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Terminal Velocity of Settling Particle

Rate at which discrete particles settle in a fluid at constant temperature
is given by Newtons equation:

vs = [(4g(s - )dp) / (3Cd )] 0.5

where

vs
g
s

dp
Cd

= terminal settling velocity (m/s)

= gravitational constant (m/s2)
= density of the particle (kg/m3)
= density of the fluid (kg/m3)
= particle diameter (m)
= Drag Coefficient (dimensionless)

The terminal settling velocity is derived by balancing drag, buoyant,

and gravitational forces that act on the particle.

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Reynolds Number
In fluid mechanics, the Reynolds Number, Re (or NR), is a dimensionless
number that is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
It quantifies the relative importance of these two types of forces for a
given set of flow conditions.

where:
v = mean velocity of an object relative to a fluid (m/s)
L = characteristic dimension, (length of fluid; particle diameter) (m)
= dynamic viscosity of fluid (kg/(ms))
= kinematic viscosity ( = /) (m/s)
= fluid density (kg/m)

Drag Coefficient and Reynolds Number

Cd is determined from Stokes Law which relates drag to Reynolds Number

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Drag Coefficient and Reynolds Number

Cd is determined from Stokes Law which relates drag to Reynolds Number

Drag Coefficient and Reynolds Number

Cd is determined from Stokes Law which relates drag to Reynolds Number

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Drag Coefficient and Reynolds Number

Cd is determined from Stokes Law which relates drag to Reynolds Number

Drag Coefficient and Reynolds Number

Cd is determined from Stokes Law which relates drag to Reynolds Number

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Drag Coefficient and Reynolds Number

Cd is determined from Stokes Law which relates drag to Reynolds Number

Terminal Velocity of Settling Particle

Terminal velocity is affected by:

Temperature
Fluid Density


Particle Density


Particle Size


Particle Shape
Degree of Turbulence


Volume fraction of solids
Solid surface charge and pulp chemistry
Magnetic and electric field strength
Vertical velocity of fluid

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Drag Coefficient of Settling Particle

Terminal Velocity of Settling Particle

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Type I FreeFree-Settling Velocity

Particle Settling in a Laminar (or Quiescent Liquid)
Momentum Balance

Type I FreeFree-Settling Velocity

Particle Settling in a Laminar (or Quiescent Liquid)

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Type I FreeFree-Settling Velocity

Integrating gives the steady state solution:

For a sphere:

Terminal Velocity of Settling Particle

Type I Settling of Spheres

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Terminal Velocity of Settling Particle

Terminal Velocity under

Hindered Settling Conditions
McGhees (1991) equation estimates velocity for spherical
particles under hindered settling conditions for Re < 0.3:

Vh/V = (1 - Cv)4.65
where

Vh = hindered settling velocity

V = free settling velocity
Cv = volume fraction of solid particles
For Re > 1,000, the exponent is only 2.33
McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Resources and Environmental Engineering. Sixth Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

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Terminal Velocity under

Hindered Settling Conditions

McGhee, T.J., 1991. Water Resources and Environmental Engineering. Sixth Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Relationship between Cv and Weight%

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Effect of Alum on IEP

Ideal Rectangular Settling Vessel

Side view

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Ideal Rectangular Settling Vessel

Model Assumptions
1. Homogeneous feed is distributed uniformly over tank crosssectional area
2. Liquid in settling zone moves in plug flow at constant velocity
3. Particles settle according to Type I settling (free settling)
4. Particles are small enough to settle according to Stoke's Law
5. When particles enter sludge region, they exit the suspension

Ideal Rectangular Settling Vessel

Side view

u = average (constant) velocity of fluid flowing across vessel

vs = settling velocity of a particular particle
vo = critical settling velocity of finest particle recovered at 100%

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Retention Time
Average time spent in the vessel by an element
of the suspension

and W, H, L are the vessel dimensions;

u is the constant velocity

Critical Settling Velocity

If to is the residence time of liquid in the tank, then all
particles with a settling velocity equal to or greater
than the critical settling velocity, vo, will settle out at
or prior to to, i.e.,

So all particles with a settling velocity equal to or greater

than v0 will be separated in the tank from the fluid

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Critical Settling Velocity

Since

Note: this expression for vo has no H term. This defines the

overflow rate or surface-loading rate
- Key parameter to design ideal Type I settling clarifiers
- Cross-sectional area A is calculated to get desired v0

The Significance of H
Side view

The value of H can be used to estimate the fractional

recovery of particles with a settling velocity below vo

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The Significance of H
Only a fraction of particles with a settling velocity vx
(less than vo) will settle out. The fraction Fx of particles
dx (with velocity vx) that settle out is:

The Significance of H
Only a fraction of particles with a settling velocity vx
(less than vo) will settle out. The fraction Fx of particles
dx (with velocity vx) that settle out is:

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Fraction of particles
with a velocity below vs

Cumulative Distribution Curve

for Particle Velocities

settling velocity vs (mm/sec)

Total Fraction Removed:

Ideal Circular Settling Vessel

Side view

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Ideal Circular Settling Vessel

At any particular time and distance

Ideal Circular Settling Vessel

In an interval dt, a particle having a diameter below do
will have moved vertically and horizontally as follows:

For particles with a diameter dx (below do),

the fractional removal is given by:

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Sedimentation Thickener/Clarifier
Top view
Side view

Plate or Lamella Thickener/Clarifier

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Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Thickener (Type III) Control System

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Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Solid Flux Analysis

Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Solid Movement in Thickener

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Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Experimental Determination of Solids Settling Velocity

Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Solids Settling Velocity in Hindered Settling

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Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Solids Gravity Flux

Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Bulk Velocity

where
ub = bulk velocity of slurry
Qu = volumetric flow rate of thickener underflow
A = Surface area of thickener

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Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Total Solids Flux

Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Limiting Solids Flux, GL Dicks Method

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Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Limiting Solids Flux, GL Dicks Method
- In hindered settling zone, solids concentration ranges
from feed concentration to underflow concentration Xu
- Within this range, a concentration exists that gives
smallest (or limiting) value, GL, of the solid flux G
- If thickener is designed for a G value such that G > GL,
solids builds up in the clarifying zone and will overflow

Continuous Thickener (Type III)

Limiting Solids Flux, GL Dicks Method
- The point where the total gravity flux curve is minimum
gives GL and XL
- GL is highest flux allowed in the thickener
- At bottom of thickener, there is no gravity flux as all solid
material is removed via bulk flux, i.e.,

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Mass Balance in a Thickener

Thickener CrossCross-Sectional Area

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Thickener CrossCross-Sectional Area

Talmadge Fitch Method

Thickener CrossCross-Sectional Area

Talmadge Fitch Method
- Obtain settling rate data from experiment (determine
interface height of settling solids (H) vs. time (t)
- Construct curve of H vs. t
- Determine point where hindered settling changes to
compression settling
- intersection of tangents
- construct a bisecting line through this point
- draw tangent to curve where bisecting line intersects the curve

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Thickener CrossCross-Sectional Area

Talmadge Fitch Method
- Draw horizontal line for H = Hu that corresponds to the
underflow concentration Xu, where

- Determine tu by drawing vertical line at point where

horizontal line at Hu intersects the bisecting tangent line

Thickener CrossCross-Sectional Area

Talmadge Fitch Method
- Obtain cross-sectional area required from:

- Compute the minimum area of the clarifying section

using a particle settling velocity of the settling velocity
at t = 0 in the column test.
- Choose the largest of these two values

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Thickener CrossCross-Sectional Area

Coe Clevenger Method
- Developed in 1916 and still in use today:

where
A = cross-sectional area (m2)
F = feed pulp liquid/solids ratio
L = underflow pulp liquid/solid ratio
s = solids density (g/cm3)
Vm = settling velocity (m/hr)
dw/dt = dry solids production rate (g/hr)

Thickener Depth and Residece Time

- Equations describing solids settling do not include tank
depth. So it is determined arbitrarily by the designer
- Specifying depth is equivalent to specifying residence
time for a given flow rate and cross-sectional area
- In practice, residence time is of the order of 1-2 hours
to reduce impact of non-ideal behaviour

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Typical Settling Test

Type II Settling (flocculant)

- Coalescence of particles occurs during settling (large
particles with high velocities overtake small particles
with low velocities)
- Collision frequency proportional to solids concentration
- Collision frequency proportional to level of turbulence
(but too high an intensity will promote break-up)
- Cumulative number of collisions increases with time

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Type II Settling (flocculant)

- Particle agglomerates have higher settling velocities
- Rate of particle settling increases with time
- Longer residence times and deeper tanks promote
coalescence
- Fractional removal is function of overflow rate and
residence time.
- With Type I settling, only overflow rate is significant

Primary Thickener Design

- Typical design is for Type II characteristics
- Underflow densities are typically 50-65% solids
- Safety factors are applied to reduce effect of
uncertainties regarding flocculant settling velocities
1.5 to 2.0 x calculated retention time
0.6 to 0.8 x surface loading (overflow rate)

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Primary Thickener Design

Non-ideal conditions
Turbulence
Hydraulic short-circuiting
Bottom scouring velocity (re-suspension)
All cause shorter residence time of fluid and/or particles

Primary Thickener Design Parameters

Depth (m)

3-5 m

Diameter (m)

3 - 170 m

Bottom Slope

0.06 to 0.16 (3.5 to 10)

Rotation Speed
of rake arm

0.02 - 0.05 rpm

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Hindered (or Zone) Settling (Type III)

- solids concentration is high such that particle interactions
are significant
- cohesive forces are so strong that movement of particles
is restricted
- particles settle together establishing a distinct interface
between clarified fluid and settling particles

Compression Settling (Type IV)

- When solids density is very high, particles provide partial
mechanical support for those above
- particles undergo mechanical compression as they settle
- Type IV settling is extremely slow (measured in days)

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