line that a function approaches but never reaches
Complex conjugate A pair of complex numbers in the form a + bi and a – bi
Complex number Any number in the form a ± bi where a and b are real numbers and i is
the imaginary unit
Composite function A function resulting from using one function as the input of another
Convergent Applies to an infinite series which approaches a fixed sum (|r| < 1)
Degree The highest exponent power of a polynomial; also known as order
Discriminant In the quadratic formula, the part under the square root; b2 = 4ac
Math Power Guide | 67
Divergent Applies to an infinite series which does not approach a fixed sum
(|r| ≥ 1)
Domain All possible values for the independent variable (often x) in a function
Equation A mathematical statement that two expressions are equal
Exponential function A function in which the independent variable is an exponent
Function An equation in which each possible value of the independent variable
corresponds to one and only one value of the dependent variable
Geometric sequence A pattern of numbers that have a common ratio
Geometric series The sum of a geometric sequence
Geometric mean The product of n numbers to the power of (1/n)
Higher order equation An equation in which the highest power of the variables is greater than
2
Horizontal line test An equation passes this test if a horizontal line intersects its graph at
no more than one point; if a function passes this test, its inverse is also
a function
Inequality A mathematical statement that two expressions are unequal
Inverse The “undo” of a function; takes the output of a function and returns
the input
Infinite series The sum of a pattern of numbers with an infinite number of terms
Linear equation An equation in which the highest power of the variables is 1
Logarithmic function A function in which the independent variable is in the argument of a
logarithm
Parabola The U-shaped graph of a quadratic equation
Perpendicular line A line with a slope that is the opposite reciprocal of the slope of
another line
One-to-one function A function in which none of the values of its range repeats more than
once
Order See degree
Quadratic equation An equation in which the highest power of the variables is 2
Range All possible values for the dependent variable (often y) in a function
Root A number that yields zero when plugged into an expression; also
known as an x-intercept and as a zero of an equation
Vertex The turning point of a parabola
Vertical line test An equation passes this test if a vertical line intersects its graph at no
more than one point; if an equation passes this test, it is a function
X-intercept See root
Y-intercept The point where an equation intercepts the y-axis; equal to b in the
slope-intercept form of a line (y = mx + b)
Zeros (of an equation) See root
Math Power Guide | 68
TERMS – GEOMETRY
30-60-90 triangle A right triangle with one 30° angle and one 60° angle; sides measure x,
x 3 , and 2x
45-45-90 triangle An isosceles right triangle; sides measure x and x 2
Apothem The distance from the center of a regular polygon to the middle of a
side
Chord A line segment whose two endpoints lie on the circle
Circle All points equidistant from one center point (in two dimensions)
Cone A pyramid with a circular base
Congruent Having the same size and shape
Cylinder A circular prism
Midpoint The point on a line segment that is equidistant from both endpoints
Parallel lines Lines in the same plane that never intersect
Parallelogram A quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides
Perpendicular lines Lines that intersect at right angles
Prism Two parallel and congruent bases and the space between these two
bases
Pyramid Has one base; its sides rise up from the base and meet at a vertex
Pythagorean triple Any three natural numbers that satisfy the Pythagorean theorem
Math Power Guide | 69
TERMS – TRIGONOMETRY
Amplitude Half the distance between the maximum and minimum values of a
cyclical wave function
Cosecant (csc) In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to that of
the side opposite to the angle in question; reciprocal of sine
Cosine (cos) In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to that of
the hypotenuse
Cotangent (cot) In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the adjacent side to that of
the side opposite to the angle in question; reciprocal of tangent
Horizontal shift Sliding a graph along the x-axis
Inverse trigonometric function A function that “undoes” a trigonometric function
Law of cosines In a triangle, a way to find the length of an unknown side;
c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab(cosC)
Law of sines In a triangle, the ratio of the sine of each angle to its opposite side is
sin A sin B sin C
the same for all 3 angles; = =
a b c
Period The interval over which a function repeats; all trigonometric functions
are periodic
Reference angle The measure of the angle to the nearest x-axis; always between 0 and
90 degrees
Secant (sec) In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to that of
the adjacent side; reciprocal of cosine
Sine (sin) In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the opposite side to that
of the hypotenuse
Tangent (tan) In a right triangle, the ratio of the length of the opposite side to that
of the length of the adjacent side
Trigonometric identities Formulas that transform certain trigonometric expressions into other
trigonometric expressions
Vertical shift Sliding a graph along the y-axis
TERMS – CALCULUS
Absolute maximum The maximum y-value a function attains; also known as global
maximum
Absolute minimum The minimum y-value a function attains; also known as global
minimum
Acceleration See second derivative
Antiderivative A possible function that has a known derivative
Concavity The direction that a curve is facing; found by taking the second
derivative; a U shape is concave up; an upside-down U shape is
concave down
Math Power Guide | 71
Second derivative test Used to determine if a relative max or min exists at a critical point;
take the second derivative of a function and plug in a critical point; if
the result is positive, a relative min exists at that point; if the result is
negative, a relative max exists; if the result is zero, no extreme is
present at that point
Tangent line A line that intersects a graph at only one point; the slope of this line at
a specific point in the graph is equal to the derivative of the function
at that point
Velocity See first derivative
Math Power Guide | 73
POWER TABLE
Geometry: Shapes And Figures
Shape 2-D or 3-D? Area Formula20 Volume Formula Other Notes
2-D set of all points a
Circle 2-D πr2 N/A certain distance (r) from a
central point
1
Cone 3-D πr2 + πr r 2 + h2 3 πr2h Pyramid with circular base
20
Area formulas given for 3-D shapes are surface area formulas.
Math Power Guide | 74
POWER STRATEGIES
Beating the USAD Math Test
Time management
Use a silent timer during practice and competition
Divide the problems into sets of five
For each set of five, find one question that you’re fairly certain you can get right
Attempt another question in the set that doesn’t seem too hard or long
Unless you see another problem that you definitely know how to do, move on to the
next set
Consider saving all trig identity questions to the end, since these tend to take the
longest
After you have reached the end, go back and try the other questions
This method allows you to find all the easy questions on the first pass
Do not spend too much time on any one question
On average, each question should take less than a minute
If you’ve spent more than two minutes on a question and are not close to having the
answer, move on
At five minutes remaining, stop working on your current problem and guess on all of the
ones you have left blank
This way, you at least have a chance of getting a few more points
If you still have time left over after guessing, work on the one you just stopped
Learning the content
Math is unique: it requires repetition of problem-solving skills, not memorization
Take practice tests often
Then, ask a math teacher, coach, or fellow decathlete to teach you how to solve the
problems that you don’t understand
Calculator use
Be familiar with all of the functions on your calculator
Knowing where to find the most useful keys will save you time
Practice good calculator syntax
Calculators interpret your input very strictly
Use parentheses to avoid miscalculations with fractions or exponents
When using trig functions, make sure your calculator is in degree mode when working with
degrees and in radian mode when working with radians
USAD’s calculator policy stipulates that all Decathletes must clear their calculators’ memory
before the start of the math test
Having programs on your calculator, therefore, won’t be of much help
What to do when you don’t know the content
Often, you may be able to plug the answer choices into the problem
Example: On trigonometric identities, you can choose random angles to substitute and
check which answer choice matches the question
Before you begin a test, pick your favorite guessing letter
Math Power Guide | 75
Use the same letter every time you guess without eliminating choices first21
Goals
Have a realistic number of questions that you want to get right
An Algebra I student cannot realistically expect to achieve 35/35
Recently, even Calculus BC students have not been able to achieve 35/35
21
My team always chose D. – Dean
Shorter Selections Power Guide | 76
In her spare time, Julia likes to create music and art, collect computers (she now has three, each with a
different operating system), and make homemade strawberry limeade. Take a box of strawberries and the
juice from 3-5 limes (depending on how lime-y you like your drinks), put them in a blender with a cup
of sugar, add ice to fill the rest of the blender, blend until smooth, go outside into the sunshine, sprawl
onto the grass, and enjoy with friends.
Vital Stats:
Steven was recruited to write the Math Power Guide in 2007 after
being the only decathlete in the nation to break 900 points on the state
math test. He currently studies economics, computer science, and
Chinese at Harvard University, where he serves on the board of a
student investment club, programs for the daily student newspaper,
grades economics tests, and competes in ballroom dance. While writing
this Power Guide, Steven was working his second summer as an intern
at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas.
Vital Stats:
Vital Stats:
Competed with North Hollywood High School at the California state competition in 2001,
finishing in eighth place
Team took fourth at the 2001 Los Angeles Unified School District Regional Competition
Decathlon philosophy in a phrase: "[Decathlon] is like dreaming open-eyed"22
Joined DemiDec in 2005
22
Well, the original quote was about MIT…
Math Power Guide | 79
Over the years, Sophy has resigned herself to her stunning bad luck
with aquatic animals. Her first pet, a goldfish that she won from a
coloring contest, promptly died after she fed it white bread. The stuff
is apparently as bad for fish as it is for humans.
Sophy’s second pet, a yellow fish named Shrimp, died on New Year’s
Eve from a tragic fungal infection.
Next came Bonnie and Clyde—a brown and a red beta fish,
respectively—that she raised with her Decathlon teammate, Edie.
Clyde died after spending a week in the Pearland High School Acadec classroom and Bonnie,
heartbroken, died soon afterwards.
This series of unfortunate events has convinced Sophy that Harvard University’s policy against pets is
probably best for both her and the world’s fish population. As she heads into her second year of college,
she plans to stay far away from laboratory animals and the campus’s possessed squirrels. You have a
better chance of finding her muttering Russian in the library’s Language Resource Center, avoiding
slushy snow on her way to class, or singing radio songs in an unmarked van on her way to a Mock Trial
tournament.
If you have any suggestions about how Sophy can keep her pets alive, feel free to email her at
sophy@demidec.com.
Vital Stats:
Competed with Pearland High School at the Texas Region V and Texas State competitions in 2007;
competed at Region, State, and Nationals in 2008
Team placed thirteenth at State in 2007; individual scores of 7,741 and 7,542
Team placed third at Nationals in 2008; individual scores of 9041, 9007, and 9304
Decathlon philosophy in a phrase: “No regrets”
Joined DemiDec in June 2007
Math Power Guide | 80
In his spare time, Dean ponders whether he’ll ever be able to handle the luxury of spare time; luckily, he
avoids this metaphysical quandary altogether by choosing not to affiliate himself with relaxation of any
form. Instead, he occupies himself with songwriting, playing guitar, and parallel structure-ing. When he
isn’t doing those things, he’s considering the merits of democratic elections, oligarchic disinterestedness,
and delicious gouda cheese.
Vital Stats:
Anthony Sam Wu, also known by various monikers to different people (Tony,
Panda-chan, "Anthany,” et al.), is a scholastic competing for Mark Keppel High, a
school of sorts based in California. The photo shown explains a lot as to why Anthony
is so strange (playing "Duke Nukem II" at age three? Really now).
Lawrence Lan doesn’t usually write about himself in the third person. What he does
do on a usual basis is sleep—anytime, anyplace. When he is not sleeping irregularly,
Lawrence finds satisfaction in good music, freeze-dried mango pieces, and The Office.
A graduate and ex-Decathlete from Palos Verdes Peninsula High School in southern
California, Lawrence currently attends Cornell University in Snowyville, New
York—known by the locals as Ithaca.
Fermi Ma (fermima1@gmail.com; not pictured) will be starting his junior year at Northside College
Prep when September rolls around. He has been an active participant in his high school's Academic
Decathlon Team and Math Team for the past two years. In his spare time, Fermi enjoys playing
basketball, running, and solving math problems.
Math Power Guide | 82
Miandra Ellis (miandra_ann@yahoo.com; not pictured) has been in Academic Decathlon for the past
two years and this year will be her last. Miandra has learned only one thing from two years in the
program: there is way more to learn out there.
Hillary Lam
Benjamin Ferell
Shiv Pande