Maths in Focus Ext 1 Preliminary-4

Mathematics Extension 1
Preliminary Course
maths
Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
maths
Margaret Grove
Text 2010 Grove and Associates Pty Ltd

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National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
Author:
Grove, Margaret.
Title:
Maths in focus: mathematics extension preliminary course/Margaret Grove.
Edition:
2nd ed.
ISBN:
9780070278585 (pbk.)
Target Audience:
For secondary school age.
Subjects:
MathematicsProblems, exercises, etc. MathematicsTextbooks.
Dewey Number:
510.76
Published in Australia by
McGraw-Hill Australia Pty Ltd
Level 2, 82 Waterloo Road, North Ryde NSW 2113
Publisher: Eiko Bron
Managing Editor: Kathryn Fairfax
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Contents
PREFACE
ix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ix
CREDITS
ix
FEATURES OF THIS BOOK
ix
SYLLABUS MATRIX
STUDY SKILLS
xi
Chapter 1: Basic Arithmetic
INTRODUCTION
REAL NUMBERS
DIRECTED NUMBERS
FRACTIONS, DECIMALS AND PERCENTAGES
POWERS AND ROOTS
ABSOLUTE VALUE
TEST YOURSELF 1
CHALLENGE EXERCISE 1
Chapter 2: Algebra and Surds
INTRODUCTION
SIMPLIFYING EXPRESSIONS
BINOMIAL PRODUCTS
FACTORISATION
COMPLETING THE SQUARE
ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
SUBSTITUTION
SURDS
TEST YOURSELF 2
Chapter 3: Equations
INTRODUCTION
SIMPLE EQUATIONS
SUBSTITUTION
INEQUATIONS
EQUATIONS AND INEQUATIONS INVOLVING ABSOLUTE VALUES
EXPONENTIAL EQUATIONS
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
FURTHER INEQUATIONS
QUADRATIC INEQUATIONS
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
TEST YOURSELF 3
3
3
9
12
19
37
41
43
44
45
45
51
55
69
71
73
76
90
93
94
95
95
100
103
107
114
118
125
129
132
138
139
vi
Chapter 4: Geometry 1
140
INTRODUCTION
NOTATION
TYPES OF ANGLES
PARALLEL LINES
TYPES OF TRIANGLES
CONGRUENT TRIANGLES
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
PYTHAGORAS THEOREM
TYPES OF QUADRILATERALS
POLYGONS
AREAS
TEST YOURSELF 4
141
141
142
149
153
159
163
171
177
184
188
195
197
Practice Assessment Task Set 1

Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS
GRAPHING TECHNIQUES
LINEAR FUNCTION
QUADRATIC FUNCTION
ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION
THE HYPERBOLA
CIRCLES AND SEMI-CIRCLES
OTHER GRAPHS
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY
FURTHER GRAPHS
REGIONS
TEST YOURSELF 5
Chapter 6: Trigonometry
INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS
RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE PROBLEMS
APPLICATIONS
EXACT RATIOS
ANGLES OF ANY MAGNITUDE
TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
NON-RIGHT-ANGLED TRIANGLE RESULTS
APPLICATIONS
AREA
TRIGONOMETRY IN THREE DIMENSIONS
SUMS AND DIFFERENCES OF ANGLES
FURTHER TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS
TEST YOURSELF 6
199
204
205
205
216
224
228
234
242
246
254
260
264
277
287
288
290
291
291
299
308
318
322
336
342
347
358
362
365
367
374
385
387
vii
Chapter 7: Linear Functions

INTRODUCTION
DISTANCE
MIDPOINT
GRADIENT
EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE
PARALLEL AND PERPENDICULAR LINES
INTERSECTION OF LINES
PERPENDICULAR DISTANCE
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES
RATIOS
TEST YOURSELF 7
Chapter 8: Introduction to Calculus
INTRODUCTION
GRADIENT
DIFFERENTIATION FROM FIRST PRINCIPLES
SHORT METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION
TANGENTS AND NORMALS
FURTHER DIFFERENTIATION AND INDICES
COMPOSITE FUNCTION RULE
PRODUCT RULE
QUOTIENT RULE
ANGLE BETWEEN 2 CURVES
TEST YOURSELF 8
Chapter 9: Properties of the Circle
INTRODUCTION
PARTS OF A CIRCLE
ARCS, ANGLES AND CHORDS
CHORD PROPERTIES
CONCYCLIC POINTS
TANGENT PROPERTIES
TEST YOURSELF 9
Chapter 10: The Quadratic Function
INTRODUCTION
GRAPH OF A QUADRATIC FUNCTION
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
THE DISCRIMINANT
QUADRATIC IDENTITIES
SUM AND PRODUCT OF ROOTS
EQUATIONS REDUCIBLE TO QUADRATICS
TEST YOURSELF 10
390
391
391
396
398
408
412
417
422
426
430
434
435
438
439
440
449
465
471
476
478
482
485
487
490
491
494
498
499
499
500
512
519
525
537
539
542
543
543
549
555
562
566
571
575
576
viii
Chapter 11: Locus and the Parabola

INTRODUCTION
LOCUS
CIRCLE AS A LOCUS
PARABOLA AS A LOCUS
GENERAL PARABOLA
TANGENTS AND NORMALS
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF THE PARABOLA
CHORDS, TANGENTS AND NORMALS
PROPERTIES OF THE PARABOLA
LOCUS PROBLEMS
TEST YOURSELF 11
Chapter 12: Polynomials 1
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF A POLYNOMIAL
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS
GRAPH OF A POLYNOMIAL
ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS OF POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
TEST YOURSELF 12
Chapter 13: Permutations and Combinations
INTRODUCTION
FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
PERMUTATIONS
COMBINATIONS
TEST YOURSELF 13
Answers
578
579
579
587
591
610
625
627
634
643
648
652
653
655
662
663
663
667
672
681
706
713
714
716
717
717
730
740
746
747
749
756
ix
PREFACE
This book covers the Preliminary syllabus for Mathematics and Extension 1. The extension material
is easy to see as it has green headings and there is green shading next to all extension question and
answers. The syllabus is available through the NSW Board of Studies website on www.boardofstudies.
nsw.edu.au. You can also access resources, study techniques, examination technique, sample and
past examination papers through other websites such as www.math.nsw.edu.au and www.csu.edu.
au. Searching the Internet generally will pick up many websites supporting the work in this course.
Each chapter has comprehensive fully worked examples and explanations as well as ample sets
of graded exercises. The theory follows a logical order, although some topics may be learned in any
order. Each chapter contains Test Yourself and Challenge exercises, and there are several practice
assessment tasks throughout the book.
If you have trouble doing the Test Yourself exercises at the end of a chapter, you will need to
go back into the chapter and revise it before trying them again. Dont attempt to do the Challenge
exercises until you are confident that you can do the Test Yourself exercises, as these are more difficult
and are designed to test the more able students who understand the topic really well.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to my family, especially my husband Geoff, for supporting me in writing this book.
CREDITS
Fairfax Photos: p 327
Istockphoto: p 101, p 171
Margaret Grove: p 37, p 163, p 206, p 246, p 260, p 291, p308 (bottom), p 310, p 311, p 313, p 316,
p 391, p 499, p 543, p 591, p 717, p 719, p 726, p 729, p 730, p 739
Photolibrary: p 205
Shutterstock: p 74, p 164, p 229, p 308 (top), p 580
FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

This second edition retains all the features of previous Maths in Focus books while adding in new
improvements.
The main feature of Maths in Focus is in its readability, its plentiful worked examples and
straightforward language so that students can understand it and use it in self-paced learning. The
logical progression of topics, the comprehensive fully worked examples and graded exercises are still
major features.
A wide variety of questions is maintained, with more comprehensive and more difficult questions
included in each topic. At the end of each chapter is a consolidation set of exercises (Test yourself)
in no particular order that will test whether the student has grasped the concepts contained in the
chapter. There is also a challenge set for the more able students.
The four practice assessment tasks provide a comprehensive variety of mixed questions from
various chapters. These have been extended to contain questions in the form of sample examination
questions, including short answer, free response and multiple-choice questions that students may
encounter in assessments.
The second edition also features a short summary of general study skills that students will find
useful, both in the classroom and when doing assessment tasks and examinations. These study skills
are also repeated in the HSC book.
A syllabus matrix is included to show where each syllabus topic fits into the book. Topics are
generally arranged in a logical order. For example, arithmetic and algebra are needed in most, if not
all other topics, so these are treated at the beginning of the book.
Some teachers like to introduce particular topics before others, e.g. linear functions before more
general functions. However, part of the work on gradient requires some knowledge of trigonometry
and the topic of angles of any magnitude in trigonometry needs some knowledge of functions. So
the order of most chapters in the book have been carefully thought out. Some chapters, however,
could be covered in a different order, such as geometry which is covered in Chapter 4, and quadratic
functions and locus, which are near the end of the book.
SYLLABUS MATRIX
This matrix shows how the syllabus is organised in the chapters of this book.
Mathematics (2 Unit)
Basic arithmetic and algebra (1.1 1.4)
Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic

Chapter 2: Algebra and surds
Real functions (4.1 4.4)
Chapter 5: Functions and graphs
Trigonometric ratios (5.1 5.5)
Linear functions (6.1 6.5, 6.7)
Chapter 7: Linear functions
The quadratic polynomial and the parabola (9.1 9.5)
Chapter 10: The quadratic function

Chapter 11: Locus and the parabola
Plane geometry (2.1 2.4)
Tangent to a curve and derivative of a function (8.1 8.9)
Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
Extension 1
Other inequalities (1.4E)
Circle geometry (2.6 2.10E)
Chapter 9: Properties of the circle
Further trigonometry (5.6 5.9E)
Angles between two lines (6.6E)
xi
Internal and external division of lines into given ratios (6.7E)
Parametric representation (9.6E)
Permutations and combinations

(18.1E)
Chapter 13: Permutations and combinations
Polynomials (16.1 16.3E)
STUDY SKILLS
You may have coasted through previous stages without needing to rely on regular study, but in this
course many of the topics are new and you will need to systematically revise in order to build up your
skills and to remember them.
The Preliminary course introduces the basics of topics such as calculus that are then applied in
the HSC course. You will struggle in the HSC if you dont set yourself up to revise the preliminary
topics as you learn new HSC topics.
Your teachers will be able to help you build up and manage good study habits. Here are a few
hints to get you started.
There is no right or wrong way to learn. Different styles of learning suit different people. There
is also no magical number of hours a week that you should study, as this will be different for every
student. But just listening in class and taking notes is not enough, especially when learning material
that is totally new.
You wouldnt go for your drivers licence after just one trip in the car, or enter a dance competition
after learning a dance routine once. These skills take a lot of practice. Studying mathematics is just
the same.
If a skill is not practised within the first 24 hours, up to 50% can be forgotten. If it is not practised
within 72 hours, up to 8590% can be forgotten! So it is really important that whatever your study
timetable, new work must be looked at soon after it is presented to you.
With a continual succession of new work to learn and retain, this is a challenge. But the good
news is that you dont have to study for hours on end!
In the classroom
In order to remember, first you need to focus on what is being said and done.
According to an ancient proverb:
I hear and I forget

I see and I remember
I do and I understand
If you chat to friends and just take notes without really paying attention, you arent giving yourself a
chance to remember anything and will have to study harder at home.
xii
If you have just had a fight with a friend, have been chatting about weekend activities or myriad
other conversations outside the classroom, it helps if you can check these at the door and dont keep
chatting about them once the lesson starts.
If you are unsure of something that the teacher has said, the chances are that others are also not
sure. Asking questions and clarifying things will ultimately help you gain better results, especially
in a subject like mathematics where much of the knowledge and skills depends on being able to
understand the basics.
Learning is all about knowing what you know and what you dont know. Many students feel like
they dont know anything, but its surprising just how much they know already. Picking up the main
concepts in class and not worrying too much about other less important parts can really help. The
teacher can guide you on this.
Here are some pointers to get the best out of classroom learning:
Take control and be responsible for your own learning
Clear your head of other issues in the classroom
Active, not passive, learning is more memorable
Ask questions if you dont understand something
Listen for cues from the teacher
Look out for what are the main concepts
Note taking varies from class to class, but there are some general guidelines that will help when you
come to read over your notes later on at home:
Write legibly
Use different colours to highlight important points or formulae
Make notes in textbooks (using pencil if you dont own the textbook)
Use highlighter pens to point out important points
Summarise the main points
If notes are scribbled, rewrite them at home
At home
You are responsible for your own learning and nobody else can tell you how best to study. Some
people need more revision time than others, some study better in the mornings while others do better
at night, and some can work at home while others prefer a library.
There are some general guidelines for studying at home:
Revise both new and older topics regularly
Have a realistic timetable and be flexible
Summarise the main points
Revise when you are fresh and energetic
Divide study time into smaller rather than longer chunks
xiii
Study in a quiet environment

Have a balanced life and dont forget to have fun!
If you are given exercises out of a textbook to do for homework, consider asking the teacher if you
can leave some of them till later and use these for revision. It is not necessary to do every exercise at
one sitting, and you learn better if you can spread these over time.
People use different learning styles to help them study. The more variety the better, and you will
find some that help you more than others. Some people (around 35%) learn best visually, some (25%)
learn best by hearing and others (40%) learn by doing.
Here are some ideas to give you a variety of ways to study:
Summarise on cue cards or in a small notebook
Use colourful posters
Use mindmaps and diagrams
Discuss work with a group of friends
Read notes out aloud
Make up songs and rhymes
Do exercises regularly
Role play teaching someone else
Assessment tasks and exams

Many of the assessment tasks for maths are closed book examinations.
You will cope better in exams if you have practised doing sample exams under exam conditions.
Regular revision will give you confidence and if you feel well prepared, this will help get rid of nerves
in the exam. You will also cope better if you have had a reasonable nights sleep before the exam.
One of the biggest problems students have with exams is in timing. Make sure you dont spend too
much time on questions youre unsure about, but work through and find questions you can do first.
Divide the time up into smaller chunks for each question and allow some extra time to go back
to questions you couldnt do or finish. For example, in a 2 hour exam with 6 questions, allow around
15 minutes for each question. This will give an extra half hour at the end to tidy up and finish off
questions.
Here are some general guidelines for doing exams:
Read through and ensure you know how many questions there are
Divide your time between questions with extra time at the end
Dont spend too much time on one question
Read each question carefully, underlining key words
Show all working out, including diagrams and formulae
Cross out mistakes with a single line so it can still be read
Write legibly
xiv
And finally
Study involves knowing what you dont know, and putting in a lot of time into concentrating on
these areas. This is a positive way to learn. Rather than just saying, I cant do this, say instead, I cant
do this yet, and use your teachers, friends, textbooks and other ways of finding out.
With the parts of the course that you do know, make sure you can remember these easily under
exam pressure by putting in lots of practice.
Remember to look at new work
today
tomorrow
in a week
in a month
Some people hardly ever find time to study while others give up their outside lives to devote their
time to study. The ideal situation is to balance study with other aspects of your life, including going
out with friends, working and keeping up with sport and other activities that you enjoy.
Good luck with your studies!
1
Basic Arithmetic
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute value: The distance of a number from zero on
the number line. Hence it is the magnitude or value of a
number without the sign
Directed numbers: The set of integers or whole
numbers f -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, f
Exponent: Power or index of a number. For example 23
has a base number of 2 and an exponent of 3
Index: The power of a base number showing how
many times this number is multiplied by itself
e.g. 2 3 = 2 # 2 # 2. The index is 3
Indices: More than one index (plural)

Recurring decimal: A repeating decimal that does not
terminate e.g. 0.777777 is a recurring decimal that can
be written as a fraction. More than one digit can recur
e.g. 0.14141414 ...
Scientic notation: Sometimes called standard notation.
A standard form to write very large or very small numbers
as a product of a number between 1 and 10 and a power
of 10 e.g. 765 000 000 is 7.65 # 10 8 in scientific notation
Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER GIVES A review of basic arithmetic skills, including knowing the
correct order of operations, rounding off, and working with fractions, decimals
and percentages. Work on signicant gures, scientic notation and indices is
also included, as are the concepts of absolute values. Basic calculator skills are
also covered in this chapter.
Real Numbers
Types of numbers
Unreal or imaginary
numbers
Real numbers
Rational
numbers
Irrational
numbers
Integers
Integers are whole numbers that may be positive, negative or zero.

e.g. - 4, 7, 0, -11
a
Rational numbers can be written in the form of a fraction
b
3
where a and b are integers, b ! 0. e.g. 1 , 3.7, 0. 5, - 5
4
a
Irrational numbers cannot be written in the form of a fraction (that
b
is, they are not rational) e.g. 2 , r
EXAMPLE
Which of these numbers are rational and which are irrational?
3
r
3 , 1. 3, , 9 , , - 2.65
4
5
Solution
r
are irrational as they cannot be written as fractions (r is irrational).
4
3
13
1
1. 3 = 1 , 9 = and - 2.65 = - 2
so they are all rational.
3
1
20
3 and
Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
Order of operations
1. Brackets: do calculations inside grouping symbols rst. (For example,
a fraction line, square root sign or absolute value sign can act as a
grouping symbol.)
2. Multiply or divide from left to right.
3. Add or subtract from left to right.
EXAMPLE
Evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g .
Solution
40 - 3 (5 + 4) = 40 - 3# 9
= 40 - 27
= 13
BRACKETS KEYS
Use ( and ) to open and close brackets. Always use them in pairs.
For example, to evaluate 40 - 3 ] 5 + 4 g
press 40 - 3 #
( 5 + 4 ) =
= 13
5.67 - 3.49
correct to 1 decimal place
1.69 + 2.77
To evaluate
press :
( 5.67 - 3.49 )
'
( 1.69 + 2.77 )
= 0.7
correct to 1 decimal place
PROBLEM
What is wrong with this calculation?
19 - 4
1+2
Press 19 - 4 ' 1 + 2 = 19 - 4 '1 + 2
Evaluate
What is the correct answer?
17
MEMORY KEYS
Use STO to store a number in memory.
There are several memories that you can use at the same timeany letter from
A to F, or X, Y and M on the keypad.
To store the number 50 in, say, A press 50 STO A
To recall this number, press ALPHA A =
To clear all memories press SHIFT CLR
X -1 KEY
Use this key to find the reciprocal of x. For example, to evaluate
1
- 7.6 # 2.1
-1
=
press ( (-) 7.6 # 2.1 ) x
= - 0.063 (correct to 3 decimal places)
Rounding off
Rounding off is often done in everyday life. A quick look at a newspaper will
give plenty of examples. For example in the sports section, a newspaper may
report that 50 000 fans attended a football match.
An accurate number is not always necessary. There may have been exactly
49 976 people at the football game, but 50 000 gives an idea of the size of the
crowd.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 24 629 to the nearest thousand.
Solution
This number is between 24 000 and 25 000, but it is closer to 25 000.
` 24 629 = 25 000 to the nearest thousand
CONTINUED
Different calculators use

different keys so check
the instructions for your
calculator.
2. Write 850 to the nearest hundred.
Solution
This number is exactly halfway between 800 and 900. When a number is
halfway, we round it off to the larger number.
` 850 = 900 to the nearest hundred
In this course you will need to round off decimals, especially when using
trigonometry or logarithms.
To round a number off to a certain number of decimal places, look at the
next digit to the right. If this digit is 5 or more, add 1 to the digit before it and
drop all the other digits after it. If the digit to the right is less than 5, leave the
digit before it and drop all the digits to the right.
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 1 decimal place.
Add 1 to the 6 as the 8 is
greater than 5.
Solution
0.6825371
#
` 0.6825371 = 0.7 correct to 1 decimal place
2. Round off 0.6825371 correct to 2 decimal places.
Drop off the 2 and all digits

to the right as 2 is smaller
than 5.
Solution
0.6825371
#
` 0.6825371 = 0.68 correct to 2 decimal places
3. Evaluate 3.56 ' 2.1 correct to 2 decimal places.
Check this on your

calculator. Add 1 to the
69 as 5 is too large to just
drop off.
Solution
3.56 ' 2.1 = 1.69 #
5238095
= 1.70 correct to 2 decimal places
FIX KEY
Use MODE or SET UP to fix the number of decimal places (see the
instructions for your calculator). This will cause all answers to have a fixed number
of decimal places until the calculator is turned off or switched back to normal.
While using a xed number of decimal places on the display, the

calculator still keeps track internally of the full number of decimal places.
EXAMPLE
Calculate 3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.889534884 # 5.97 + 7.32
= 11.28052326 + 7.32
= 18.60052326
= 18.60 correct to 2 decimal places
If the FIX key is set to 2 decimal places, then the display will show
2 decimal places at each step.
3.25 ' 1.72 # 5.97 + 7.32 = 1.89 # 5.97 + 7.32
= 11.28 + 7.32
= 18.60
If you then set the calculator back to normal, the display will show the
full answer of 18.60052326.
The calculator does not round off at each step. If it did, the answer might
not be as accurate. This is an important point, since some students round
off each step in calculations and then wonder why they do not get the same
answer as other students and the textbook.
1.1 Exercises
1.
State which numbers are rational

and which are irrational.
(a) 169
(b) 0.546
(c) -17
r
(d)
3
(e) 0.34
(f)
218
(g) 2 2
1
(h)
27
(i) 17.4%
1
(j)
5
Dont round off at

each step of a series of
calculations.
2.
3.
Evaluate
(a) 20 - 8 ' 4
(b) 3 # 7 - 2 # 5
(c) 4 # ] 27 ' 3 g ' 6
(d) 17 + 3 # - 2
(e) 1.9 - 2 # 3.1
14 ' 7
(f)
-1 + 3
3
1 2
(g) 2 - #
5
5 3
3
1
1 4
8
(h)
5
6
5
5
'
8
6
(i)
1
1
+
4
8
1
7
3 5
10
(j)
1
1
1 4
2
7.
A crowd of 10 739 spectators

attended a tennis match.
Write this gure to the nearest
thousand.
8.
A school has 623 students. What

is this to the nearest hundred?
9.
A bank made loans to the value

of $7 635 718 last year. Round this
off to the nearest million.
Evaluate correct to 2 decimal

places.
(a) 2.36 + 4.2 ' 0.3
(b) ] 2.36 + 4.2 g ' 0.3
(c) 12.7 # 3.95 ' 5.7
(d) 8.2 ' 0.4 + 4.1# 0.54
(e) ] 3.2 - 6.5 g # ] 1.3 + 2.7 g
1
(f)
4.7 + 1.3
1
(g)
4.51 + 3.28
13. Round off 32.569148 to the

nearest unit.
0.9 + 1.4
(h)
5.2 - 3.6
5.33 + 2.87
(i)
1.23 - 3.15
(j)
4.
1.7 2 + 8.9 2 - 3.94 2
Round off 1289 to the nearest

hundred.
5.
Write 947 to the nearest ten.
6.
Round off 3200 to the nearest

thousand.
10. A company made a prot of

$34 562 991.39 last year. Write
this to the nearest hundred
thousand.
11. The distance between two cities
is 843.72 km. What is this to the
nearest kilometre?
12. Write 0.72548 correct to
2 decimal places.
14. Round off 3.24819 to 3 decimal

places.
15. Evaluate 2.45 # 1.72 correct to
2 decimal places.
16. Evaluate 8.7 ' 5 correct to
1 decimal place.
17. If pies are on special at 3 for
$2.38, nd the cost of each pie.
18. Evaluate 7.48 correct to
2 decimal places.
6.4 + 2.3
correct to
8
1 decimal place.
19. Evaluate
20. Find the length of each piece

of material, to 1 decimal place,
if 25 m of material is cut into
7 equal pieces.
21. How much will 7.5 m 2 of tiles

cost, at $37.59 per m2?
3.5 + 9.8
5.6 + 4.35
15.9 + 6.3 - 7.8
(d)
7.63 - 5.12
1
(e)
6.87 - 3.21
(c)
22. Divide 12.9 grams of salt into

7 equal portions, to 1 decimal
place.
23. The cost of 9 peaches is $5.72.
How much would 5 peaches cost?
9.91 - ] 9.68 - 5.47 g

5.39 2
correct to 1 decimal place.
25. Evaluate
24. Evaluate correct to 2 decimal

places.
(a) 17.3 - 4.33 # 2.16
(b) 8.72 # 5.68 - 4.9 # 3.98
DID YOU KNOW?

In building, engineering and other industries where accurate measurements are used, the
number of decimal places used indicates how accurate the measurements are.
For example, if a 2.431 m length of timber is cut into 8 equal parts, according to the
calculator each part should be 0.303875 m. However, a machine could not cut this accurately.
A length of 2.431 m shows that the measurement of the timber is only accurate to the nearest
mm (2.431 m is 2431 mm). The cut pieces can also only be accurate to the nearest mm (0.304 m
or 304 mm).
The error in measurement is related to rounding off, as the error is half the smallest
measurement. In the above example, the measurement error is half a millimetre. The length of
timber could be anywhere between 2430.5 mm and 2431.5 mm.
Directed Numbers
Many students use the calculator with work on directed numbers (numbers
that can be positive or negative). Directed numbers occur in algebra and
other topics, where you will need to remember how to use them. A good
understanding of directed numbers will make your algebra skills much better.
^ - h KEY
Use this key to enter negative numbers. For example,
press (-) 3
10
Adding and subtracting
To add: move to the right along the number line

To subtract: move to the left along the number line
-4
-3
-2
-1
Subtract
Add
EXAMPLES
You can also do these on a
calculator, or you may have
a different way of working
these out.
Evaluate
1. - 4 + 3
Solution
Start at - 4 and move 3 places to the right.
-4
-3
-2
-1
- 4 + 3 = -1
2. -1 - 2
Solution
Start at -1 and move 2 places to the left.
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1 - 2 = -3
Multiplying and dividing

To multiply or divide, follow these rules. This rule also works if there are two
signs together without a number in between e.g. 2 - -3
Same signs = +
+ + =+
- - =+
Different signs = + - =- + =-
11
EXAMPLES
Evaluate
1. - 2 #7
Solution
Different signs (- 2 and + 7) give a negative answer.
- 2 # 7 = -14
2. -12 ' - 4
Solution
Same signs (-12 and - 4) give a positive answer.
-12 ' - 4 = 3
3. -1 - - 3
Solution
The signs together are the same (both negative) so give a positive answer.
-
-1 - 3 = -1 + 3
=2
1.2 Exercises
Evaluate
1.
-2 + 3
11. 5 - 3 # 4
2.
-7 - 4
12. - 2 + 7 # - 3
3.
8 # -7
13. 4 - 3 # - 2
4.
7 - ]-3 g
14. -1 - -2
5.
28 ' -7
15. 7 + - 2
6.
- 4.9 + 3.7
16. 2 - ] -1 g
7.
- 2.14 - 5.37
17. - 2 + 15 ' 5
8.
4.8 # -7.4
18. - 2 # 6 # - 5
9.
1.7 - ] - 4.87 g
19. - 28 ' -7 # - 5
10. -
3
2
-1
5
3
20. ] - 3 g2
Start at -1 and move 3

places to the right.
12
Fractions, Decimals and Percentages

Conversions
You can do all these
conversions on your
calculator using the
b
a or S + D key.
c
EXAMPLES
1. Write 0.45 as a fraction in its simplest form.
Solution
45
5
'
5
100
9
=
20
0.45 =
3
means 3 ' 8.
8
2. Convert
3
to a decimal.
8
Solution
0.375
8 g 3.000
3
So
= 0.375
8
3. Change 35.5% to a fraction.
Solution
35.5 2
#
100
2
71
=
200
35.5% =
4. Write 0.436 as a percentage.
Solution
Multiply by 100% to
change a fraction or
decimal to a percentage.
0.436 = 0.436 #100%

= 43.6%
5. Write 20 g as a fraction of 1 kg in its simplest form.
Solution
1 kg = 1000 g
20 g
20 g
=
1000 g
1 kg
1
=
50
13
6. Find the percentage of people who prefer to drink Lemon Fuzzy, if 24

out of every 30 people prefer it.
Solution
24 100%
#
= 80%
30
1
Sometimes decimals repeat, or recur.

Example
1
= 0.33333333 f = 0. 3
3
There are different methods that can be used to change a recurring
decimal into a fraction. Here is one way of doing it. Later you will discover
another method when studying series. (See HSC Course book, Chapter 8.)
EXAMPLES
A rational number is
any number that can be
written as a fraction.
1. Write 0. 4 as a rational number.
Solution
Let
n = 0.44444 f
Then
10n = 4.44444 f
(2) - (1): 9n = 4
4
n=
9
( 1)
( 2)
Check this on your

calculator by dividing
4 by 9.
2. Change 1.329 to a fraction.
Solution
n = 1.3292929 f
Let
Then 100n = 132.9292929 f
(2) - (1): 99n = 131.6
131.6
10
n=
#
99
10
1316
=
990
163
=1
495
( 1)
( 2)
CONTINUED
Try multiplying n by 10.

Why doesnt this work?
14
Another method
Let
n = 1.3292929 f
Then
10n = 13.2929292 f
and
1000n = 1329.292929 f
(2) - (1): 990n = 1316
1316
n=
990
163
=1
495
This method avoids decimals

in the fraction at the end.
(1 )
(2 )
1.3 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
Write each decimal as a fraction

in its lowest terms.
(a) 0.64
(b) 0.051
(c) 5.05
(d) 11.8
Change each fraction into a
decimal.
2
(a)
5
7
(b) 1
8
5
(c)
12
7
(d)
11
Convert each percentage to a
fraction in its simplest form.
(a) 2%
(b) 37.5%
(c) 0.1%
(d) 109.7%
4.
Write each percentage as a decimal.

(a) 27%
(b) 109%
(c) 0.3%
(d) 6.23%
5.
Write each fraction as a

percentage.
7
20
1
(b)
3
(a)
4
15
1
(d)
1000
(c) 2
6.
Write each decimal as a

percentage.
(a) 1.24
(b) 0.7
(c) 0.405
(d) 1.2794
7.
Write each percentage as a

decimal and as a fraction.
(a) 52%
(b) 7%
(c) 16.8%
(d) 109%
(e) 43.4%
1
(f) 12 %
4
8.
Write these fractions as recurring

decimals.
5
(a)
6
7
(b)
99
13
(c)
99
1
(d)
6
2
(e)
3
5
33
1
(g)
7
2
(h) 1
11
31
99
13 + 6
(e)
7+4
(d) 1 -
(f)
9.
Express as fractions in lowest

terms.
(a) 0. 8
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
0. 2
1. 5
3. 7

0. 67

0. 54
0.15
(h) 0.216

(i) 0.2 19

(j) 1.074
10. Evaluate and express as a decimal.
5
(a)
3+6
(b) 8 - 3 ' 5
4+7
(c)
12 + 3
11. Evaluate and write as a fraction.

(a) 7.5 ' ] 4.1 + 7.9 g
15.7 - 8.9
(b)
4.5 - 1.3
6.3 + 1.7
(c)
12.3 - 8.9 + 7.6
4 .3
(d)
11.5 - 9.7
64
(e)
8100
12. Angel scored 17 out of 23 in a
class test. What was her score as a
percentage, to the nearest unit?
13. A survey showed that 31 out of
40 people watched the news on
Monday night. What percentage
of people watched the news?
14. What percentage of 2 kg is 350 g?
15. Write 25 minutes as a percentage
of an hour.
Investigation
Explore patterns in recurring decimals by dividing numbers by 3, 6, 9, 11,
and so on.
Can you predict what the recurring decimal will be if a fraction has 3 in
the denominator? What about 9 in the denominator? What about 11?
Can you predict what fraction certain recurring decimals will be? What
denominator would 1 digit recurring give? What denominator would you
have for 2 digits recurring?
Operations with fractions, decimals and percentages

You will need to know how to work with fractions without using a calculator,
as they occur in other areas such as algebra, trigonometry and surds.
15
16
The examples on fractions show how to add, subtract, multiply or divide

fractions both with and without the calculator. The decimal examples will
help with some simple multiplying and the percentage examples will be useful
in Chapter 8 of the HSC Course book when doing compound interest.
Most students use their calculators for decimal calculations. However, it
is important for you to know how to operate with decimals. Sometimes the
calculator can give a wrong answer if the wrong key is pressed. If you can
estimate the size of the answer, you can work out if it makes sense or not. You
can also save time by doing simple calculations in your head.
DID YOU KNOW?

Some countries use a comma for the decimal pointfor example, 0,45 for 0.45.
This is the reason that our large numbers now have spaces instead of commas between
digitsfor example, 15 000 rather than 15,000.
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 1
3
2
- .
5
4
Solution
1
3
3
2
7
- = 5
4
5
4
28
15
=
20
20
13
=
20
2. Evaluate 2
1
' 3.
2
Solution
2
3
5
1
'3 = '
2
2
1
5 1
= #
2 3
5
=
6
3. Evaluate 0.056 # 100.

Move the decimal point
2 places to the right.
Solution
0.056 #100 = 5.6
17
4. Evaluate 0.02 # 0.3.

Multiply the numbers
and count the number
of decimal places in
the question.
Solution
0.02 # 0.3 = 0.006
5. Evaluate
8.753
.
10
Solution
Move the decimal

point 1 place to
the left.
8.753 ' 10 = 0.8753

1
6. The price of a $75 tennis racquet increased by 5 %. Find the new
2
price.
Solution
1
5 % = 0.055
2
1
` 5 % of $75 = 0.055#$75
2
= $4.13
1
or 105 % of $75 = 1.055#$75
2
= $79.13
So the price increases by $4.13 to $79.13.

7. The price of a book increased by 12%. If it now costs $18.00, what did
it cost before the price rise?
Solution
The new price is 112% (old price 100%, plus 12%)
$18.00
` 1% =
112
$18.00 100
100% =
#
112
1
= $16.07
So the old price was $16.07.
1.4 Exercises
1.
Write 18 minutes as a fraction of

2 hours in its lowest terms.
2.
Write 350 mL as a fraction of

1 litre in its simplest form.
3.
Evaluate
3
1
(a)
+
5
4
2
7
-2
5
10
3
2
(c) #1
5
4
3
(d) ' 4
7
3
2
(e) 1 ' 2
5
3
(b) 3
18
3
of $912.60.
5
4.
Find
5.
5
Find of 1 kg, in grams correct
7
to 1 decimal place.
6.
Trinh spends
sleeping,
1
of her day
3
7
1
at work and
24
12
eating. What fraction of the day

is left?
7.
I get $150.00 a week for a casual

1
job. If I spend
on bus fares,
10
2
1
on lunches and on outings,
15
3
how much money is left over for
savings?
8.
John grew by
9.
17
of his height
200
this year. If he was 165 cm tall
last year, what is his height now,
to the nearest cm?
Evaluate
(a) 8.9 + 3
(b) 9 - 3.7
(c) 1.9 #10
(d) 0.032 #100
(e) 0.7 # 5
(f) 0.8 # 0.3
(g) 0.02 # 0.009
(h) 5.72 #1000
8.74
(i)
100
(j) 3.76 # 0.1
10. Find 7% of $750.

11. Find 6.5% of 845 mL.
12. What is 12.5% of 9217 g?
13. Find 3.7% of $289.45.
14. If Kaye makes a profit of $5 by
selling a bike for $85, find the
profit as a percentage of the
selling price.
15. Increase 350 g by 15%.

1
16. Decrease 45 m by 8 %.
2
17. The cost of a calculator is now
$32. If it has increased by 3.5%,
how much was the old cost?
18. A tree now measures 3.5 m, which
is 8.3% more than its previous
years height. How high was the
tree then, to 1 decimal place?
19. This month there has been a

4.9% increase in stolen cars. If
546 cars were stolen last month,
how many were stolen this
month?
20. Georges computer cost $3500. If
it has depreciated by 17.2%, what
is the computer worth now?
19
PROBLEM
If both the hour hand and minute hand start at the same position at
12 oclock, when is the rst time, correct to a fraction of a minute, that
the two hands will be together again?
Powers and Roots

A power (or index) of a number shows how many times a number is
multiplied by itself.
EXAMPLES
1. 4 3 = 4 # 4 # 4 = 64
2. 2 5 = 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 # 2 = 32
A root of a number is the inverse of the power.
EXAMPLES
36 = 6 since 6 2 = 36
1.
2.
8 = 2 since 2 3 = 8
3.
64 = 2 since 2 6 = 64
DID YOU KNOW?

Many formulae use indices (powers and roots).
For example the compound interest formula that you will study in Chapter 8 of the HSC
n
Course book is A = P ^ 1 + r h
4
Geometry uses formulae involving indices, such as V = rr 3. Do you know what this
3
formula is for?
In Chapter 7, the formula for the distance between 2 points on a number plane is
d=
(x 2 - x 1) + (y 2 - y 1)
See if you can find other formulae involving indices.
In 4 3 the 4 is called the base

number and the 3 is called
the index or power.
20
POWER AND ROOT KEYS

Use the x 2 and x 3 keys for squares and cubes.
y
Use the x or ^ key to find powers of numbers.
key for square roots.
Use the
These laws work for any m

and n, including fractions and
negative numbers.
Use the
key for cube roots.
Use the
for other roots.
Index laws
There are some general laws that simplify calculations with indices.
am # an = am + n
Proof
a m # a n = (a # a #f# a) # (a # a #f# a)
14444244443 14444244443
m times
n times
=a
#
#
f
#
a
a
14444244443
m + n times
= am + n
am ' an = am - n
Proof
am
an
a # a #f# a (m times)
=
a # a #f# a (n times)
a # a #f# a (m - n times)
=
1
= am - n
am ' an =
(a m)n = a mn
Proof
(a m) n = a m # a m # a m #f# a m
= am + m + m + f + m
= a mn
(n times)
(n times)
(ab) n = a n b n
Proof
(ab) n = ab # ab # ab #f# ab (n times)
= (a # a #f# a) # (b # b #f# b)
14444244443 14444244443
n times
n times
= an bn
a n an
c m = n
b
b
Proof
a n a a a
a
c m = # # #f#
b
b b b
b
a # a # a #f # a
=
b # b # b #f # b
an
= n
b
(n times)
(n times)
(n times)
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. m 9 # m 7 ' m 2
Solution
m9 #m7 ' m2 = m9 + 7 - 2
= m 14
2. (2y 4)3
Solution
(2y 4) 3 = 2 3 (y 4) 3
= 23 y4 # 3
= 8y 12
CONTINUED
21
22
3.
(y 6) 3 # y - 4
y5
Solution
(y 6) 3 # y - 4
y5
=
=
=
y 18 # y - 4
y5
y 18 + (- 4)
y5
y
14
y5
= y9
1.5 Exercises
1.
Evaluate without using a

calculator.
(a) 5 3 # 2 2
(b) 3 4 + 8 2
1 3
(c) c m
4
(d)
(e)
2.
3.
3
4
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
x2
p
y9
w6 # w7
(m)
w3
2
p #(p 3) 4
(n)
p9
6
x ' x7
(o)
x2
2
a # ( b 2) 6
(p)
a4 # b9
(x 2) - 3 #(y 3) 2
(q)
x -1 # y 4
(l) f
27
16

place.
(a) 3.7 2
(b) 1.06 1.5
(c) 2.3 - 0.2
(d) 3 19
(e) 3 34.8 - 1.2 # 43.1
1
(f) 3
0.99 + 5.61
Simplify
(a) a 6 # a 9 # a 2
(b) y 3 # y - 8 # y 5
(c) a -1 # a -3
1
(d) w 2 # w 2
(e) x 6 ' x
(f) p 3 ' p - 7
y 11
(g) 5
y
(x 7) 3
(2x 5) 2
(3y - 2) 4
a3 #a5 ' a7
4.
Simplify
(a) x 5 # x 9
(b) a -1 # a - 6
m7
(c)
m3
(d) k 13 # k 6 ' k 9
(e) a - 5 # a 4 # a - 7
2
(f) x 5 # x 5
m5 # n4
(g) 4
m # n2
p2 # p2
(h)
10. (a) Simplify
p
(i) (3x 11) 2
(x 4) 6
(j)
x3
5.
2 6
11. Evaluate (a ) when a = c m .
3
12. Evaluate
b=
(2m 7) 3
m4
xy 3 #(xy 2) 4
(f)
xy
8 4
(2k )
(g)
(6k 3) 3
y 12
7
(h) _ 2y 5 i #
8
y=
Evaluate a3b2 when a = 2 and

3
b= .
4
7.
If x =
of
8.
2
1
and y = , nd the value
3
9
x3 y2
xy 5
1
1
1
, b = and c = ,
4
2
3
a2 b3
evaluate 4 as a fraction.
c
If a =
11
9.
(a) Simplify
a b
.
a8 b7
(b) Hence evaluate

a=
a 11 b 8
when
a8 b7
5
2
and b = as a fraction.
5
8
x5 y5
when x =
1
and
3
14. Evaluate
k-5
1
when k = .
3
k-9
15. Evaluate
a4 b6
3
when a = and
3
2 2
4
a (b )
b=
6.
x4 y7
2
.
9
-3
a3 b6
1
when a = and
2
b4
2
.
3
13. Evaluate
a6 # a4
o
a 11
3
5xy 9
x8 # y3
p5 q8 r4
4 3
(d) (7a5b)2
(j) f
as a
p4 q6 r2
7
2
fraction when p = , q = and
8
3
3
r= .
4
a 8
(b) c m
b
4a 3
(c) d 4 n
b
(i) e
p4 q6 r2
(b) Hence evaluate
Simplify
(a) (pq 3) 5
(e)
p5 q8 r4
1
.
9
a6 # b3
as a fraction
a5 # b2
3
1
when a = and b = .
4
9
16. Evaluate
a2 b7
as a fraction in
a3 b
2 4
index form when a = c m and
5
5 3
b=c m.
8
17. Evaluate
18. Evaluate
(a 3) 2 b 4 c
as a fraction
a (b 2) 4 c 3
6
1
7
when a = , b = and c = .
7
3
9
23
24
Negative and zero indices
Class Investigation
Explore zero and negative indices by looking at these questions.
For example simplify x 3 ' x 5 using (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(i) x 3 ' x 5 = x - 2 by index laws
3
x# x# x
(ii) x =
5
x
x# x# x# x
#
x
1
= 2
x
1
So x - 2 = 2
x
Now simplify these questions by (i) index laws and (ii) cancelling.
(a) x 2 ' x 3
(b) x 2 ' x 4
(c) x 2 ' x 5
(d) x 3 ' x 6
(e) x 3 ' x 3
(f) x 2 ' x 2
(g) x ' x 2
(h) x 5 ' x 6
(i) x 4 ' x 7
(j) x ' x 3
Use your results to complete:
x0 =
x-n =
x0 = 1
Proof
xn ' xn = xn - n
= x0
xn
xn ' xn = n
x
=1
`
x0 = 1
x-n =
1
xn
Proof
x0 ' xn = x0 - n
= x-n
x0
x0 ' xn = n
x
1
= n
x
1
` x-n = n
x
EXAMPLES
0
1. Simplify e
ab 5 c
o .
abc 4
Solution
0
ab 5 c
o =1
abc 4
2. Evaluate 2 - 3 .
Solution
1
23
1
=
8
2-3 =
3. Write in index form.

1
x2
3
(b) 5
x
1
(c)
5x
1
(d)
x +1
(a)
CONTINUED
25
26
Solution
1
= x-2
x2
3
(b) 5 = 3# 15
x
x
-5
= 3x
1
1 1
= #x
(c)
5x
5
1 -1
= x
5
1
1
=
(d)
x +1
(x + 1) 1
= ] x + 1 g-1
(a)
4. Write a3 without the negative index.
Solution
a-3 =
1
a3
1.6 Exercises
1.
Evaluate as a fraction or whole

number.
(a) 3 - 3
(b) 4 - 1
(c) 7 - 3
(d) 10 - 4
(e) 2 - 8
(f) 60
(g) 2 - 5
(h) 3 - 4
(i) 7 - 1
(j) 9 - 2
(k) 2 - 6
(l) 3 - 2
(m) 40
(n) 6 - 2
(o) 5 - 3
(p) 10 - 5
(q) 2 - 7
(r) 2 0
(s) 8 - 2
(t) 4 - 3
2.
Evaluate
(a) 2 0
1 -4
(b) c m
2
2 -1
(c) c m
3
5 -2
(d) c m
6
x + 2y 0
p
(e) f
3x - y
1 -3
(f) c m
5
3 -1
(g) c m
4
1 -2
(h) c m
7
2 -3
(i) c m
3
1 -5
(j) c m
2
3 -1
(k) c m
7
8 0
(l) c m
9
6 -2
(m)c m
7
9 -2
(n) c m
10
6 0
(o) c m
11
1 -2
(p) c - m
4
2 -3
(q) c - m
5
2 -1
(r) c - 3 m
7
3 0
(s) c - m
8
1 -2
(t) c - 1 m
4
3.
Change into index form.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
1
m3
1
x
1
p7
1
d9
1
k5
1
x2
2
x4
3
y2
1
2z 6
3
5t 8
2
7x
5
2m 6
2
(m) 7
3y
(l)
1
(3x + 4) 2
1
(o)
( a + b) 8
1
(p)
x-2
(n)
1
(5p + 1) 3
2
(r)
(4t - 9) 5
1
(s)
4 (x + 1) 11
5
(t)
9 ( a + 3 b) 7
(q)
4.
Write without negative indices.

(a) t - 5
(b) x - 6
(c) y - 3
(d) n - 8
(e) w - 10
(f) 2x -1
(g) 3m - 4
(h) 5x - 7
(i) ]2xg- 3
(j) ] 4n g-1
(k) ] x + 1 g- 6
(l) ^ 8y + z h-1
(m) ]k - 3g- 2
(n) ^ 3x + 2y h- 9
1 -5
(o) b x l
1 -10
(p) c y m
2 -1
(q) d n
p
1 -2
m
a+b
x + y -1
(s) e x - y o
(r) c
(t) e
2w - z - 7
o
3x + y
27
28
Fractional indices
Class Investigation
Explore fractional indices by looking at these questions.
1 2
For example simplify (i) ` x 2 j and (ii) ^ x h .

1 2
(i) ` x 2 j = x 1
=x
2
(ii) ^ x h = x
^ by index laws h
1 2
So ` x 2 j = ^ x h = x
2
x2 =
Now simplify these questions.

1
(a) ^ x 2 h 2
x2
(b)
1 3
(c) ` x 3 j
(d) ^ x 3 h 3
3
(e) ^ 3 x h
(f)
x3
1 4
4
(g) ` x j
(h) ^ x 4 h 4
4
(i) ^ 4 x h
(j)
x4
Use your results to complete:

1
xn =
1
n
a =n a
Proof
1 n
àn j = a
^ n a hn = a
1
n
` a =n a
^ by index laws h
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
(a) 49
1
2
1
(b) 27 3
Solution
1
2
(a) 49 = 49
=7
1
3
(b) 27 = 3 27
=3
2. Write
3x - 2 in index form.
Solution
1
3x - 2 = (3x - 2) 2
1
3. Write (a + b) 7 without fractional indices.
Solution
1
( a + b) 7 = 7 a + b
Putting the fractional and negative indices together gives this rule.
1
-n
1
a
Here are some further rules.
m
n
a = n am
= (n a ) m
Proof
m
1 m
m
n
1
n
n
n
a = à j
m
= ^n a h
a = ^ am h
= n am
29
30
a -n
b n
c m = bal
b
Proof
a -n
1
c m =
b
a n
c m
b
1
= n
a
bn
an
bn
bn
=1# n
a
bn
= n
a
b n
= bal
=1'
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
4
(a) 8 3
(b) 125
1
3
2 -3
(c) c m
3
Solution
4
(a) 8 3 = (3 8 ) 4 (or 3 8 4 )
= 24
= 16
(b) 125
1
3
1
1
125 3
1
=3
125
1
=
5
-3
(c) c 2 m
3
3 3
=c m
2
27
=
8
3
=3
8

x5
(a)
(b)
1
(4x - 1) 2
2
Solution
5
x5 = x 2
1
(a)
(b)
(4x - 1)
2
1
2
(4x 2 - 1) 3
-
= (4x 2 - 1)
3. Write r
3
5
2
3
without the negative and fractional indices.
Solution
r
3
5
=
=
1
3
r5
1
5
r3
DID YOU KNOW?

Nicole Oresme (132382) was the first mathematician to use fractional indices.
John Wallis (16161703) was the first person to explain the significance of zero, negative
and fractional indices. He also introduced the symbol 3 for infinity.
Do an Internet search on these mathematicians and find out more about their work and
backgrounds. You could use keywords such as indices and infinity as well as their names to find
this information.
31
32
1.7 Exercises
1.
Evaluate
(a) 81
3.
1
2
Write without fractional indices.

1
(a) y 3
(b) 27 3
(b) y 3
(c) 16 2
(c) x
1
2
1
(d) (2x + 5) 2
(d) 8 3
1
(e) (3x - 1)
(e) 49 2
1
1
2
(f) (6q + r) 3
(f) 1000 3
1
(g) (x + 7)
(g) 16 4
2
5
(h) 64 2
(i) 64
(j) 1
4.
1
3
(a)
1
7
(k) 81
(l) 32
Write in index form.

(b)
t
5
x3
(c)
1
4
(d)
(e)
1
5
(m) 0 8
(f)
(n) 125
1
3
(g)
1
1
1
(r) 9
(s) 8
(i)
(t) 64
2.
(x - 2) 2
1
(j)
2 y+7
5
(k) 3
x+4
2
(l)
3 y2 - 1
3
(m)
5 4 (x 2 + 2) 3
3
2
-
1
3
-
2
3

places.
1
(a) 23 4
(b) 4 45.8
(c)
(d)
(e)
5 .9 # 3 .7
8.79 - 1.4
(f)
1.24 + 4.3 2
1
12.9
3 .6 - 1 .4
1 .5 + 3 .7
(3x + 1) 5
1
(h)
(q) 256 4
9-x
4s + 1
1
2t + 3
1
(5x - y) 3
(o) 343 3
(p) 128 7
5.
Write in index form and simplify.

(a) x x
x
(b) x
x
(c) 3
x
x2
(d) 3
x
(e) x 4 x
6.
Expand and simplify, and write in

index form.
7.
(a) ( x + x) 2
(b) (3 a + 3 b ) (3 a - 3 b )
1 2
(c) f p +
p
p
1 2
)
x
x ( x 2 - 3x + 1 )
(d) ( x +
(e)
x3
33
Write without fractional or

negative indices.
(a) (a - 2b)
(b) (y - 3)
1
3
2
3
4
7
2
9
(c) 4 (6a + 1)
( x + y)
(d)
3
5
4
6 (3 x + 8 )
(e)
7
Scientic notation (standard form)

Very large or very small numbers are usually written in scientic notation to
make them easier to read. What could be done to make the gures in the box
below easier to read?
DID YOU KNOW?

The Bay of Fundy, Canada, has the largest tidal changes in the world. About 100 000 000 000
tons of water are moved with each tide change.
The dinosaurs dwelt on Earth for 185 000 000 years until they died out 65 000 000 years ago.
The width of one plant cell is about 0.000 06 m.
In 2005, the total storage capacity of dams in Australia was 83 853 000 000 000 litres and
households in Australia used 2 108 000 000 000 litres of water.
A number in scientic notation is written as a number between 1 and 10

multiplied by a power of 10.
EXAMPLES
1. Write 320 000 000 in scientic notation.
Solution
320 000 000 = 3.2 #10 8
Write the number

between 1 and 10
and count the decimal
places moved.
2. Write 7.1#10 -5 as a decimal number.
Solution
7.1#10
-5
= 7.1 ' 10
= 0.000 071
5
Count 5 places to
the left.
34
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION KEY

Use the EXP or #10 x key to put numbers in scientific notation.
For example, to evaluate 3.1#10 4 ' 2.5 #10 - 2,
press 3.1 EXP 4 ' 2.5 EXP (-) 2 =
= 1 240 000
DID YOU KNOW?

Engineering notation is similar to scientific notation, except the powers of 10 are always
multiples of 3. For example,
3.5 # 10
15.4 # 10
-6
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The concept of signicant gures is related to rounding off. When we look
at very large (or very small) numbers, some of the smaller digits are not
signicant.
For example, in a football crowd of 49 976, the 6 people are not really
signicant in terms of a crowd of about 50 000! Even the 76 people are not
signicant.
When a company makes a prot of $5 012 342.87, the amount of
87 cents is not exactly a signicant sum! Nor is the sum of $342.87.
To round off to a certain number of signicant gures, we count from the
rst non-zero digit.
In any number, non-zero digits are always signicant. Zeros are not
signicant, except between two non-zero digits or at the end of a decimal
number.
Even though zeros may not be signicant, they are still necessary. For
example 31, 310, 3100, 31 000 and 310 000 all have 2 signicant gures but
are very different numbers!
Scientic notation uses the signicant gures in a number.
EXAMPLES
12 000 = 1.2 #10 4
0.000 043 5 = 4.35#10 - 5
0.020 7 = 2.07 #10 - 2
(2 significant figures)
When rounding off to signicant gures, use the usual rules for rounding off.
35
EXAMPLES
1. Round off 4 592 170 to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
4 592 170 = 4 590 000 to 3 signicant gures
2. Round off 0.248 391 to 2 signicant gures.
Solution
0.248 391 = 0.25 to 2 signicant gures
3. Round off 1.396 794 to 3 signicant gures.
Solution
1.396 794 = 1.40 to 3 signicant gures
1.8 Exercises
1.
Write in scientic notation.

(a) 3 800
(b) 1 230 000
(c) 61 900
(d) 12 000 000
(e) 8 670 000 000
(f) 416 000
(g) 900
(h) 13 760
(i) 20 000 000
(j) 80 000
3.
Write as a decimal number.

(a) 3.6 #10 4
(b) 2.78 #10 7
(c) 9.25#10 3
(d) 6.33#10 6
(e) 4 #10 5
(f) 7.23#10 - 2
(g) 9.7 #10 - 5
(h) 3.8 # 10 - 8
(i) 7 #10 - 6
(j) 5#10 - 4
2.
Write in scientic notation.

(a) 0.057
(b) 0.000 055
(c) 0.004
(d) 0.000 62
(e) 0.000 002
(f) 0.000 000 08
(g) 0.000 007 6
(h) 0.23
(i) 0.008 5
(j) 0.000 000 000 07
4.
Round these numbers to

2 signicant gures.
(a) 235 980
(b) 9 234 605
(c) 10 742
(d) 0.364 258
(e) 1.293 542
(f) 8.973 498 011
(g) 15.694
(h) 322.78
(i) 2904.686
(j) 9.0741
Remember to put
the 0s in!
36
5.
Evaluate correct to 3 signicant

gures.
(a) 14.6 # 0.453
(b) 4.8 ' 7
(c) 4.47 + 2.59 #1.46
1
(d)
3.47 - 2.7
6.
Evaluate 4.5#10 4 # 2.9 #10 5,

giving your answer in scientic
notation.
7.
Calculate
8.72 #10 - 3
and write
1.34 #10 7
your answer in standard form
correct to 3 signicant gures.
Investigation
A logarithm is an index. It is a way of nding the power (or index) to
which a base number is raised. For example, when solving 3 x = 9, the
solution is x = 2.
The 3 is called the base number and the x is the index or power.
You will learn about logarithms in the HSC course.
The a is called the base
number and the x is the
index or power.
If a x = y then log a y = x
1. The expression log7 49 means the power of 7 that gives 49.

The solution is 2 since 7 2 = 49.
2. The expression log2 16 means the power of 2 that gives 16.
The solution is 4 since 2 4 = 16.
Can you evaluate these logarithms?
1. log3 27
2. log5 25
3. log10 10 000
4. log2 64
5. log4 4
6. log7 7
7. log3 1
8. log4 2
1
9. log 3
3
1
10. log 2
4
37
Absolute Value
Negative numbers are used in maths and science, to show opposite directions.
For example, temperatures can be positive or negative.
But sometimes it is not appropriate to use negative numbers.

For example, solving c 2 = 9 gives two solutions, c = !3.
However when solving c 2 = 9, using Pythagoras theorem, we only use
the positive answer, c = 3, as this gives the length of the side of a triangle. The
negative answer doesnt make sense.
We dont use negative numbers in other situations, such as speed. In
science we would talk about a vehicle travelling at 60k/h going in a negative
direction, but we would not commonly use this when talking about the speed
of our cars!
Absolute value definitions

We write the absolute value of x as x
x =)
We can also define

x as the distance
of x from 0 on the
number line. We will
use this in Chapter 3.
x when x $ 0
- x when x 1 0
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 4 .
Solution
4 = 4 since 4 $ 0
CONTINUED
38
2. Evaluate - 3 .
Solution
-3 = - ] - 3 g since - 3 1 0
=3
The absolute value has some properties shown below.
Properties of absolute value
| ab | = | a |#| b |
e.g. | 2 # - 3 | = | 2 |#| - 3 | = 6
|a | = a
e.g. | - 3 | 2 = ] - 3 g2 = 9
a2 = | a |
|- a | = | a |
|a - b | = | b - a |
| a + b |#| a | + | b |
e.g. 5 2 = | 5 | = 5
e.g. | -7 | = | 7 | = 7
e.g. | 2 - 3 | = | 3 - 2 | = 1
e.g. | 2 + 3 | = | 2 | + | 3 | but | - 3 + 4 | 1 | - 3 | + | 4 |
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate 2 - -1 + - 3 2.
Solution
2 - -1 + - 3 2 = 2 - 1 + 3 2
=2 -1 + 9
= 10
2. Show that a + b # a + b when a = - 2 and b = 3.
Solution
LHS means Left Hand Side.
LHS = a + b
= -2 + 3
= 1
=1
RHS means Right Hand Side.
RHS = a + b
= -2 + 3
= 2+3
=5
Since 11 5
a+b # a + b
3. Write expressions for 2x - 4 without the absolute value signs.
Solution
2x - 4 = 2x - 4 when 2x - 4 $ 0
i.e.
2x $ 4
x$2
2x - 4 = - ] 2x - 4 g when 2x - 4 1 0
= - 2x + 4 i.e.
2x 1 4
x12
Class Discussion
Are these statements true? If so, are there some values for which the
expression is undefined (values of x or y that the expression cannot
have)?
2.
x
=1
x
2x = 2x
3.
2x = 2 x
4.
x + y = x+y
5.
2
x = x2
6.
7.
3
x = x3
x +1 = x +1
1.
3x - 2
=1
3x - 2
x
9.
=1
x2
10. x $ 0
8.
Discuss absolute value and its definition in relation to these statements.
39
40
1.9 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
Evaluate
(a) 7
(b) - 5
(c) - 6
(d) 0
(e) 2
(f) -11
(g) - 2 3
(h) 3 - 8
2
(i) - 5
(j) - 5 3
Evaluate
(a) 3 + - 2
(b) - 3 - 4
(c) - 5 + 3
(d) 2 #-7
(e) - 3 + -1
2
(f) 5 - - 2 # 6
(g) - 2 + 5# -1
(h) 3 - 4
(i) 2 - 3 - 3 - 4
(j) 5 - 7 + 4 - 2
(i)
(j)
Show that a + b # a + b
when
(a) a = 2 and b = 4
(b) a = -1 and b = - 2
(c) a = - 2 and b = 3
(d) a = - 4 and b = 5
(e) a = -7 and b = - 3.
6.
Show that x 2 = x when

(a) x = 5
(b) x = - 2
(c) x = - 3
(d) x = 4
(e) x = - 9.
7.
Use the denition of absolute

value to write each expression
without the absolute value signs
(a) x + 5
(b) b - 3
(c) a + 4
(d) 2y - 6
(e) 3x + 9
(f) 4 - x
(g) 2k + 1
(h) 5x - 2
(i) a + b
(j) p - q
8.
Find values of x for which x = 3.
9.
n
Simplify n where n ! 0.
a = 5 and b = 2
a = -1 and b = 2
a = - 2 and b = - 3
a = 4 and b = 7
a = -1 and b = - 2.
Write an expression for

(a) a when a 2 0
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
a when a 1 0
a when a = 0
3a when a 2 0
3a when a 1 0
3a when a = 0
a + 1 when a 2 -1
x - 2 when x 2 2
x - 2 when x 1 2.
5.
Evaluate a - b if
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
4.
(h) a + 1 when a 1 -1
x-2
and state which
x-2
value x cannot be.
10. Simplify
Test Yourself 1
1.
2.
Convert
(a) 0.45 to a fraction
(b) 14% to a decimal
5
(c)
to a decimal
8
(d) 78.5% to a fraction
(e) 0.012 to a percentage
11
(f)
to a percentage
15
6.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(a) 7 - 2
(b) 5 -1
3.
7.
1
2
(b) 36 2
(c) - 5 2 - 2 3
(d) 4 - 3 as fraction
4.5 2 + 7.6 2
(b) 4.3 0.3

2
(c) 3
5.7
(d)
(e) 6
4.
5.
(e) 8 3
(f) - 2 - 1
1.3#10 9
3.8 #10 6
-
(g) 49
2
3
1
2
as a fraction
1
4
Evaluate
(a) |-3 | -| 2 |
(b) | 4 - 5 |
(c) 7 + 4 # 8
(d) [(3 + 2)#(5 - 1) - 4] ' 8
(e) - 4 + 3 - 9
(f) - 2 - -1
(g) - 24 ' - 6
(h) 16
(i) ] -3 g0
(j) 4 - 7 2 - -2 - 3
8.
(a) x 5 # x 7 ' x 3
(b) (5y 3) 2
(a 5) 4 b 7
(c)
a9 b
3
2x 6 n
(d) d
3
0
ab 4
o
a5 b6
Simplify
(a) a 14 ' a 9
6
(b) _ x 5 y 3 i
(c) p 6 # p 5 ' p 2
4
(d) ^ 2b 9h
(2x 7) 3 y 2
(e)
x 10 y
Simplify
(e) e
Evaluate
(a) - 4
1
Evaluate correct to 3 signicant gures.

(a)
3
7
5
8
6
2
#3
7
3
3
9'
4
2
1
+2
5
10
5
15#
6
(a) 1
Evaluate as a fraction.
(c) 9
Evaluate
9.
Write in index form.

(a)
n
1
(b) 5
x
1
(c)
x+y
(d)
x +1
41
42
(e)
(c) If he spends 3 hours watching TV,

what fraction of the day is this?
(d) What percentage of the day does he
spend sleeping?
a+b
2
(f) x
1
(g)
2x 3
(h)
x4
(i)
(5x + 3) 9
1
m3
(j)
17. Rachel scored 56 out of 80 for a maths

test. What percentage did she score?
10. Write without fractional or negative

indices.
(a) a - 5
1
(b) n 4
1
(c) (x + 1) 2
(d) (x - y) -1
(e) (4t - 7) - 4
1
(f) (a + b) 5
(g) x
(i) (2x + 3)
-
18. Evaluate 2118, and write your answer in

scientic notation correct to 1 decimal
place.
(a) x
1
(b) y
x+3
1
(d)
(2x - 3) 11
1
3
(h) b 4
(j) x
16. The price of a car increased by 12%. If

the car cost $34 500 previously, what is
its new price?
4
3
3
2
(c)
(e)
y7
20. Write in scientic notation.

(a) 0.000 013
11. Show that a + b # a + b when a = 5

and b = - 3.
9
2
12. Evaluate a b when a =
and b = 1 .
25
3
2 4
3
1 4
13. If a = c m and b = , evaluate ab 3 as a
4
3
fraction.
14. Increase 650 mL by 6%.
1
of his 24-hour day
3
1
sleeping and at work.
4
(a) How many hours does Johan spend
at work?
(b) What fraction of his day is spent at
work or sleeping?
15. Johan spends
(b) 123 000 000 000

21. Convert to a fraction.
(a) 0. 7

(b) 0.124
22. Write without the negative index.
(a) x - 3
(b) (2a + 5)- 1
a -5
(c) c m
b
23. The number of people attending a
football match increased by 4% from last
week. If there were 15 080 people at the
match this week, how many attended
last week?
24. Show that | a + b | # a + b when
a = - 2 and b = - 5.
Challenge Exercise 1
3
2
2
7
+ 3 m ' c4 - 1 m.
4
5
3
8
1.
Simplify c 8
2.
3
5
149
7
Simplify +
+
.
5
12
180
30
3.
4.
Arrange in increasing order of size: 51%,

51
0.502, 0. 5,
.
99
1
1
of his day sleeping,
3
12
1
of the day eating and
of the day
20
watching TV. What percentage of the day
is left?
Mark spends
2
3
5.
Write 64
6.
Express 3.2 ' 0.014 in scientic

notation correct to 3 signicant gures.
7.
as a rational number.
11. Show that 2 (2 k - 1) + 2 k + 1 = 2 (2 k + 1 - 1) .

12. Find the value of
3 2
2 4
1 3
a = c m , b = c - m and c = c m .
5
5
3
13. Which of the following are rational
3
numbers: 3 , - 0.34, 2, 3r, 1. 5, 0, ?
7
14. The percentage of salt in 1 L of water is
10%. If 500 mL of water is added to this
mixture, what percentage of salt is there
now?
15. Simplify
25
1
out of 20 for a maths
2
1
test, 19 out of 23 for English and 55
2
out of 70 for physics. Find his average
score as a percentage, to the nearest
whole percentage.
Vinh scored 17
a
in index form if
b3 c2
|x + 1 |
x2 - 1
for x ! !1.
4.3 1.3 - 2.9

correct to
2.4 3 + 3.31 2
2 decimal places.
16. Evaluate 6
17. Write 15 g as a percentage of 2.5 kg.

18. Evaluate 2.3 1.8 + 5.7 #10 - 2 correct to
3 signicant gures.
- 3.4 #10 - 3 + 1.7 #10 - 2
and
(6.9 #10 5) 3
express your answer in scientic notation
correct to 3 signicant gures.
8.
Write 1.3274 as a rational number.
19. Evaluate
9.
The distance from the Earth to the moon

is 3.84 #10 5 km. How long would it take
a rocket travelling at 2.13#10 4 km h to
reach the moon, to the nearest hour?
20. Prove | a + b | # | a | + | b | for all real a, b.
8.3# 4.1
correct to
0.2 + 5.4 ' 1.3
3 signicant gures.
10. Evaluate 3
43
2
Algebra and
Surds
TERMINOLOGY
Binomial: A mathematical expression consisting of
two terms such as x + 3 or 3x - 1
Binomial product: The product of two binomial
expressions such as (x + 3) (2x - 4)
Expression: A mathematical statement involving numbers,
pronumerals and symbols e.g. 2x - 3
Factorise: The process of writing an expression as a
product of its factors. It is the reverse operation of
expanding brackets i.e. take out the highest common
factor in an expression and place the rest in brackets
e.g. 2y - 8 = 2 (y - 4)
Pronumeral: A letter or symbol that stands for a number
Rationalising the denominator: A process for replacing a

surd in the denominator by a rational number without
altering its value
Surd: From absurd. The root of a number that has an
irrational value e.g. 3 . It cannot be expressed as a
rational number
Term: An element of an expression containing
pronumerals and/or numbers separated by an operation
such as + , - , # or ' e.g. 2x, - 3
Trinomial: An expression with three terms such as
3x 2 - 2x + 1
Chapter 2 Algebra and Surds
45
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER REVIEWS ALGEBRA skills, including simplifying expressions,
removing grouping symbols, factorising, completing the square and
simplifying algebraic fractions. Operations with surds, including rationalising
the denominator, are also studied in this chapter.
DID YOU KNOW?

One of the earliest mathematicians to use algebra was Diophantus of Alexandria. It is not known
when he lived, but it is thought this may have been around 250 AD.
In Baghdad around 700800 AD a mathematician named Mohammed Un-Musa
Al-Khowarezmi wrote books on algebra and Hindu numerals. One of his books was named
Al-Jabr wal Migabaloh, and the word algebra comes from the first word in this title.
Simplifying Expressions
Addition and subtraction
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 7x - x
Solution
Here x is called a
pronumeral.
7x - x = 7x - 1 x
= 6x
2. 4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2
Solution
4x 2 - 3x 2 + 6x 2 = x 2 + 6 x 2
= 7x 2
CONTINUED
46
3. x 3 - 3x - 5x + 4
Only add or subtract like
terms. These have the
same pronumeral (for
example, 3x and 5x).
Solution
x 3 - 3 x - 5x + 4 = x 3 - 8 x + 4
4. 3a - 4b - 5a - b
Solution
3a - 4b - 5a - b = 3a - 5a - 4b - b
= - 2a - 5b
2.1 Exercises
Simplify
1.
2x + 5x
16. 7b + b - 3b
2.
9a - 6a
17. 3b - 5b + 4b + 9b
3.
5z - 4z
18. - 5x + 3x - x - 7x
4.
5a + a
19. 6x - 5y - y
5.
4b - b
20. 8a + b - 4b - 7a
6.
2r - 5r
21. xy + 2y + 3xy
7.
- 4y + 3y
22. 2ab 2 - 5ab 2 - 3ab 2
8.
- 2x - 3x
23. m 2 - 5m - m + 12
9.
2a - 2a
24. p 2 - 7p + 5p - 6
10. - 4k + 7k
25. 3x + 7y + 5x - 4y
11. 3t + 4t + 2t
26. ab + 2b - 3ab + 8b
12. 8w - w + 3w
27. ab + bc - ab - ac + bc
13. 4m - 3m - 2m
28. a 5 - 7x 3 + a 5 - 2x 3 + 1
14. x + 3x - 5x
29. x 3 - 3xy 2 + 4x 2 y - x 2 y + xy 2 + 2y 3
15. 8h - h - 7h
30. 3x 3 - 4x 2 - 3x + 5x 2 - 4x - 6
47
Multiplication
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. - 5x # 3y # 2x
Solution
- 5x # 3y # 2x = - 30xyx
= - 30x 2 y
2. - 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5
Solution
Use index laws

to simplify this
question.
- 3x 3 y 2 # - 4xy 5 = 12x 4 y 7
2.2 Exercises
Simplify
1.
5 # 2b
5
11. ^ 2x 2h
2.
2x # 4y
12. 2ab 3 # 3a
3.
5p # 2p
13. 5a 2 b # - 2ab
4.
- 3z # 2w
14. 7pq 2 # 3p 2 q 2
5.
- 5a # - 3b
15. 5ab # a 2 b 2
6.
x # 2y # 7z
16. 4h 3 # - 2h 7
7.
8ab # 6c
17. k 3 p # p 2
8.
4d # 3d
4
18. ^ - 3t 3 h
9.
3a # 4a # a
19. 7m 6 # - 2m 5
10. ^ - 3y h3
20. - 2x 2 # 3x 3 y # - 4xy 2
48
Division
Use cancelling or index laws to simplify divisions.
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 6v 2 y ' 2vy
Solution
By cancelling,
6v 2 y ' 2vy =
=
6v 2 y
2vy
63 # v # v1 # y1
21 # v # y1
= 3v
Using index laws,
6v 2 y ' 2vy = 3v 2 - 1 y 1 - 1
= 3v 1 y 0
= 3v
2.
5a 3 b
15ab 2
Solution
5a 3 b
= 1 a3 -1 b1- 2
3
15ab 2
= 1 a 2 b -1
3
a2
=
3b
2.3 Exercises
Simplify
1.
30x ' 5
2.
2y ' y
2
3.
8a
2
4.
8a 2
a
5.
8a 2
2a
6.
xy
2x
7.
12p 3 ' 4p 2
8.
3a 2 b 2
6ab
9.
20x
15xy
10.
- 9x 7
3x 4
11. -15ab ' - 5b

12.
2ab
6a 2 b 3
13.
- 8p
4pqs
16.
7pq 3
17. 5a 9 b 4 c - 2 ' 20a 5 b -3 c -1

2 ^ a -5 h b 4
2
18.
14. 14cd 2 ' 21c 3 d 3

15.
42p 5 q 4
-1
4a - 9 ^ b 2 h
19. - 5x 4 y 7 z ' 15xy 8 z - 2
2xy 2 z 3
20. - 9 ^ a 4 b -1 h ' -18a -1 b 3

3
4x 3 y 2 z
Removing grouping symbols

The distributive law of numbers is given by
a ] b + c g = ab + ac
EXAMPLE
7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 20
= 140
Using the distributive law,
7 # (9 + 11) = 7 # 9 + 7 # 11
= 63 + 77
= 140
This rule is used in algebra to help remove grouping symbols.
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify.
1. 2 ] a + 3 g
Solution
2 (a + 3) = 2 # a + 2 # 3
= 2a + 6
CONTINUED
49
50
2. - ] 2x - 5 g
Solution
-(2x - 5) = -1 (2x - 5)
= -1 # 2x - 1 # - 5
= - 2x + 5
3. 5a 2]4 + 3ab - c g
Solution
5a 2 (4 + 3ab - c) = 5a 2 # 4 + 5a 2 # 3ab - 5a 2 # c
= 20a 2 + 15a 3 b - 5a 2 c
4. 5 - 2 ^ y + 3 h
Solution
5 - 2 (y + 3 ) = 5 - 2 # y - 2 # 3
= 5 - 2y - 6
= - 2y - 1
5. 2 ] b - 5 g - ] b + 1 g
Solution
2 (b - 5) - (b + 1) = 2 # b + 2 # - 5 - 1 # b -1 # 1
= 2b - 10 - b - 1
= b - 11
2.4 Exercises
Expand and simplify
1.
2]x - 4 g
7.
ab ] 2a + b g
2.
3 ] 2h + 3 g
8.
5n ] n - 4 g
3.
-5 ] a - 2 g
9.
3x 2 y _ xy + 2y 2 i
4.
x ^ 2y + 3 h
10. 3 + 4 ] k + 1 g
5.
x]x - 2 g
11. 2 ] t - 7 g - 3
6.
2a ] 3a - 8b g
12. y ^ 4y + 3 h + 8y
13. 9 - 5 ] b + 3 g
20. 2ab ] 3 - a g - b ] 4a - 1 g
14. 3 - ] 2x - 5 g
21. 5x - ] x - 2 g - 3
15. 5] 3 - 2m g + 7 ] m - 2 g
22. 8 - 4 ^ 2y + 1 h + y
16. 2 ] h + 4 g + 3 ] 2h - 9 g
23. ] a + b g - ] a - b g
17. 3 ] 2d - 3 g - ] 5d - 3 g
24. 2 ] 3t - 4 g - ] t + 1 g + 3
18. a ] 2a + 1 g - ^ a 2 + 3a - 4 h
25. 4 + 3 ] a + 5 g - ] a - 7 g
51
19. x ] 3x - 4 g - 5 ] x + 1 g
Binomial Products
A binomial expression consists of two numbers, for example x + 3.
A set of two binomial expressions multiplied together is called a binomial
product.
Example: ] x + 3 g ] x - 2 g.
Each term in the first bracket is multiplied by each term in the second
bracket.
] a + b g ^ x + y h = ax + ay + bx + by
Proof
]a + bg]c + d g = a ]c + d g + b ]c + d g
= ac + ad + bc + bd
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. ^ p + 3h^ q - 4h
Solution
^ p + 3 h ^ q - 4 h = pq - 4p + 3q - 12
2. ]a + 5g2
Solution
] a + 5 g2 = (a + 5)(a + 5)
= a 2 + 5a + 5a + 25
= a 2 + 10a + 25
Can you see a quick

way of doing this?
52
The rule below is not a binomial product (one expression is a trinomial), but it
works the same way.
] a + b g ^ x + y + z h = ax + ay + az + bx + by + bz
EXAMPLE
Expand and simplify ] x + 4 g ^ 2x - 3y - 1 h .
Solution
(x + 4) (2x - 3y - 1) = 2x 2 - 3xy - x + 8x - 12y - 4
= 2x 2 - 3xy + 7x - 12y - 4
2.5 Exercises
Expand and simplify
1.
]a + 5g]a + 2g
17. ]a + 2bg]a - 2bg
2.
]x + 3g]x - 1g
18. ^ 3x - 4y h^ 3x + 4y h
3.
^ 2y - 3h^ y + 5h
19. ]x + 3g]x - 3g
4.
]m - 4g]m - 2g
20. ^ y - 6h^ y + 6h
5.
]x + 4g]x + 3g
21. ] 3a + 1 g ] 3a - 1 g
6.
^ y + 2h^ y - 5h
22. ]2z - 7g]2z + 7g
7.
]2x - 3g]x + 2g
23. ]x + 9g^ x - 2y + 2h
8.
]h - 7g]h - 3g
24. ] b - 3 g ] 2a + 2b - 1 g
9.
]x + 5g]x - 5g
25. ]x + 2g^ x 2 - 2x + 4h
10. ] 5a - 4 g ] 3a - 1 g
26. ]a - 3g^ a 2 + 3a + 9h
11. ^ 2y + 3h^ 4y - 3h
27. ]a + 9g2
12. ]x - 4g^ y + 7h
28. ]k - 4g2
13. ^ x 2 + 3h]x - 2g
29. ]x + 2g2
14. ]n + 2g]n - 2g
30. ^ y - 7h2
15. ]2x + 3g]2x - 3g
31. ]2x + 3g2
16. ^ 4 - 7y h^ 4 + 7y h
32. ]2t - 1g2
33. ]3a + 4bg2
37. ] a + b g2
34. ^ x - 5y h2
38. ] a - b g2
35. ]2a + bg2
39. ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h
36. ] a - b g ] a + b g
40. ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
Some binomial products have special results and can be simplified quickly
using their special properties. Binomial products involving perfect squares
and the difference of two squares occur in many topics in mathematics. Their
expansions are given below.
Difference of 2 squares
] a + b g ] a - b g = a2 - b2
Proof
(a + b) (a - b) = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2
= a2 - b2
Perfect squares
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Proof
] a + b g2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2
]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
Proof
] a - b g2 = (a - b) (a - b)
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2
= a 2 - 2ab + b 2
53
54
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. ]2x - 3g2
Solution
] 2x - 3 g2 = ] 2x g2 - 2 (2x) 3 + 3 2
= 4x 2 - 12x + 9
2. ^ 3y - 4h^ 3y + 4h
Solution
(3y - 4) (3y + 4) = ^ 3y h2 - 4 2
= 9y 2 - 16
2.6 Exercises
Expand and simplify
1.
]t + 4g2
16. ^ p + 1 h ^ p - 1 h
2.
]z - 6g2
17. ]r + 6g]r - 6g
3.
] x - 1 g2
18. ] x - 10 g ] x + 10 g
4.
^ y + 8h2
19. ]2a + 3g]2a - 3g
5.
^ q + 3h2
20. ^ x - 5y h^ x + 5y h
6.
]k - 7g2
21. ] 4a + 1 g ] 4a - 1 g
7.
] n + 1 g2
22. ]7 - 3xg]7 + 3xg
8.
]2b + 5g2
23. ^ x 2 + 2h^ x 2 - 2h
9.
]3 - xg2
2
24. ^ x 2 + 5h
10. ^ 3y - 1 h2
25. ]3ab - 4cg]3ab + 4c g
11. ^ x + y h2
2 2
26. b x + x l
12. ] 3a - b g2
13. ]4d + 5eg2
1
1
27. b a - a lb a + a l
14. ]t + 4g]t - 4g
28. _ x + 6 y - 2 @ i _ x - 6 y - 2 @ i
15. ] x - 3 g ] x + 3 g
29. 6]a + bg + c @2
30. 7 ] x + 1 g - y A
36. ] x - 4 g3
55
Expand (x - 4) (x - 4) 2 .
31. ] a + 3 g2 - ] a - 3 g2
1 2
1 2
37. b x - x l - b x l + 2
32. 16 - ]z - 4g]z + 4g
38. _ x 2 + y 2 i - 4x 2 y 2
33. 2x + ]3x + 1g2 - 4
39. ]2a + 5g3
34. ^ x + y h2 - x ^ 2 - y h
40. ] 2x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g ] x + 2 g2
35. ] 4n - 3 g ] 4n + 3 g - 2n 2 + 5
PROBLEM
Find values of all pronumerals that make this true.
a b
d
f e
i i i h
i i c c
c
e
b
g
b
Try c = 9.
Factorisation
Simple factors
Factors are numbers that exactly divide or go into an equal or larger number,
without leaving a remainder.
EXAMPLES
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24 are all the factors of 24.
Factors of 5x are 1, 5, x and 5x.
To factorise an expression, we use the distributive law.
ax + bx = x ] a + b g
56
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 3x + 12
Solution
Divide each term by 3 to
find the terms inside the
brackets.
The highest common factor is 3.

3x + 12 = 3 ] x + 4 g
2. y 2 - 2y
Solution
Check answers by
expanding brackets.
The highest common factor is y.

y 2 - 2y = y ^ y - 2 h
3. x 3 - 2x 2
Solution
x and x2 are both common factors. We take out the highest common
factor which is x2.
x 3 - 2x 2 = x 2 ] x - 2 g
4. 5] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g
Solution
The highest common factor is x + 3.
5 ] x + 3 g + 2y ] x + 3 g = ] x + 3 g ^ 5 + 2 y h
5. 8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3
Solution
There are several common factors here. The highest common
factor is 2ab2.
8a 3 b 2 - 2ab 3 = 2ab 2 ^ 4a 2 - bh
2.7 Exercises
Factorise
1.
2y + 6
19. x ] m + 5 g + 7 ] m + 5 g
2.
5x - 10
20. 2 ^ y - 1 h - y ^ y - 1 h
3.
3m - 9
21. 4^ 7 + y h - 3x ^ 7 + y h
4.
8x + 2
22. 6x ]a - 2g + 5]a - 2g
5.
24 - 18y
23. x ] 2t + 1 g - y ] 2t + 1 g
6.
x 2 + 2x
7.
m 2 - 3m
24. a ] 3x - 2 g + 2b ] 3x - 2 g
- 3c ] 3x - 2 g
8.
2y 2 + 4y
9.
15a - 3a 2
25. 6x 3 + 9x 2
26. 3pq 5 - 6q 3
27. 15a 4 b 3 + 3ab
10. ab 2 + ab
28. 4x 3 - 24x 2
11. 4x 2 y - 2xy
29. 35m 3 n 4 - 25m 2 n
12. 3mn 3 + 9mn
30. 24a 2 b 5 + 16ab 2
13. 8x 2 z - 2xz 2
14. 6ab + 3a - 2a
31. 2rr 2 + 2rrh
32. ]x - 3g2 + 5]x - 3g
15. 5x 2 - 2x + xy
33. y 2 ]x + 4g + 2]x + 4g
16. 3q 5 - 2q 2
34. a ] a + 1 g - ] a + 1 g2
17. 5b 3 + 15b 2
35. 4ab ^ a 2 + 1 h - 3 ^ a 2 + 1 h
18. 6a 2 b 3 - 3a 3 b 2
Grouping in pairs
If an expression has 4 terms, it may be factorised in pairs.
ax + bx + ay + by = x(a + b) + y (a + b)
= ( a + b) ( x + y)
57
58
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6
Solution
x 2 - 2x + 3x - 6 = x (x - 2) + 3 (x - 2)
= (x - 2) (x + 3)
2. 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy
Solution
2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) + 3y (2 - x)
= 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 )
= (x - 2) (2 - 3y)
or 2x - 4 + 6y - 3xy = 2 (x - 2) - 3y (- 2 + x)
= 2 ( x - 2) - 3y ( x - 2 )
= (x - 2) (2 - 3y)
2.8 Exercises
Factorise
1.
2x + 8 + bx + 4b
12. m - 2 + 4y - 2my
2.
ay - 3a + by - 3b
13. 2x 2 + 10xy - 3xy - 15y 2
3.
x 2 + 5x + 2x + 10
14. a 2 b + ab 3 - 4a - 4b 2
4.
m 2 - 2m + 3m - 6
15. 5x - x 2 - 3x + 15
5.
ad - ac + bd - bc
16. x 4 + 7x 3 - 4x - 28
6.
x 3 + x 2 + 3x + 3
17. 7x - 21 - xy + 3y
7.
5ab - 3b + 10a - 6
18. 4d + 12 - de - 3e
8.
2xy - x 2 + 2y 2 - xy
19. 3x - 12 + xy - 4y
9.
ay + a + y + 1
20. 2a + 6 - ab - 3b
10. x 2 + 5x - x - 5
21. x 3 - 3x 2 + 6x - 18
11. y + 3 + ay + 3a
22. pq - 3p + q 2 - 3q
23. 3x 3 - 6x 2 - 5x + 10
27. 4x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x - 12
24. 4a - 12b + ac - 3bc
28. 3a 2 + 9a + 6ab + 18b
25. xy + 7x - 4y - 28
29. 5y - 15 + 10xy - 30x
26. x 4 - 4x 3 - 5x + 20
30. rr 2 + 2rr - 3r - 6
59
Trinomials
A trinomial is an expression with three terms, for example x 2 - 4x + 3.
Factorising a trinomial usually gives a binomial product.
x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g
Proof
x 2 + (a + b) x + ab = x 2 + ax + bx + ab
= x(x + a) + b(x + a)
= (x + a) (x + b)
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. m 2 - 5m + 6
Solution
a + b = - 5 and ab = + 6
-2
+6 '
-3
-5
Numbers with sum - 5 and product + 6 are - 2 and - 3.
` m 2 - 5m + 6 = [m + ] - 2 g] [m + ] - 3 g]
= ]m - 2g]m - 3g
Guess and check by

trying - 2 and - 3
or -1 and - 6.
2. y 2 + y - 2
Solution
a + b = + 1 and ab = - 2
+2
-2 '
-1
+1
Two numbers with sum + 1 and product - 2 are + 2 and -1.
` y2 + y - 2 = ^ y + 2 h ^ y - 1 h
Guess and check by

trying 2 and -1 or
- 2 and 1.
60
2.9 Exercises
Factorise
1.
x 2 + 4x + 3
14. a 2 - 4a + 4
2.
y 2 + 7y + 12
15. x 2 + 14x - 32
3.
m 2 + 2m + 1
16. y 2 - 5y - 36
4.
t 2 + 8t + 16
17. n 2 - 10n + 24
5.
z2 + z - 6
18. x 2 - 10x + 25
6.
x 2 - 5x - 6
19. p 2 + 8p - 9
7.
v 2 - 8v + 15
20. k 2 - 7k + 10
8.
t 2 - 6t + 9
21. x 2 + x - 12
9.
x 2 + 9x - 10
22. m 2 - 6m - 7
10. y 2 - 10y + 21
23. q 2 + 12q + 20
11. m 2 - 9m + 18
24. d 2 - 4d - 5
12. y 2 + 9y - 36
25. l 2 - 11l + 18
13. x 2 - 5x - 24
The result x 2 + ] a + b g x + ab = ] x + a g ] x + b g only works when the coefficient

of x 2 (the number in front of x 2) is 1. When the coefficient of x 2 is not 1, for
example in the expression 5x 2 - 2x + 4, we need to use a different method to
factorise the trinomial.
There are different ways of factorising these trinomials. One method is
the cross method. Another is called the PSF method. Or you can simply guess
and check.
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 5y 2 - 13y + 6
Solutionguess and check

For 5y2, one bracket will have 5y and the other y:
^ 5y h ^ y h .
Now look at the constant (term without y in it): + 6.
The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give + 6.

To get a positive answer, they must both have the same signs.
But there is a negative sign in front of 13y so the numbers cannot be both
positive. They must both be negative.
^ 5y - h ^ y - h
To get a product of 6, the numbers must be 2 and 3 or 1 and 6.
Guess 2 and 3 and check:
^ 5y - 2 h ^ y - 3 h = 5y 2 - 15y - 2y + 6
= 5y 2 - 17y + 6
This is not correct.
Notice that we are mainly interested in checking the middle two terms,
-15y and - 2y.
Try 2 and 3 the other way around:
^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h .
Checking the middle terms: -10y - 3y = -13y
This is correct, so the answer is ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h .
Note: If this did not check out, do the same with 1 and 6.
Solutioncross method
Factors of 5y 2 are 5y and y.
Factors of 6 are -1 and - 6 or - 2 and - 3.
Possible combinations that give a middle term of -13y are
5y
-2
5y
-3
5y
-1
5y
-6
-3
-2
-6
-1
By guessing and checking, we choose the correct combination.

-3
5y # - 2 = -10y
5y
y
-2
y # - 3 = - 3y
-13y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h
SolutionPSF method
P: Product of first and last terms
S: Sum or middle term
F: Factors of P that give S
- 3y
30y 2 )
-10y
-13y
30y 2
-13y
- 3y, -10y
` 5y 2 - 13y + 6 = 5y 2 - 3y - 10y + 6
= y ^ 5y - 3 h - 2 ^ 5 y - 3 h
= ^ 5y - 3 h ^ y - 2 h
CONTINUED
61
62
2. 4y 2 + 4y - 3
Solutionguess and check

For 4y2, both brackets will have 2y or one bracket will have 4y and the
other y.
Try 2y in each bracket:
^ 2y h ^ 2y h .
Now look at the constant: - 3.
The two numbers inside the brackets must multiply to give - 3.
To get a negative answer, they must have different signs.
^ 2y - h ^ 2y + h
To get a product of 3, the numbers must be 1 and 3.
Guess and check:
^ 2y - 3 h ^ 2 y + 1 h
Checking the middle terms: 2y - 6y = - 4y
This is almost correct, as the sign is wrong but the coefficient is right
(the number in front of y).
Swap the signs around:
^ 2y - 1 h ^ 2 y + 3 h = 4y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3
= 4y 2 + 4y - 3
This is correct, so the answer is ^ 2y - 1 h ^ 2y + 3 h .
Solutioncross method
Factors of 4y 2 are 4y and y or 2y and 2y.
Factors of 3 are -1 and 3 or - 3 and 1.
Trying combinations of these factors gives
3
2y
2y # - 1 = - 2 y
2y
-1
2y # 3 =
6y
4y
` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = ^ 2 y + 3 h ^ 2 y - 1 h
SolutionPSF method
P: Product of first and last terms
-12y 2
S: Sum or middle term
4y
F: Factors of P that give S
+ 6y, - 2y
2 + 6y
-12y )
-2y
+ 4y
` 4y 2 + 4y - 3 = 4 y 2 + 6 y - 2 y - 3
= 2y ^ 2y + 3 h - 1 ^ 2 y + 3 h
= ^ 2y + 3 h ^ 2y - 1 h
2.10
Exercises
Factorise
1.
2a 2 + 11a + 5
16. 4n 2 - 11n + 6
2.
5y 2 + 7y + 2
17. 8t 2 + 18t - 5
3.
3x 2 + 10x + 7
18. 12q 2 + 23q + 10
4.
3x 2 + 8x + 4
19. 8r 2 + 22r - 6
5.
2b 2 - 5b + 3
20. 4x 2 - 4x - 15
6.
7x 2 - 9x + 2
21. 6y 2 - 13y + 2
7.
3y 2 + 5y - 2
22. 6p 2 - 5p - 6
8.
2x 2 + 11x + 12
23. 8x 2 + 31x + 21
9.
5p 2 + 13p - 6
24. 12b 2 - 43b + 36
10. 6x 2 + 13x + 5
25. 6x 2 - 53x - 9
11. 2y 2 - 11y - 6
26. 9x 2 + 30x + 25
12. 10x 2 + 3x - 1
27. 16y 2 + 24y + 9
13. 8t 2 - 14t + 3
28. 25k 2 - 20k + 4
14. 6x 2 - x - 12
29. 36a 2 - 12a + 1
15. 6y 2 + 47y - 8
30. 49m 2 + 84m + 36
Perfect squares
You have looked at some special binomial products, including
]a + bg2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 and ]a - bg2 = a 2 - 2ab + b 2 .
When factorising, use these results the other way around.
a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2
a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2
63
64
EXAMPLES
In a perfect square, the
constant term is always a
square number.
Factorise
1. x 2 - 8x + 16
Solution
x 2 - 8x + 16 = x 2 - 2 (4) x + 4 2
= ] x - 4 g2
2. 4a 2 + 20a + 25
Solution
4a 2 + 20a + 25 = ] 2a g2 + 2 (2a) (5) + 5 2
= ] 2a + 5 g2
2.11
Exercises
Factorise
1.
y 2 - 2y + 1
12. 16k 2 - 24k + 9
2.
x 2 + 6x + 9
13. 25x 2 + 10x + 1
3.
m 2 + 10m + 25
14. 81a 2 - 36a + 4
4.
t 2 - 4t + 4
15. 49m 2 + 84m + 36
5.
x 2 - 12x + 36
16. t 2 + t +
6.
4x 2 + 12x + 9
7.
16b 2 - 8b + 1
8.
9a 2 + 12a + 4
4x
4
+
3
9
6y
1
18. 9y 2 +
+
5
25
9.
25x 2 - 40x + 16
19. x 2 + 2 +
10. 49y 2 + 14y + 1

11. 9y 2 - 30y + 25
1
4
17. x 2 -
1
x2
20. 25k 2 - 20 +
4
k2
Difference of 2 squares
A special case of binomial products is ] a + b g ] a - b g = a 2 - b 2.
a2 - b2 = ] a + b g ] a - b g
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. d 2 - 36
Solution
d 2 - 36 = d 2 - 6 2
= ]d + 6 g]d - 6 g
2. 9b 2 - 1
Solution
9b 2 - 1 = ] 3b g2 - 1 2
= ( 3 b + 1) ( 3 b - 1 )
3. (a + 3) 2 - (b - 1) 2
Solution
] a + 3 g2 - ] b - 1 g2 = [(a + 3) + (b - 1)] [(a + 3) - (b - 1)]
= (a + 3 + b - 1) ( a + 3 - b + 1)
= ( a + b + 2 ) (a - b + 4 )
2.12
Exercises
Factorise
1.
a2 - 4
7.
1 - 4z 2
2.
x2 - 9
8.
25t 2 - 1
3.
y2 - 1
9.
9t 2 - 4
4.
x 2 - 25
10. 9 - 16x 2
5.
4x 2 - 49
11. x 2 - 4y 2
6.
16y 2 - 9
12. 36x 2 - y 2
65
66
13. 4a 2 - 9b 2
20.
14. x 2 - 100y 2
15. 4a - 81b
2
21. ] x + 2 g2 - ^ 2y + 1 h2
22. x 4 - 1
16. ]x + 2g2 - y 2
17. ] a - 1 g - ] b - 2 g
2
18. z - ] 1 + w g
2
19. x 2 -
y2
-1
9
1
4
23. 9x 6 - 4y 2
24. x 4 - 16y 4
25. a 8 - 1
Sums and differences of 2 cubes
a 3 + b 3 = ] a + b g ^ a 2 - ab + b 2 h
Proof
(a + b) (a 2 - ab + b 2) = a 3 - a 2 b + ab 2 + a 2 b - ab 2 + b 3
= a3 + b3
a 3 - b 3 = ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
Proof
(a - b) (a 2 + ab + b 2) = a 3 + a 2 b + ab 2 - a 2 b - ab 2 - b 3
= a3 - b3
EXAMPLES
Factorise
1. 8x 3 + 1
Solution
8x 3 + 1 = ] 2x g3 + 1 3
= (2x + 1) [] 2x g2 - (2x) (1) + 1 2]
= (2x + 1 ) (4 x 2 - 2 x + 1 )
2. 27a 3 - 64b 3
Solution
27a 3 - 64b 3 = ] 3a g3 - ] 4b g3
= (3a - 4b) [] 3a g2 + (3a) (4b) + ] 4b g2]
= (3a - 4b) (9a 2 + 12ab + 16b 2)
2.13
Exercises
Factorise
1.
b3 - 8
2.
x 3 + 27
3.
t3 + 1
4.
a 3 - 64
14. ] x + 1 g3 - y 3
5.
1 - x3
15. 125x 3 y 3 + 216z 3
6.
8 + 27y 3
16. ]a - 2g3 - ]a + 1g3
7.
y 3 + 8z 3
8.
x 3 - 125y 3
9.
8x 3 + 27y 3
10. a 3 b 3 - 1
11. 1000 + 8t 3
12.
x3
- 27
8
13.
1000
1
+ 3
3
a
b
17. 1 -
x3
27
18. y 3 + ]3 + xg3
19. ] x + 1 g3 + ^ y - 2 h3
20. 8]a + 3g3 - b 3
Mixed factors
Sometimes more than one method of factorising is needed to completely
factorise an expression.
EXAMPLE
Factorise 5x 2 - 45.
Solution
5x 2 - 45 = 5 (x 2 - 9)
= 5 (x + 3) (x - 3)
(using simple factors)

(the difference of two squares)
67
68
2.14
Exercises
Factorise
1.
2x 2 - 18
16. x 3 - 3x 2 - 10x
2.
3p 2 - 3p - 36
17. x 3 - 3x 2 - 9x + 27
3.
5y 3 - 5
18. 4x 2 y 3 - y
4.
4a 3 b + 8a 2 b 2 - 4ab 2 - 2a 2 b
19. 24 - 3b 3
5.
5a 2 - 10a + 5
20. 18x 2 + 33x - 30
6.
- 2x 2 + 11x - 12
21. 3x 2 - 6x + 3
7.
3z 3 + 27z 2 + 60z
22. x 3 + 2x 2 - 25x - 50
8.
9ab - 4a 3 b 3
23. z 3 + 6z 2 + 9z
9.
x3 - x
24. 4x 4 - 13x 2 + 9
10. 6x 2 + 8x - 8
25. 2x 5 + 2x 2 y 3 - 8x 3 - 8y 3
11. 3m - 15 - 5n + mn
26. 4a 3 - 36a
12. ] x - 3 g2 - ] x + 4 g2
27. 40x - 5x 4
13. y 2 ^ y + 5 h - 16 ^ y + 5 h
28. a 4 - 13a 2 + 36
14. x 4 - x 3 + 8x - 8
29. 4k 3 + 40k 2 + 100k
15. x 6 - 1
30. 3x 3 + 9x 2 - 3x - 9
DID YOU KNOW?

Long division can be used to find factors of an expression. For example, x - 1 is a factor of
x 3 + 4x - 5. We can find the other factor by dividing x 3 + 4x - 5 by x - 1.
x2 + x + 5
x - 1 x3
+ 4x - 5
x3
x2
x 2 + 4x
x2
You will study this in

Chapter 12.
x
5x - 5
5x - 5
0
So the other factor of x 3 + 4x - 5 is x 2 + x + 5
` x 3 + 4x - 5 = (x - 1) (x 2 + x + 5)
69
Completing the Square

Factorising a perfect square uses the results
a 2 ! 2ab + b 2 = ] a ! b g2
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on x 2 + 6x.
Solution
Using a 2 + 2ab + b 2:
a=x
2ab = 6x
Substituting a = x:
2xb = 6x
b=3
Notice that 3 is half of 6.
To complete the square:

a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = ] a + b g2
2
x + 2x ] 3 g + 3 2 = ] x + 3 g2
x 2 + 6x + 9 = ] x + 3 g2
2. Complete the square on n 2 - 10n.
Solution
Using a 2 - 2ab + b 2:
a=n
2ab = 10x
Substituting a = n:
2nb = 10n
b=5
Notice that 5 is half of 10.
To complete the square:

a 2 - 2ab + b 2 = ] a - b g2
n 2 - 2n ] 5 g + 5 2 = ] n - 5 g2
n 2 - 10n + 25 = ] n - 5 g2
To complete the square on a 2 + pa, divide p by 2 and square it.

p 2
p 2
a 2 + pa + d n = d a + n
2
2
70
EXAMPLES
1. Complete the square on x 2 + 12x.
Solution
Divide 12 by 2 and square it:
x 2 + 12x + c
12 2
m = x 2 + 12x + 6 2
2
= x 2 + 12x + 36
= ]x + 6g2
2. Complete the square on y 2 - 2y.
Solution
Divide 2 by 2 and square it:
2 2
y 2 - 2y + c m = y 2 - 2 y + 1 2
2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
= ^ y - 1 h2
2.15
Exercises
Complete the square on

1.
x 2 + 4x
12. y 2 + 3y
2.
b 2 - 6b
13. x 2 - 7x
3.
x 2 - 10x
14. a 2 + a
4.
y 2 + 8y
15. x 2 + 9x
5.
m 2 - 14m
16. y 2 -
6.
q 2 + 18q
5y
2
7.
x 2 + 2x
17. k 2 -
11k
2
8.
t 2 - 16t
18. x 2 + 6xy
9.
x 2 - 20x
19. a 2 - 4ab
10. w 2 + 44w
11. x 2 - 32x
20. p 2 - 8pq
71
Algebraic Fractions
Simplifying fractions
EXAMPLES
Simplify
4x + 2
2
1.
Solution
2 ] 2x + 1 g
4x + 2
=
2
2
= 2x + 1
Factorise first, then cancel.
2x 2 - 3x - 2
x3 - 8
2.
Solution
] 2x + 1 g ] x - 2 g
2x 2 - 3x - 2
=
3
] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h
x -8
2x + 1
= 2
x + 2x + 4
2.16
Exercises
Simplify
1.
5a + 10
5
9.
b3 - 1
b2 - 1
2.
6t - 3
3
10.
3.
8y + 2
6
2p 2 + 7p - 15
6p - 9
11.
a2 - 1
a + 2a - 3
4.
5.
6.
8
4d - 2
2
x
5x 2 - 2x
y-4
12.
13.
y - 8y + 16
3 ]x - 2g + y ]x - 2g
x3 - 8
x 3 + 3x 2 - 9x - 27
x 2 + 6x + 9
7.
2ab - 4a 2
a 2 - 3a
8.
s2 + s - 2
s 2 + 5s + 6
14.
15.
2p 2 - 3p - 2
8p 3 + 1
ay - ax + by - bx
2ay - by - 2ax + bx
72
Operations with algebraic fractions

EXAMPLES
Simplify
1.
x+3
x-1
5
4
Solution
Do algebraic fractions
the same way as ordinary
fractions.
4 ]x - 1 g - 5 ]x + 3 g
x -1 x +3
=
5
4
20
4x - 4 - 5x - 15
=
20
- x - 19
=
20
2.
2a 2 b + 10ab
a 2 - 25
'
3
4b + 12
b + 27
Solution
2a 2 b + 10ab
a 2 - 25
2a 2 b + 10ab 4b + 12
'
=
# 2
4b + 12
b 3 + 27
b 3 + 27
a - 25
2ab ] a + 5 g
4 ]b + 3 g
=
#
2
]
a + 5 g]a - 5 g
] b + 3 g ^ b - 3b + 9 h
8ab
=
] a - 5 g ^ b 2 - 3b + 9 h
3.
2
1
+
x-5 x+2
Solution
2 ]x + 2g + 1 ]x - 5g
2
1
+
=
x-5 x+2
]x - 5g]x + 2g
2x + 4 + x - 5
=
]x - 5g]x + 2g
3x - 1
=
]x - 5g]x + 2g
2.17
1.
2.
Exercises
Simplify
x 3x
(a) +
4
2
y + 1 2y
(b)
+
5
3
a+2 a
(c)
4
3
p-3 p+2
(d)
+
6
2
x-5 x-1
(e)
2
3
4.
Simplify
3
b 2 + 2b
#
(a)
b + 2 6a - 3
1
1
+
x+1 x-3
(g)
3
2
x
2
+
x -4
(h)
1
1
+
a 2 + 2a + 1 a + 1
(i)
5
2
1
+
y+2 y+3 y-1
(j)
2
7
x 2 - 16 x 2 - x - 12
Simplify
(a)
y2 - 9
3x 2
x 2 - 2x - 8
#
#
4y - 12 6x - 24
y 3 + 27
q3 + 1
(b) 2
#
q + 2q + 1 p + 2
(b)
2
a 2 - 5a
3a - 15 y - y - 2
'
#
5ay
y 2 - 4y + 4
y2 - 4
3ab 2
12ab - 6a
(c)
' 2
5xy
x y + 2xy 2
(c)
3
x 2 + 3x
2x + 8
+ 2
#
x-3
4x - 16
x -9
(d)
5b
b2
b
' 2
2b + 6
b
1
+
b +b-6
(e)
x 2 - 8x + 15
x 2 - 9 x 2 + 5x + 6
'
#
2
2x - 10
5x + 10x
10x 2
p2 - 4
(d)
ax - ay + bx - by
x2 - y2
x3 + y3
ab 2 + a 2 b
x 2 - 6x + 9
x 2 - 5x + 6
(e)
'
x 2 - 25
x 2 + 4x - 5
3.
(f)
5.
Simplify
2 3
(a) x + x
Simplify
(a)
1
2
4
+
x 2 - 7x + 10 x 2 - 2x - 15 x 2 + x - 6
1
2
x-1 x
(b)
3
5
2
+
2
2
x
x
x -4
(c) 1 +
3
a+b
(c)
3
2
+
p 2 + pq pq - q 2
(d) x -
x2
x+2
(d)
a
b
1
+
a + b a - b a2 - b2
(b)
(e) p - q +
1
p+q
x+y
y
x
(e) x - y + y - x - 2
y - x2
Substitution
Algebra is used in writing general formulae or rules. For example, the formula
A = lb is used to find the area of a rectangle with length l and breadth b. We
can substitute any values for l and b to find the area of different rectangles.
73
74
EXAMPLES
1. P = 2l + 2b is the formula for finding the perimeter of a rectangle
with length l and breadth b. Find P when l = 1.3 and b = 3.2.
Solution
P = 2 l + 2b
= 2 ] 1 . 3 g + 2 ] 3 .2 g
= 2 .6 + 6 . 4
=9
2. V = rr 2 h is the formula for finding the volume of a cylinder with
radius r and height h. Find V (correct to 1 decimal place) when r = 2.1
and h = 8.7.
Solution
V = rr 2 h
= r ] 2.1 g2 (8.7)
= 120.5 correct to 1 decimal place
9C
+ 32 is the formula for changing degrees Celsius ] C g into
5
degrees Fahrenheit ] F g find F when C = 25.
3. If F =
Solution
9C
+ 32
5
9 ] 25 g
=
+ 32
5
225
=
+ 32
5
225 + 160
=
5
385
=
5
= 77
This means that 25C is the same as 77F.
F=
2.18
1.
Exercises
Given a = 3.1 and b = - 2.3 find,

(a) ab
(b) 3b
(c) 5a 2
(d) ab 3
(e) ]a + bg2
(f)
a-b
(g) - b 2
2.
T = a + ] n - 1 g d is the formula
for finding the term of an
arithmetic series. Find T when
a = - 4, n = 18 and d = 3.
3.
Given y = mx + b, the equation

of a straight line, find y if
m = 3, x = - 2 and b = - 1.
4.
If h = 100t - 5t 2 is the height of

a particle at time t, find h when
t = 5.
5.
Given vertical velocity v = - gt,

find v when g = 9.8 and t = 20.
6.
If y = 2 x + 3 is the equation of
a function, find y when x = 1.3,
7.
S = 2r r ] r + h g is the formula for

the surface area of a cylinder.
Find S when r = 5 and h = 7,
correct to the nearest whole
number.
8.
A = rr 2 is the area of a circle with

radius r. Find A when r = 9.5,
correct to 3 significant figures.
9.
n-1
Given u n = ar
is the nth term
of a geometric series, find u n if
a = 5, r = - 2 and n = 4.
10. Given V = 1 lbh is the volume

3
formula for a rectangular
pyramid, find V if l = 4.7, b = 5.1
and h = 6.5.
11. The gradient of a straight line is
y2 - y1
given by m = x - x . Find m
2
1
if x 1 = 3, x 2 = -1, y 1 = - 2 and
y 2 = 5.
12. If A = 1 h ] a + b g gives the area
2
of a trapezium, find A when
h = 7, a = 2.5 and b = 3.9.
13. Find V if V = 4 rr 3 is the volume
3
formula for a sphere with radius r
and r = 7.6, to 1 decimal place.
14. The velocity of an object at a

certain time t is given by the
formula v = u + at. Find v when
u = 1 , a = 3 and t = 5 .
4
5
6
a
15. Given S =
, find S if a = 5
1-r
and r = 2 . S is the sum to infinity
3
of a geometric series.
16. c = a 2 + b 2 , according to
Pythagoras theorem. Find the
value of c if a = 6 and b = 8.
17. Given y = 16 - x 2 is the
equation of a semicircle, find the
exact value of y when x = 2.
75
76
18. Find the value of E in the energy

equation E = mc 2 if m = 8.3 and
c = 1.7.
19. A = P c 1 +
r n
m is the formula
100
for finding compound interest.

Find A when P = 200, r = 12 and
n = 5, correct to 2 decimal places.
20. If S =
a ^rn - 1h
is the sum of
r -1
a geometric series, find S if

a = 3, r = 2 and n = 5.
a3 b2
if
c2
2
3
1 4
a = c 3 m , b = c 2 m and c = c m .
4
3
2
Surds
An irrational number is a number that cannot be written as a ratio or fraction
(rational). Surds are special types of irrational numbers, such as 2, 3 and 5 .
Some surds give rational values: for example, 9 = 3. Others, like 2 , do
not have an exact decimal value. If a question involving surds asks for an exact
answer, then leave it as a surd rather than giving a decimal approximation.
Simplifying surds
Class Investigations
1. Is there an exact decimal equivalent for 2 ?
2. Can you draw a line of length exactly 2 ?
3. Do these calculations give the same results?
(a) 9 # 4 and 9 # 4
(b)
and
4
9
(c)
9
9 + 4 and
9 +
(d)
9 - 4 and
9 -
Here are some basic properties of surds.
a# b =
ab
a' b =
^ x h2 =
x2 = x
a
b
77
EXAMPLES
1. Express in simplest surd form
45 .
45 also equals
3 # 15 but this will
not simplify. We look
for a number that is a
perfect square.
Solution
45 = 9 # 5
= 9 # 5
=3# 5
=3 5
2. Simplify 3 40 .
Solution
Find a factor of 40 that

is a perfect square.
3 40 = 3 4 # 10
= 3 # 4 # 10
= 3 # 2 # 10
= 6 10
3. Write 5 2 as a single surd.
Solution
5 2 =
=
2.19
1.
25 # 2
50
Exercises
Express these surds in simplest

surd form.
(k)
112
(l)
300
(a)
12
(b)
63
(c)
24
(d)
50
(e)
72
(f)
200
(g)
48
(h)
75
(i)
32
(a) 2 27
(j)
54
(b) 5 80
(m) 128
2.
(n)
243
(o)
245
(p)
108
(q)
99
(r)
125
Simplify
78
(c) 4 98
(g) 3 13
(d) 2 28
(h) 7 2
(e) 8 20
(i) 11 3
(f) 4 56
(j) 12 7
(g) 8 405
4.
(h) 15 8
(a)
(i) 7 40
x =3 5
(b) 2 3 =
(c) 3 7 =
Write as a single surd.
(d) 5 2 =
(a) 3 2
(e) 2 11 =
(b) 2 5
(f)
(c) 4 11
(g) 4 19 =
(d) 8 2
(h)
(e) 5 3
(i) 5 31 =
(f) 4 10
(j)
(j) 8 45
3.
Evaluate x if
x =7 3
x
x = 6 23
x
x = 8 15
Addition and subtraction

Calculations with surds are similar to calculations in algebra. We can only add
or subtract like terms with algebraic expressions. This is the same with surds.
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify 3 2 + 4 2 .
Solution
3 2+4 2 =7 2
2. Simplify
3 - 12 .
Solution
First, change into like surds.
3 - 12 = 3 - 4 # 3
= 3 -2 3
=- 3
3. Simplify 2 2 - 2 + 3 .
Solution
2 2- 2+ 3=
2+ 3
2.20
79
Exercises
Simplify
1.
5 +2 5
14.
50 -
32
2.
3 2 -2 2
15.
28 +
63
3.
3 +5 3
16. 2 8 -
18
4.
7 3 -4 3
5.
5 -4 5
6.
4 6 -
17. 3 54 + 2 24
18.
90 - 5 40 - 2 10
19. 4 48 + 3 147 + 5 12
7.
2 -8 2
20. 3 2 + 8 - 12
8.
5 +4 5 +3 5
21.
63 - 28 - 50
9.
2 -2 2 -3 2
22.
12 - 45 - 48 - 5
10.
5 +
45
23.
150 + 45 + 24
11.
8 -
24.
32 - 243 - 50 + 147
12.
3 +
48
25.
80 - 3 245 + 2 50
13.
12 -
27
Multiplication and division

To get a b # c d = ac bd ,
multiply surds with surds and
rationals with rationals.
a # b = ab
a b # c d = ac bd
a# a =
a
b
a2 = a
a
b
EXAMPLES
Simplify
1. 2 2 #- 5 7
Solution
2 2 #- 5 7 = -10 14
CONTINUED
80
2. 4 2 # 5 18
Solution
4 2 # 5 18 = 20 36
= 20 # 6
= 120
3.
2 14
4 2
Solution
2 14
4 2
2 2 #
7
2
4.
4 2
3 10
15 2
Solution
3 10
15 2
3# 5 # 2
15 2
5
=
5
5. d
10 n
3
Solution
2
^ 10 h
10 n
=
3
^ 3 h2
10
=
3
=31
3
2.21
Exercises
Simplify
1.
7 #
2.
3# 5
3.
2 #3 3
4.
5 7 #2 2
5.
-3 3 #2 2
6.
5 3 #2 3
7.
- 4 5 # 3 11
8.
2 7# 7
9.
2 3 # 5 12
10.
6# 2
11.
8 #2 6
23.
5 8
10 2
24.
16 2
25.
10 30
26.
2 2
27.
28.
2 12
5 10
6 20
4 2
8 10
3
3 15
29.
30.
3 15
12. 3 2 # 5 14
13.
10 # 2 2
14. 2 6 #-7 6
15. ^ 2 h
2
16. ^ 2 7 h
17.
31.
5 12
32.
15 18
33.
15
5 8
10 10
3# 5# 2
18. 2 3 # 7 #- 5
19.
6 10
2 # 6 #3 3
2 6
2n
3
35. d
5n
7
20. 2 5 # - 3 2 # - 5 5
21.
4 12
22.
12 18
2 2
34. d
3 6
Expanding brackets
The same rules for expanding brackets and binomial products that you use in
algebra also apply to surds.
81
82
Simplifying surds by removing grouping symbols uses these general rules.
a^ b + ch=
ab + ac
Proof
a^ b + ch =
=
a# b +
ab + ac
a# c
Binomial product:
^ a + b h^ c + d h =
ac +
ad +
bc +
bd
Proof
^ a + b h^ c + d h = a # c + a # d + b # c + b # d
= ac + ad + bc + bd
Perfect squares:
^ a + b h2 = a + 2 ab + b
Proof
^ a + b h2 = ^ a + b h ^ a + b h
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a + 2 ab + b
^ a - b h2 = a - 2 ab + b
Proof
^ a - b h2 = ^ a - b h ^ a - b h
= a 2 - ab - ab + b 2
= a - 2 ab + b
Difference of two squares:
^ a + b h^ a - b h = a - b
Proof
^ a + b h ^ a - b h = a 2 - ab + ab - b 2
=a-b
83
EXAMPLES
Expand and simplify
1. 2 ^ 5 + 2 h
Solution
2( 5 +
2) =
=
=
2# 5 +
10 + 4
10 + 2
2# 2
2. 3 7 ^ 2 3 - 3 2 h
Solution
3 7 (2 3 - 3 2 ) = 3 7 # 2 3 - 3 7 # 3 2
= 6 21 - 9 14
3. ^ 2 + 3 5 h ^ 3 -
2h
Solution
( 2 + 3 5)( 3 -
2) =
=
2# 3 - 2# 2 +3 5# 3 -3 5# 2
6 - 2 + 3 15 - 3 10
4. ^ 5 + 2 3 h ^ 5 - 2 3 h
Solution
( 5 + 2 3 ) ( 5 - 2 3 ) = 5 # 5 - 5 #2 3 + 2 3 # 5 - 2 3 #2 3
= 5 - 2 15 + 2 15 - 4#3
= 5 - 12
= -7
Another way to do this question is by using the difference of two squares.
2
2
( 5 + 2 3)( 5 - 2 3) = ^ 5 h - ^2 3 h
= 5 - 4#3
= -7
Notice that using the

difference of two
squares gives a rational
answer.
84
2.22
1.
Exercises
(m)^ 2 11 + 5 2 h^ 2 11 - 5 2 h
Expand and simplify

(a)
2^ 5 + 3h
(b)
3 ^2 2 - 5 h
(n) ^ 5 + 2 h
2
(o) ^ 2 2 - 3 h
(c) 4 3 ^ 3 + 2 5 h
(d)
2
(p) ^ 3 2 + 7 h
7 ^5 2 - 2 3 h
2
(q) ^ 2 3 + 3 5 h
(e) - 3 ^ 2 - 4 6 h
(f)
2
(r) ^ 7 - 2 5 h
3 ^ 5 11 + 3 7 h
2
(s) ^ 2 8 - 3 5 h
(g) - 3 2 ^ 2 + 4 3 h
(h)
5^ 5 - 5 3h
(i)
3 ^ 12 + 10 h
2
(t) ^ 3 5 + 2 2 h
3.
If a = 3 2 , simplify
(a) a2
(b) 2a3
(c) (2a)3
(d) ]a + 1g2
(e) ] a + 3 g ] a 3 g
4.
Evaluate a and b if
2
(a) ^ 2 5 + 1h = a + b
(j) 2 3 ^ 18 + 3 h
(k) - 4 2 ^ 2 - 3 6 h
(l) - 7 5 ^ - 3 20 + 2 3 h
(m) 10 3 ^ 2 - 2 12 h
(n) - 2 ^ 5 + 2 h
(o) 2 3 ^ 2 - 12 h
2.
(b) ^ 2 2 - 5 h ^ 2 - 3 5 h
= a + b 10
Expand and simplify

(a) ^ 2 + 3h^ 5 + 3 3 h
(b) ^ 5 - 2 h^ 2 - 7 h
5.
Expand and simplify

(a) ^ a + 3 - 2 h ^ a + 3 + 2 h
2
(b) _ p - 1 - p i
6.
Evaluate k if
^ 2 7 - 3 h ^ 2 7 + 3 h = k.
7.
Simplify _ 2 x + y i _ x - 3 y i .
8.
If ^ 2 3 - 5 h = a - b , evaluate
a and b.
9.
Evaluate a and b if
^ 7 2 - 3 h2 = a + b 2 .
(c) ^ 2 + 5 3 h^ 2 5 - 3 2 h
(d) ^ 3 10 - 2 5 h^ 4 2 + 6 6 h
(e) ^ 2 5 - 7 2 h^ 5 - 3 2 h
(f) ^ 5 + 6 2 h^ 3 5 - 3 h
(g) ^ 7 + 3 h^ 7 - 3 h
(h) ^ 2 - 3 h^ 2 + 3 h
(i) ^ 6 + 3 2 h^ 6 - 3 2 h
(j) ^ 3 5 + 2 h^ 3 5 - 2 h
(k) ^ 8 - 5 h^ 8 + 5 h
(l) ^ 2 + 9 3 h^ 2 - 9 3 h
10. A rectangle has sides 5 + 1 and

2 5 - 1. Find its exact area.
Rationalising the denominator

Rationalising the denominator of a fractional surd means writing it with a
rational number (not a surd) in the denominator. For example, after
3 5
3
rationalising the denominator,
becomes
.
5
5
85
DID YOU KNOW?

A major reason for rationalising the denominator used to be to make it easier to evaluate the
fraction (before calculators were available). It is easier to divide by a rational number than an
irrational one; for example,
3
= 3 ' 2.236
5
3
5
5
This is hard to do
without a calculator.
This is easier to calculate.
= 3 # 2.236 ' 5
Squaring a surd in the denominator will rationalise it since ^ x h = x.

2
Multiplying by
b
a b
a
#
=
b
b
b
b
is the same as
multiplying by 1.
Proof
b
a b
a
#
=
b
b
b2
a b
=
b
EXAMPLES
1. Rationalise the denominator of
Solution
3
.
5
5
3 5
3
#
=
5
5
5
Solution
2
5 3
.
Dont multiply by
5
2
5 3
3
3
2 3
5 9
2 3
=
5# 3
2 3
=
15
as it takes
5 3
longer to simplify.
86
When there is a binomial denominator, we use the difference of two

squares to rationalise it, as the result is always a rational number.
To rationalise the denominator of
a+ b
c+ d
, multiply by
Proof
a+ b
c+ d
^ a + b h^ c - d h
c- d
^ c + d h^ c - d h
^ a + b h^ c - d h
=
^ c h2 - ^ d h2
^ a + b h^ c - d h
=
c-d
c- d
EXAMPLES
1. Write with a rational denominator
5
2 -3
Multiply by the conjugate
surd 2 + 3.
Solution
5
2 -3
2 +3
2 +3
5 ^ 2 + 3h
^ 2 h2 - 3 2
10 + 3 5
=
2-9
10 + 3 5
=
-7
10 + 3 5
=7
2. Write with a rational denominator

2 3+ 5
3+4 2
Solution
2 3 +
3 +4 2
3 -4 2
3 -4 2
^2 3 + 5 h^ 3 - 4 2 h
^ 3 h2 - ^ 4 2 h2
2 # 3 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10
=
3 - 16 # 2
c- d
c- d
6 - 8 6 + 15 - 4 10
- 29
- 6 + 8 6 - 15 + 4 10
=
29
=
3. Evaluate a and b if
3 3
3- 2
= a + b.
Solution
3 3
3- 2
3+ 2
3+ 2
3 3^ 3 + 2h
^ 3 - 2 h^ 3 + 2 h
3 9+3 6
=
^ 3 h2 - ^ 2 h2
3#3+3 6
3-2
9+3 6
=
1
=9+3 6
=
=9+ 9# 6
= 9 + 54
So a = 9 and b = 54.
4. Evaluate as a fraction with rational denominator
2
+
3+2
5
3-2
Solution
2
+
3+2
5
3 -2
2^ 3 - 2h + 5 ^ 3 + 2h
^ 3 + 2h ^ 3 - 2h
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
^ 3 h2 - 2 2
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
3-4
2 3 - 4 + 15 + 2 5
=
-1
= - 2 3 + 4 - 15 - 2 5
=
87
88
2.23
1.
Express with rational

denominator
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2.
Exercises
3.
1
7
(a)
(b)
2 2
2 3
(c)
5
6 7
(d)
5 2
1+
2
3
6 -5
(g)
5 +2 2
8+3 2
(j)
4 3 -2 2
(f)
1
5 +
2 -
2 +
2 +3
4 5
(j)
7 5
(k)
4
3 +
(l)
2
4.
3
2 -7
5 +2 6
3 -4
3 +4
3 3 3 +
(b)
(c)
2 +5
2
2
2 5 +3 2
3
2 +
3
3 2 -
6 -
2
3
2 +3
5
6 +2
2 +7
4+
2 3 +
3 -2
6 +
1
3
3 -
(d)
(e)
2 5
3
4 2
2 -1
5 -
3
5 3
2
4-
2+
3 +1
Find a and b if
(a)
2 3
1
where z = 1 +
z2
(h)
(i)
1
2 -1
1
where t =
t
3 2 +4
2 7
Express with rational

denominator
(e)
(g)
(i)
(d)
2 -
3 2 -4
(c)
(f) z 2 -
(h)
(b)
1
+
2 +1
(e) t +
(f)
(a)
Express as a single fraction with

rational denominator
a
b
a 6
b
2
=a+b 5
5 +1
2 7
7 -4
2 +3
2 -1
=a+b 7
=a+
2
-
2
6 -1
5.
2 -1
Show that
2 +1
4
is
2
7.
If x =
(b) x 2 +
8.
1
x2
1
5 -
as a single fraction with

3
rational denominator.
3 + 2, simplify
1
(a) x + x
2
5 +
5 +1
rational.
6.
Write
Show that
8
2
+
is
3+2 2
2
rational.
2
1
(c) b x + x l
9.
1
If 2 + x = 3 , where x ! 0,
find x as a surd with rational
denominator.

b +2
]b ! 4 g
b -2
89
90
Test Yourself 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
Simplify
(a) 5y - 7y
3a + 12
(b)
3
(c) - 2k 3 # 3k 2
y
x
(d) +
5
3
(e) 4a - 3b - a - 5b
(f) 8 + 32
(g) 3 5 - 20 + 45
Factorise
(a) x 2 - 36
(b) a 2 + 2a - 3
(c) 4ab 2 - 8ab
(d) 5y - 15 + xy - 3x
(e) 4n - 2p + 6
(f) 8 - x 3
Expand and simplify
(a) b + 3 ] b - 2 g
(b) ] 2x - 1 g ] x + 3 g
(c) 5 ] m + 3 g - ] m - 2 g
(d) ]4x - 3g2
(e) ^ p - 5h^ p + 5h
(f) 7 - 2 ] a + 4 g - 5a
(g) 3 ^ 2 2 - 5 h
(h) ^ 3 + 7 h^ 3 - 2h
Simplify
4a - 12
10b
(a)
# 3
5b 3
a - 27
(b)
5.
5m + 10
m2 - 4
'
2
m - m - 2 3m + 3
The volume of a cube is V = s 3.

Evaluate V when s = 5.4.
6.
(a) Expand and simplify

^ 2 5 + 3 h ^ 2 5 - 3 h.
(b) Rationalise the denominator of
3 3
.
2 5+ 3
7.
Simplify
8.
If a = 4, b = - 3 and c = - 2, find the

value of
(a) ab 2
(b) a - bc
(c) a
(d) ]bcg3
(e) c ] 2a + 3b g
9.
Simplify
3 12
(a)
6 15
(b)
3
1
2
+
- 2
.
x-2
x+3
x +x-6
4 32
2 2
10. The formula for the distance an object

falls is given by d = 5t 2 . Find d when
t = 1.5.
2
(a)
5 3
(b)
1+ 3
2
12. Expand and simplify

(a) ^ 3 2 - 4h^ 3 - 2 h
2
(b) ^ 7 + 2h
13. Factorise fully
(a) 3x 2 - 27
(b) 6x 2 - 12x - 18
(c) 5y 3 + 40
14. Simplify
3x 4 y
(a)
9xy 5
(b)
5
15x - 5
15. Simplify
2
(a) ^ 3 11 h
3
(b) ^ 2 3 h
(a) ] a + b g ] a - b g
(b) ] a + b g 2
(c) ] a - b g 2
17. Factorise
(a) a 2 - 2ab + b 2
(b) a 3 - b 3
1
18. If x = 3 + 1, simplify x + x and
give your answer with a rational
denominator.
19. Simplify
4 3
(a) a +
b
(b)
x-3 x-2
5
2
20. Simplify
2
3
, writing
5+2 2 2-1
your answer with a rational denominator.

21. Simplify
(a) 3 8
(b) - 2 2 # 4 3
(c) 108 - 48
(d)

3
(a)
7
(b)
5 3
2
(c)
5 -1
(d)
(e)
2 2
3 2+ 3
5+ 2
4 5-3 3
24. Simplify
3x
x-2
(a)
5
2
a+2
2a - 3
(b)
+
7
3
1
2
(c) 2
1
x
+
x -1
4
1
(d) 2
+
k + 2k - 3 k + 3
(e)
3
2+ 5
5
3- 2
25. Evaluate n if
(a) 108 - 12 =
(b)
112 + 7 =
n
n
8 6
(c) 2 8 + 200 =
2 18
(d) 4 147 + 3 75 = n
180
(e) 2 245 +
= n
2
(e) 5a # - 3b # - 2a
(f)

(a) 2 2 ^ 3 + 2 h
(b) ^ 5 7 - 3 5 h^ 2 2 - 3 h
(c) ^ 3 + 2 h^ 3 - 2 h
(d) ^ 4 3 - 5 h^ 4 3 + 5 h
2
(e) ^ 3 7 - 2 h
2m 3 n
6m 2 n 5
(g) 3x - 2y - x - y
91
92
26. Evaluate x 2 +
1+2 3
1
if x =
2
x
1-2 3
2 7
(there may be more than one answer).
21
(a)
28
2 21
(b)
28
21
(c)
14
21
(d)
7
x-3
x +1
.
5
4
-]x + 7 g
20
x+7
20
x + 17
20
- ] x + 17 g
20
28. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
32. Simplify 5ab - 2a 2 - 7ab - 3a 2 .

(a) 2ab + a 2
(b) - 2ab - 5a 2
(c) - 13a 3 b
(d) - 2ab + 5a 2
33. Simplify
(a)
(b)
(c)
29. Factorise x 3 - 4x 2 - x + 4 (there may be

more than one answer).
(a) ^ x 2 - 1 h ] x - 4 g
(b) ^ x 2 + 1 h ] x - 4 g
(c) x 2 ] x - 4 g
(d) ] x - 4 g ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g
30. Simplify 3 2 + 2 98 .
(a) 5 2
(b) 5 10
(c) 17 2
(d) 10 2
3
2
1
+
.
x-2
x+2
x2 - 4
x+5
]x + 2g]x - 2g
x+1
]x + 2g]x - 2g
x+9
]x + 2g]x - 2g
x-3
]x + 2g]x - 2g
31. Simplify
(d)
80
.
27
4 5
3 3
4 5
9 3
8 5
9 3
8 5
3 3
34. Expand and simplify ^ 3x - 2y h2 .

(a) 3x 2 - 12xy - 2y 2
(b) 9x 2 - 12xy - 4y 2
(c) 3x 2 - 6xy + 2y 2
(d) 9x 2 - 12xy + 4y 2
35. Complete the square on a 2 - 16a.
(a) a 2 - 16a + 16 = ^ a - 4 h2
(b) a 2 - 16a + 64 = ^ a - 8 h2
(c) a 2 - 16a + 8 = ^ a - 4 h2
(d) a 2 - 16a + 4 = ^ a - 2 h2
1.
2.
Expand and simplify

(a) 4ab ] a - 2b g - 2a 2 ] b - 3a g
(b) _ y 2 - 2 i_ y 2 + 2 i
(c) ] 2x - 5 g3
Find the value of x + y with rational
denominator if x = 3 + 1 and
1
y=
.
2 5-3
2 3
11. Simplify
2x + y
x-y
3x + 2y
.
+
- 2
x-3
x+3
x +x-6
12. (a) Expand ^ 2x - 1 h3.

6x 2 + 5x - 4
(b) Simplify
.
8x 3 - 12x 2 + 6x - 1
13. Expand and simplify ] x - 1 g ^ x - 3 h2.
14. Simplify and express with rational
2 +
5 3
3.
Simplify
4.
b
Complete the square on x 2 + a x.
15. Complete the square on x 2 + 2 x.

3
5.
Factorise
(a) (x + 4)2 + 5 (x + 4)
(b) x 4 - x 2 y - 6y 2
(c) 125x 3 + 343
(d) a 2 b - 2a 2 - 4b + 8
16. If x =
6.
7.
8.
9.
7 6 - 54
denominator
Simplify
d=
4x 2 - 16x + 12
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
Simplify
10. Factorise
â + 1h
a3 + 1
a2
4
- 2.
2
x
b
lx 1 + kx 2
17. Find the exact value with rational

1
denominator of 2x 2 - 3x + x if x = 2 5 .
18. Find the exact value of
1+2 3
1
(a) x 2 + 2 if x =
x
1-2 3
(b) a and b if
is the formula for
a2 + b2
the perpendicular distance from a
point to a line. Find the exact value
of d with a rational denominator if
a = 2, b = -1, c = 3, x 1 = - 4 and y 1 = 5.
3
2 -1
, find the value of x when

k+l
k = 3, l = - 2, x 1 = 5 and x 2 = 4.
Complete the square on 4x 2 + 12x.

2xy + 2x - 6 - 6y
3 +4
3 -4
2+3 3
=a+b 3
19. A = 1 r 2 i is the area of a sector of a

2
circle. Find the value of i when A = 12
and r = 4.
20. If V = rr 2 h is the volume of a cylinder,
find the exact value of r when V = 9 and
h = 16.
21. If s = u + 1 at 2, find the exact value of s
2
when u = 2, a = 3 and t = 2 3 .
93
3
Equations
TERMINOLOGY
Absolute value: the distance of a number from zero on a
number line.
pronumeral that is solved to find values that make the

statement true e.g. 2x - 3 2 4
Equation: A mathematical statement that has a

pronumeral or unknown number and an equal sign. An
equation can be solved to find the value of the unknown
number e.g. 2x - 3 = 5
Quadratic equation: An equation involving x 2 as the

highest power of x that may have two, one or no
solutions
Exponential equation: Equation where the unknown

pronumeral is the power or index e.g. 2 x = 8
Inequation: A mathematical statement involving an
inequality sign, 1, 2, # or $ that has an unknown
Simultaneous equations: Two or more independent

equations that can be solved together to produce a
solution that makes each equation true at the same time.
The number of equations required is the same as the
number of unknowns
Chapter 3 Equations
95
INTRODUCTION
EQUATIONS ARE FOUND IN most branches of mathematics. They are also
important in many other elds, such as science, economics, statistics and

engineering. In this chapter you will revise basic equations and inequations.
Equations involving absolute values, exponential equations, quadratic
equations and simultaneous equations are also covered here.
DID YOU KNOW?

Algebra was known in ancient civilisations. Many equations were known in Babylonia, although
general solutions were difficult because symbols were not used in those times.
Diophantus, around 250 AD, first used algebraic notation and symbols (e.g. the minus sign).
He wrote a treatise on algebra in his Arithmetica, comprising 13 books. Only six of these books
survived. About 400 AD, Hypatia of Alexandria wrote a commentary on them.
Hypatia was the daughter of Theon, a mathematician who ensured that she had the best
education. She was the first female mathematician on record, and was a philosopher and teacher.
She was murdered for her philosophical views by a fanatical Christian sect.
In 1799 Carl Friedrich Gauss proved the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra: that every
algebraic equation has a solution.
PROBLEM
The age of Diophantus at his death can be calculated from this epitaph:
Diophantus passed one-sixth of his life in childhood, one-twelfth in youth, and
one-seventh more as a bachelor; ve years after his marriage a son was born
who died four years before his father at half his fathers nal age. How old
was Diophantus?
Simple Equations
Here are the four rules for changing numbers or pronumerals from one side of
an equation to the other.
ch3.indd 95
If a number is added, subtract it from both sides

If a number is subtracted, add it to both sides
If a number is multiplied, divide both sides by the number
If a number is divided, multiply both sides by the number
Do the opposite operation

to take a number to the
other side of an equation.
8/11/09 10:59:40 AM
96
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 3x + 5 = 17
Solution
3x + 5 = 17
3x + 5 - 5 = 17 - 5
3x = 12
3x
12
=
3
3
x=4
You can check the solution by substituting the value into the equation.
LHS = 3x + 5
= 3 ( 4) + 5
= 12 + 5
= 17
= RHS
Since LHS = RHS, x = 4 is the correct solution.
2. 4y - 3 = 8y + 21
Solution
4y - 3
4 y - 4y - 3
-3
- 3 - 21
- 24
= 8y + 21
= 8y - 4y + 21
= 4y + 21
= 4y + 21 - 21
= 4y
4y
- 24
=
4
4
-6 = y
y = -6
3. 2 ] 3x + 7 g = 6 - ] x - 1 g
Check these solutions
by substituting them
into the equation.
Solution
2 (3 x + 7 ) = 6 - ( x - 1 )
6x + 14 = 6 - x + 1
=7-x
6x + x + 14 = 7 - x + x
7x + 14 = 7
Chapter 3 Equations
7x + 14 - 14
7x
7x
7
x
= 7 - 14
= -7
-7
7
= -1
=
3.1 Exercises
Solve
1.
t + 4 = -1
2.
z + 1.7 = -3.9
3.
y - 3 = -2
4.
w - 2 .6 = 4 .1
18. 3x + 5 = 17
5.
5 = x -7
19. 4a + 7 = - 21
6.
1.5x = 6
20. 7y - 1 = 20
7.
5y = 1
3
8.
b
=5
7
9.
-2 =
10.
r
2
=
6
3
16.
x
-3 =7
2
17.
m
+ 7 = 11
5
21. 8b - 4 = - 36
22. 3 (x + 2) = 15
23. -2 (3a + 1) = 8
n
8
11. 2y + 1 = 19
12. 33 = 4k + 9
13. 7d - 2 = 12
14. -2 = 5x - 27
y
15.
+4=9
3
24. 7t + 4 = 3t - 12
25. x - 3 = 6x - 9
26. 2 (a - 2) = 4 - 3a
27. 5b + 2 = - 3(b - 1)
28. 3 (t + 7) = 2 (2t - 9)
29. 2 + 5( p - 1) = 5p - ( p - 2)
30. 3.7x + 1.2 = 5.4x - 6.3
A S TA R T L I N G FA C T !
Half full = half empty
`
full = empty
97
98
Equations involving fractions

There are different ways to solve this type of equation. One way is to multiply
both sides of the equation by the common denominator of the fractions.
EXAMPLES
Solve
m
1
1.
-4=
3
2
Solution
Multiply by
the common
denominator, 6.
m
1
-4 =
3
2
m
m - 6 (4) = 6 c 1 m
2
3
2m - 24 = 3
2m - 24 + 24 = 3 + 24
2m = 27
2m
27
=
2
2
27
m=
2
= 13 1
2
6c
2.
x+1
x
+ =5
4
3
Solution
The common
denominator of
3 and 4 is 12.
x +1 x
+ =5
4
3
x +1
x
m + 12 c m = 12 (5)
12 c
4
3
4 (x + 1) + 3x = 60
4x + 4 + 3x = 60
7x + 4 = 60
7x + 4 - 4 = 60 - 4
7x = 56
7x
56
=
7
7
x=8
Chapter 3 Equations
3.
99
y +1
y-2
5
=
5
3
6
Solution
y +1
y-2
5
=
5
3
6
y +1
y-2
o - 30 e
o = 30 c 5 m
30 e
5
3
6
6 (y + 1) - 10 (y - 2) = 25
6y + 6 - 10y + 20 = 25
- 4y + 26 = 25
- 4y + 26 - 26 = 25 - 26
- 4y = -1
- 4y
-1
=
-4
-4
y=1
4
When there is a fraction on either side of the equation, multiplying by
the common denominator is the same as cross multiplying.
EXAMPLES
5
8
1. Solve x =
(x ! 0 )
3
Solution
5
8
x =3
8x = 15
8x
15
=
8
8
7
x=1
8
2. Solve
3
8
^n ! 0h
=
5
2n
Solution
3
8
=
5
2n
16n = 15
16n
15
=
16
16
15
n=
16
The common
denominator of 5, 3
and 6 is 30.
100
3.2 Exercises
Solve
1.
b
2
=
5
3
14.
3
x
x
- =
5
2
10
2.
7
1
x = 5 (x ! 0 )
15.
x+4 x
+ =1
3
2
3.
9
4
y = 10 (y ! 0)
16.
p-3
2p
+
=2
2
3
4.
5x
11
=
4
7
17.
t +3 t -1
+
=4
7
3
5.
9
4
=
( k ! 0)
5
2k
18.
x+5
x+2
=1
5
9
6.
x
-4=8
3
19.
q-1
q-2
=2
4
3
7.
3
5t
=
4
4
20.
x+3
x +7
+2=
5
2
8.
5+x
2
=
7
7
21.
3b
1
b
- =
4
5
2
9.
y
3
=5
2
22.
a
3
5
+ =
4
3
8
10.
x
2
- =7
9
3
23.
3
5
=x
x+2
^ x ! 0, -2 h
11.
w-3
=5
2
24.
1
1
=
y +1
3y - 1
c y ! -1,
12.
2t
t
- =2
5
3
25.
2
1
+
= 0 ^ t ! 3, - 4 h
t-3 t+4
13.
x
1
+ =4
4
2
1
m
3
Substitution
Sometimes substituting values into a formula involves solving an equation.
Investigation
Body mass index (BMI) is a formula that is used to measure body fatness
and is used by health professionals to screen for weight categories that
may lead to health problems.
Chapter 3 Equations
This is not the only measure that is used when looking for health
problems, however. For example, there are other factors in cardiac (heart)
disease. Research these to nd out what other things doctors look for.
The BMI is used in a different way with children and teens, and is taken
in relation to the childs age.
w
The formula for BMI is BMI = 2 where w is weight in kg and h is height
h
in metres.
For adults over 20, a BMI under
18.5 means that the person
is underweight and over 25 is
overweight. Over 30 is obese.
The BMI may not always be
reliable in measuring body fat. Can
you think of some reasons?
Is it important where the body fat
is stored? Does it make a difference if it is on the hips or the stomach?
Research these questions and nd out more about BMI generally.
EXAMPLES
1. The formula for the surface area of a rectangular prism is given by
S = 2 (lb + bh + lh) . Find the value of b when S = 180, l = 9 and h = 6.
Solution
S = 2 (lb + bh + lh)
180 = 2 (9b + 6b + 9 # 6)
= 2 (15b + 54)
= 30b + 108
180 - 108 = 30b + 108 - 108
72 = 30b
30b
72
=
30
30
2. 4 = b
Another way of doing

this would be to change
the subject of the
formula first.
CONTINUED
101
102
2. The volume of a cylinder is given by V = rr 2 h. Evaluate the radius r,

correct to 2 decimal places, when V = 350 and h = 6.5.
Solution
V = rr 2 h
350 = rr 2 (6.5)
r r 2 ( 6 .5 )
350
=
6 .5 r
6.5r
350
= r2
6 .5 r
350
= r2
6 .5 r
350
=r
6 .5 r
4.14 = r
3.3 Exercises
1.
Given that v = u + at is the

formula for the velocity of
a particle at time t, nd the
value of t when u = 17.3,
v = 100.6 and a = 9.8.
7.
The area of a rhombus is given by

the formula A = 1 xy where x and
2
y are its diagonals. Find the value
of x correct to 2 decimal places
when y = 7.8 and A = 25.1.
2.
The sum of an arithmetic series is

n
given by S = (a + l ) . Find l if
2
a = 3, n = 26 and S = 1625.
8.
The simple interest formula is

Pr n
I=
. Find n if r = 14.5,
100
P = 150 and I = 326.25.
3.
The formula for nding the area

of a triangle is A = 1 bh. Find b
2
when A = 36 and h = 9.
9.
The gradient of a straight

y2 - y1
line is given by m = x - x .
2
1
4.
The area of a trapezium is given

by A = 1 h (a + b) . Find
2
the value of a when A = 120,
h = 5 and b = 7.
5.
Find the value of y when x = 3,

given the straight line equation
5x - 2y - 7 = 0.
6.
The area of a circle is given

by A = rr 2 . Find r correct to 3
signicant gures if A = 140.
Find y 1 when m = - 5 ,
6
y 2 = 7, x 2 = - 3 and x 1 = 1.
10. The surface area of a cylinder
is given by the formula
S = 2rr ] r + h g . Evaluate h
correct to 1 decimal place if
S = 232 and r = 4.5.
Chapter 3 Equations
11. The formula for body mass index

w
is BMI = 2 . Evaluate
h
(a) the BMI when w = 65 and
h = 1.6
(b) w when BMI = 21.5 and
h = 1.8
(c) h when BMI = 19.7 and
w = 73.8.
16. If the surface area of a sphere

is S = 4rr 2, evaluate r to 3
signicant gures when S = 56.3.
12. A formula for depreciation

is D = P ] 1 - r g n . Find r if
D = 12 000, P = 15 000 and n = 3.
18. If y =
13. The x-value of the midpoint is

x1 + x2
given by x =
. Find x1
2
when x = - 2 and x 2 = 5.
19. Given y = 2x + 5 , evaluate x

when y = 4.
14. Given the height of a particle at

time t is h = 5t 2, evaluate t when
h = 23.
15. If y = x 2 + 1, evaluate x when

y = 5.
17. The area of a sector of a circle

1
is A = r 2 i. Evaluate r when
2
A = 24.6 and i = 0.45.
2
, nd the value of x
x3 - 1
when y = 3.
20. The volume of a sphere is

4
V = rr 3. Evaluate r to 1 decimal
3
place when V = 150.
Inequations
2 means greater than

1 means less than
$ means greater than or equal to
# means less than or equal to
In order to solve inequations, we need to see what effect one operation applied
to both sides has on the inequality sign.
If a 2 b then a + c 2 b + c for all c
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 + 1 2 2 + 1 are both true.
If a 2 b then a - c 2 b - c for all c
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 - 1 2 2 - 1 are both true.
103
There are two solutions to

this question.
104
If a 2 b then ac 2 bc for all c 2 0
For example, 3 2 2 and 3 # 2 2 2 # 2 are both true.
If a 2 b then ac 1 bc for all c 1 0
For example, 3 2 2 but 3 # -2 1 2 # -2.
If a 2 b then a ' c 2 b ' c for all c 2 0
For example, 6 2 4 and 6 ' 2 2 4 ' 2 are both true.
If a 2 b then a ' c 1 b ' c for all c 1 0
For example, 6 2 4 but 6 ' -2 1 4 ' -2.
1
1
If a 2 b then a 1 for all positive numbers a and b
b
For example, 3 2 2 but
1
1
1 .
3
2
The inequality sign reverses when:

multiplying by a negative
dividing by a negative
taking the reciprocal of both sides
On the number plane, we graph inequalities using arrows and circles

(open for greater than and less than and closed in for greater than or
equal to and less than or equal to)
1
2
#
$
Chapter 3 Equations
105
EXAMPLES
Solve and show the solutions on a number line
1. 5x + 7 $ 17
Solution
5x + 7 $ 17
5x + 7 - 7 $ 17 - 7
5x $ 10
5x
10
$
5
5
x$2
-4
-3
-2
-1
2. 3t - 2 2 5t + 4
Solution
3t - 2 2 5t +
3t - 3t - 2 2 5t -2 2 2t +
- 2 - 4 2 2t +
-6 2 2t
2t
-6
2
2
2
-3 2 t
4
3t + 4
4
4-4
or
3t - 2
3t - 5t - 2
-2t - 2
- 2t - 2 + 2
-2t
-2t
-2
t
-4
2 5t + 4
2 5t - 5t + 4
24
24+2
26
6
2
-2
1 -3
-3
-2
Remember to change
the inequality sign when
dividing by -2.
-1
CONTINUED
106
3. Solve 1 1 2z + 7 # 11.
Solution
Method 1: Separate into two separate questions.
1 1 2z + 7
(i)
1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7
- 6 1 2z
-6
2z
1
2
2
-3 1 z
(ii)
2z + 7 # 11
2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7
2z # 4
2z
4
#
2
2
z #2
Putting these together gives the solution -3 1 z # 2.

Method 2: Do as a single question.
1 1 2z + 7 # 11
1 - 7 1 2z + 7 - 7 # 11 - 7
-6 1 2z # 4
-6
2z
4
#
1
2
2
2
-3 1 z # 2
Solving this inequation as a

single question is quicker than
splitting it into two parts.
Notice that the circle is not
filled in for 1 and filled in
for #.
-4
-3
-2
-1
3.4 Exercises
1.
Solve and plot the solution on a

number line
(a) x + 4 2 7
(b) y - 3 # 1
2.
Solve
(a) 5t 2 35
(b) 3x - 7 $ 2
(c) 2 (p + 5) 2 8
(d) 4 - (x - 1) # 7
(e) 3y + 5 2 2y - 4
(f) 2a - 6 # 5a - 3
(g) 3 + 4y $ - 2 (1 - y)
(h) 2x + 9 1 1 - 4 (x + 1)
a
(i) # - 3
2
2y
(j) 8 2
3
b
(k) + 5 1 - 4
2
x
(l) - 4 2 6
3
x
1
(m) + # 1
4
5
(n)
m
2
-3 2
4
3
Chapter 3 Equations
2b 1
- $6
5
2
r-3
(p)
# -6
2
z+1
(q)
+223
9
w
2w + 5
(r)
+
14
6
3
(o)
(s)
x+1
x-2
$7
2
3
(t)
t+3
t+2
#2
7
2
(u)
q-2
3q
12+
4
3
3.
(v)
2x
x -1
2
2
3
2
9
(w)
2b - 5
b+6
+3#
8
12
Solve and plot the solutions on a

number line
(a) 3 1 x + 2 1 9
(b) -4 # 2p 1 10
(c) 2 1 3x - 1 1 11
(d) -6 # 5y + 9 # 34
(e) -2 1 3 (2y - 1) 1 7
PROBLEM
Find a solution for this sum. Is it a unique solution?
CR OS S
+RO A DS
DANGE R
Equations and Inequations Involving Absolute Values

On a number line, x means the distance of x from zero in either direction.
EXAMPLES
Plot on a number line and evaluate x
1. x = 2
Solution
x = 2 means the distance of x from zero is 2 (in either direction).
2
-4
-3
-2
-1
x = !2
CONTINUED
107
108
2. x # 2
Solution
x # 2 means the distance of x from zero is less than or equal to 2 (in
either direction).
2
-4
The solution of
| x | 1 2 would be
- 2 1 x 1 2.
-3
-1
-2
Notice that there is one region on the number line. We can write this as
the single statement - 2 # x # 2.
3. x 2 2
Solution
x 2 2 means the distance of x from zero is greater than 2 (in either
direction).
2
-4
The solution of
| x | $ 2 would be
x # - 2, x $ 2.
-3
-1
-2
There are two regions on the number line, so we write two separate
inequalities x 1 - 2, x 2 2.
x = a means x = ! a
x 1 a means -a 1 x 1 a
x 2 a means x 2 a, x 1 -a
Class Discussion
What does a - b mean as a distance along the number line?
Select different values of a and b to help with this discussion.
We use absolute value as a distance on a number line to solve equations

and inequations involving absolute values.
Chapter 3 Equations
109
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x + 4 = 7
Solution
This means that the distance from x + 4 to zero is 7 in either direction.
So x + 4 = ! 7.
x+4 =7
x+4=7
or
x + 4 = -7
x+4-4=7-4
x + 4 - 4 = -7 - 4
x=3
x = -11
2. 2y - 1 1 5
Solution
This means that the distance from 2y - 1 to zero is less than 5 in either
direction. So it means - 5 1 2y - 1 1 5.
- 5 1 2y - 1 1 5
- 5 + 1 1 2y - 1 + 1 1 5 + 1
2y
6
-4
1
1
2
2
2
-2 1 y 1 3
You could solve these as

two separate inequations.
3. 5b - 7 $ 3
Solution
5b - 7 $ 3 means that the distance from 5b - 7 to zero is greater than
or equal to 3 in either direction.
5b - 7 # - 3
5b - 7 $ 3
5b - 7 + 7 # -3 + 7
5b # 4
5b
4
#
5
5
4
b #
5
4
So b # , b $ 2.
5
5b - 7 + 7 $ 3 + 7
5b $ 10
5b
10
$
5
5
b$2
These must be solved

and written as two
separate inequations.
110
While it is always a good habit to check solutions to equations and

inequations by substituting in values, in these next examples it is essential to
check, as some of the solutions are impossible!
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 2x + 1 = 3x - 2
Solution
2x + 1 = 3x - 2 means that 2x + 1 is at a distance of 3x - 2 from zero.
2x + 1 = ! ] 3x - 2 g
This question is impossible if 3x - 2 is negative. Can you see why? If
2x + 1 is equal to a negative number, this is impossible as the absolute
value is always positive.
Case (i)
2x + 1 = 3x - 2
2 x - 2 x + 1 = 3x - 2 x - 2
1=x-2
1+2=x-2+2
3=x
Check solution is possible:
Substitute x = 3 into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2.
LHS = 2 # 3 + 1
= 7
=7
RHS = 3 # 3 - 2
=9-2
=7
Since LHS = RHS, x = 3 is a solution.
Case (ii)
2 x + 1 = - ( 3x - 2 )
= - 3x + 2
2 x + 3x + 1 = - 3 x + 3x + 2
5x + 1 = 2
5x + 1 - 1 = 2 - 1
5x = 1
5x
1
=
5
5
1
x=
5
Chapter 3 Equations
Check:
1
Substitute x = into 2x + 1 = 3x - 2.
5
1
LHS = 2 # + 1
5
2
= 1
5
2
=1
5
1
RHS = 3 # - 2
5
3
= -2
5
2
= -1
5
1
Since LHS ! RHS, x = is not a solution.
5
So the only solution is x = 3.
It is often easier to solve

these harder equations
graphically. You will do
this in Chapter 5.
2. 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9
Solution
In this question it is difficult to use distances on the number line, so we
use the definition of absolute value.
2x - 3
2x - 3 = ' - (2
x - 3)
+1
x + 1 = ' -(xx +
1)
when 2x - 3 $ 0
when 2x - 3 1 0
when x + 1 $ 0
when x + 1 1 0
This gives 4 cases:

(i) (2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
(ii) (2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9
(iii) -(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
(iv) -(2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9
Case (i)
( 2x - 3 ) + ( x + 1 ) = 9
2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9
3x - 2 = 9
3x - 2 + 2 = 9 + 2
3x = 11
3x
11
=
3
3
2
x=3
3
Check by substituting x = 3
111
2
into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
3
CONTINUED
112
2
2
-3 + 3 +1
3
3
1
2
= 4 + 4
3
3
1
2
=4 +4
3
3
=9
= RHS
2
So x = 3 is a solution.
3
Case (ii)
( 2 x - 3 ) - (x + 1 ) = 9
2x - 3 - x - 1 = 9
x-4=9
x-4+4=9+4
x = 13
Check by substituting x = 13 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
LHS = 2 # 13 - 3 + 13 + 1
= 23 + 14
= 23 + 14
= 37
! RHS
So x = 13 is not a solution.
Case (iii)
-(2x - 3) + (x + 1) = 9
- 2x + 3 + x + 1 = 9
-x + 4 = 9
-x + 4 - 4 = 9 - 4
-x = 5
-x
5
=
-1
-1
x = -5
LHS = 2 # 3
Check by substituting x = - 5 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.

LHS = 2 # - 5 - 3 + - 5 + 1
= - 13 + - 4
= 13 + 4
= 17
! RHS
So x = - 5 is not a solution.
Case (iv)
- (2x - 3) - (x + 1) = 9
- 2x + 3 - x - 1 = 9
- 3x + 2 = 9
- 3x + 2 - 2 = 9 - 2
- 3x = 7
Chapter 3 Equations
113
- 3x
7
=
-3
-3
1
3
1
Check by substituting x = - 2 into 2x - 3 + x + 1 = 9.
3
1
1
LHS = 2 # - 2 - 3 + - 2 + 1
3
3
2
1
= -7 + -1
3
3
2
1
= 7 +1
3
3
=9
= RHS
1
So x = - 2 is a solution.
3
2
1
So solutions are x = 3 , - 2 .
3
3
x = -2
While you should always check solutions, you can see that there are some
cases where this is really important.
You will learn how to

solve equations involving
absolute values graphically
in Chapter 5. With
graphical solutions it is
easy to see how many
solutions there are.
3.5 Exercises
1.
Solve
3.
Solve
(a) x + 2 = 5x - 3
(b) 2a - 1 = a + 2
(c) b - 3 = 2b - 4
(d) 3k - 2 = k - 4
(e) 6y + 23 = y - 7
(f) 4x + 3 = 5x - 4
(g) 2m - 5 = m
(h) 3d + 1 = d + 6
(i) 5 - y = 4y + 1
(j) 2t - 7 = 3 - t
4.
Solve
(a) x = 5
(b) y = 8
(c) a 1 4
(d) k $ 1
(e) x 2 6
(f) p # 10
(g) x = 0
(h) a 2 14
(i) y 1 12
(j) b $ 20
2.
Solve
(a) x + 3 = 3x - 1
(a) x + 2 = 7
(b) 2y - 5 = y - 2
(c) 3a + 1 = 2a - 9
(b) n - 1 = 3
(d) 2x + 5 + x = 17
(c) 2a 2 4
(e) 3d - 2 + d + 4 = 18
(d) x - 5 # 1
(e) 9 = 2x + 3
(f) 7x - 1 = 34
(g) 4y + 3 1 11
(h) 2x - 3 $ 15
x
(i)
=4
3
a
(j)
-3 #2
2
5.
(a) Solve 4t - 3 + t - 1 = 11.

(b) By plotting the solutions on
a number line and looking at
values in between the solutions,
solve 4t - 3 + t - 1 1 11.
Remember to check solutions

in questions 3, 4 and 5.
114
Exponential Equations
An exponential equation involves an unknown index or power e.g. 2 x = 8.
We can also solve other equations involving indices. In order to solve
these, you need to understand their relationship. For example, squares and
square roots are the reverse of each other (we call them inverse operations).
Similarly cubes and cube roots are inverses, and this extends to all indices.
To solve equations, use inverse operations:
For squares, take the square root
For cubes, take the cube root
For square roots, take the square
For cube roots, take the cube
You have previously used these rules when substituting into formulae
involving squares and cubes.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 = 9
There are two possible
solutions for x one
positive and one
negative since 3 2 = 9
and (- 3) 2 = 9.
Solution
x2 = 9
x2 = ! 9
` x= !3
2. 5n 3 = 40
Solution
There is only one

answer for this
question since 2 3 = 8
but (- 2) 3 = -8.
5n 3 = 40
5n 3
40
=
5
5
3
n =8
3
n3 = 3 8
n=2
Chapter 3 Equations
3. a 3 = 4
Solution
2
3
3
2
3
2
2
3
We use the fact that ` a j = ` a j = a.

2
a3 = 4
2
3
3
2
à j = 4 2
3
a= 42
3
a = ^ 4h
= 23
=8
Investigation
Investigate equations of the type x n = k where k is a constant, for
example, x n = 9.
Look at these questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
What is the solution when n = 0?

What is the solution when n = 1?
How many solutions are there when n = 2?
How many solutions are there when n = 3?
How many solutions are there when n is even?
How many solutions are there when n is odd?
In other types of equations, the pronumeral (or unknown variable) is in

the index. We call these exponential equations, and we use the fact that
if the base numbers are equal, then the powers (or indices or exponents)
must be equal.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. 3 x = 81
Solution
3 x = 81
Equating indices:
3x = 34
`x=4
CONTINUED
115
116
2. 5 2k - 1 = 25
Solution
5 2k - 1 = 25
5 2k - 1 = 5 2
` 2k - 1 = 2
2k - 1 + 1 = 2 + 1
2k = 3
3
2k
=
2
2
1
k=1
2
We can check this solution

1
by substituting k = 1
into
2
2k -1
the equation 5
= 25.
3. 8 n = 4
Solution
It is hard to write 8 as a power of 4 or 4 as a power of 8, but both can be
written as powers of 2.
8n = 4
(2 ) = 2 2
2 3n = 2 2
` 3n = 2
3n
2
=
3
3
2
n=
3
3 n
3.6 Exercises
1.
Solve
(a) x 3 = 27
(b) y 2 = 64
(c) n 4 = 16
(d) x 2 = 20 (give the exact answer)
(e) p 3 = 1000
(f) 2x 2 = 50
(g) 6y 4 = 486
(h) w 3 + 7 = 15
(i) 6n 2 - 4 = 92
(j) 3q 3 + 20 = - 4
2.
Solve and give the answer correct

to 2 decimal places.
(a) p 2 = 45
(b) x 3 = 100
(c) n 5 = 240
(d) 2x 2 = 70
(e) 4y 3 + 7 = 34
d4
(f)
= 14
3
k2
(g)
-3=7
2
x3 - 1
(h)
=2
5
(i) 2y 2 - 9 = 20
(j) 7y 3 + 9 = 200
Chapter 3 Equations
3.
Solve
6.
Solve
(a) 2 n = 16
(b) 3 y = 243
(c) 2 m = 512
(d) 10 x = 100 000
(e) 6 m = 1
(f) 4 x = 64
(g) 4 x + 3 = 19
(h) 5 (3 x ) = 45
(i) 4 x = 4
6k
(j)
= 18
2
7.
Solve
(a) 3 2x = 81
(b) 2 5x - 1 = 16
(c) 4 x + 3 = 4
(d) 3 n - 2 = 1
(e) 7 2x + 1 = 7
(f) 3 x - 3 = 27
(g) 5 3y + 2 = 125
(h) 7 3x - 4 = 49
(i) 2 4x = 256
(j) 9 3a + 1 = 9
8.
Solve
(a) 4 m = 2
(b) 27 x = 3
(c) 125 x = 5
2
3
(a) n = 9
3
(b) t 4 = 8
2
(c) x 5 = 4
4
(d) t 3 = 16
3
(e) p 5 = 27
3
(f) 2m 4 = 250
2
(g) b 3 + 3 = 39
4
(h) 5y 3 = 405
2
(i) 3a 7 - 2 = 10
3
4
(j)
4.
5.
t
=9
3
Solve (all pronumerals ! 0)

(a) x - 1 = 5
(b) a - 3 = 8
(c) y - 5 = 32
(d) x - 2 + 1 = 50
(e) 2n - 1 = 3
1
(f) a - 3 =
8
1
-2
(g) x =
4
1
(h) b - 1 =
9
1
(i) x - 2 = 2
4
16
(j) b - 4 =
81
1 k
m =7
49
1 k
m = 100
(e) c
1000
(f) 16 n = 8
(g) 25 x = 125
(h) 64 n = 16
(d) c
Solve (all pronumerals ! 0)

(a) x
1
3
3
2
1
4
3
4
(b) x
(c) a
(d) k
(e) 3x
3
2
=8
=
8
125
=3
= 125
2
3
= 12
1
8
2
1
3
(g) y =
4
2
4
(h) n 5 =
9
(f) x
(i) b
(j) m
5
3
2
3
1 3k
(i) c m = 2
4
(j) 8 x - 1 = 4
=
=
1
32
36
49
9.
Solve
(a) 2 4x + 1 = 8 x
(b) 3 5x = 9 x - 2
(c) 7 2k + 3 = 7 k - 1
(d) 4 3n = 8 n + 3
(e) 6 x - 5 = 216 x
(f) 16 2x - 1 = 4 x - 4
(g) 27 x + 3 = 3 x
1 x
1 2x + 3
m
(h) c m = c
2
64
117
118
3 x
27 2x - 3
m
(i) c m = c
4
64
1 x-9
m
(j) ] 5 g- x = c
25
10. Solve
(a) 4 m =
9 k+3
m
(b) c
=
25
1
(c)
= 4 2x - 5
2
3
5
(d) 3 k = 3 3
(e) c
3
1 3n + 1
m
=
27
81
5 -n
2 3n + 1
(f) c m
=c m
5
2
1
(g) 32 - x =
16
(h) 9 2b + 5 = 3 b 3
(i) 81 x + 1 =
3x
1 3m - 5
(j) 25 - m = c m
5
PUZZLE
Test your logical thinking and that of your friends.
1. How many months have 28 days?
2. If I have 128 sheep and take away all but 10, how many
do I have left?
3. A bottle and its cork cost $1.10 to make. If the bottle costs $1 more
than the cork, how much does each cost?
4. What do you get if you add 1 to 15 four times?
5. On what day of the week does Good Friday fall in 2016?
Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation is an equation involving a square. For example, x 2 - 4 = 0.
Solving by factorisation
When solving quadratic equations by factorising, we use a property of zero.
For any real numbers a and b, if ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 + x - 6 = 0
Solution
x2 + x - 6 = 0
(x + 3) (x - 2) = 0
Chapter 3 Equations
x+3=0
or
x-2=0
x+3-3=0-3
x-2+2 =0 +2
x = -3
or
x= 2
So the solution is x = - 3 or 2.
2. y 2 - 7y = 0
Solution
y 2 - 7y = 0
y ( y - 7) = 0
`
y=0
or
y-7=0
y-7+7=0+7
y=7
So the solution is y = 0 or 7.
3. 3a 2 - 14a = - 8
Solution
3a 2 - 14a = - 8
3a 2 - 14a + 8 = - 8 + 8
3a 2 - 14a + 8 = 0
(3a - 2) (a - 4) = 0
`
3a - 2 = 0
or
3a - 2 + 2 = 0
or
3a = 2
3a
2
=
3
3
2
a=
3
2
So the solution is a = or 4.
3
a-4 =0
a-4+4 =0+4
a=4
3.7 Exercises
Solve
1.
y2 + y = 0
4.
t 2 - 5t = 0
2.
b2 - b - 2 = 0
5.
x 2 + 9x + 14 = 0
3.
p 2 + 2p - 15 = 0
6.
q2 - 9 = 0
119
120
7.
x2 - 1 = 0
17. 5x - x 2 = 0
8.
a 2 + 3a = 0
18. y 2 = y + 2
9.
2x 2 + 8x = 0
19. 8n = n 2 + 15
10. 4x 2 - 1 = 0
20. 12 = 7x - x 2
11. 3x 2 + 7x + 4 = 0
21. m 2 = 6 - 5m
12. 2y 2 + y - 3 = 0
22. x (x + 1) (x + 2) = 0
13. 8b 2 - 10b + 3 = 0
23. (y - 1) (y + 5) (y + 2) = 0
14. x 2 - 3x = 10
24. (x + 3) (x - 1) = 32
15. 3x 2 = 2x
25. (m - 3) (m - 4) = 20
16. 2x 2 = 7x - 5
Application
1 2
at where u is the
2
initial velocity and a is the acceleration. Find the time when the displacement will
be zero, given u = - 12 and a = 10.
A formula for displacement s at time t is given by s = ut +
2
s = ut + 1 at
2
2
0 = -12t + 1 (10) t
2
= -12t + 5t
= t (-12 + 5t )
` t = 0 or
-12 + 5t = 0
-12 + 12 + 5t = 0 + 12
5t = 12
5t
12
=
5
5
t = 2.4
So displacement will be zero when t = 0 or 2.4.
Solving by completing the square

Not all trinomials will factorise, so other methods need to be used to solve
quadratic equations.
Chapter 3 Equations
121
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 = 7
Solution
x2 = 7
x=! 7
= ! 2.6
2. ] x + 3 g2 = 11
Solution
] x + 3 g2 = 11
Take the square root of

both sides.
x + 3 = ! 11
x + 3 - 3 = ! 11 - 3
x = ! 11 - 3
= 0.3, - 6.3
3. ^ y - 2 h2 = 7
Solution
^ y - 2 h2 = 7
y-2=! 7
y-2+2=! 7+2
y=! 7+2
= 4.6, - 0.6
To solve a quadratic equation like x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0, which will not factorise, we

can use the method of completing the square.
You learnt how to

complete the square in
Chapter 2.
EXAMPLES
Solve by completing the square
1. x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0 (give exact answer)
Solution
x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0
x 2 - 6x = - 3
Halve 6, square it and

add to both sides of the
equation.
c 6 m = 32 = 9
2
CONTINUED
122
x 2 - 6x + 9 = - 3 + 9
] x - 3 g2 = 6
`
x-3=! 6
x-3+3=! 6+3
x=! 6+3
2. y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0 (correct to 3 significant figures)
Solution
y 2 + 2y - 7 = 0
y 2 + 2y = 7
c 2 m = 12 = 1
2
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 7 + 1
^ y + 1 h2 = 8
`
y+1=! 8
y + 1 - 1 = ! 8 -1
y = ! 8 -1
= !2 2 - 1
y = 1.83 or - 3.83
3.8 Exercises
1.
Solve by completing the square,

giving exact answers in simplest
surd form
(a) x 2 + 4x - 1 = 0
(b) a 2 - 6a + 2 = 0
(c) y 2 - 8y - 7 = 0
(d) x 2 + 2x - 12 = 0
(e) p 2 + 14p + 5 = 0
(f) x 2 - 10x - 3 = 0
(g) y 2 + 20y + 12 = 0
(h) x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0
(i) n 2 + 24n + 7 = 0
(j) y 2 - 3y + 1 = 0
2.
Solve by completing the square

and write your answers correct to
3 significant figures
(a) x 2 - 2x - 5 = 0
(b) x 2 + 12x + 34 = 0
(c) q 2 + 18q - 1 = 0
(d) x 2 - 4x - 2 = 0
(e) b 2 + 16b + 50 = 0
(f) x 2 - 24x + 112 = 0
(g) r 2 - 22r - 7 = 0
(h) x 2 + 8x + 5 = 0
(i) a 2 + 6a - 1 = 0
(j) y 2 - 40y - 3 = 0
Solving by formula
Completing the square is difficult with harder quadratic equations, for
example 2x 2 - x - 5 = 0. Completing the square on a general quadratic
equation gives the following formula.
Chapter 3 Equations
For the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0

x=
-b !
b 2 - 4ac
2a
Proof
Solve ax 2 + b + c = 0 by completing the square.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 bx c
0
a + a +a=a
bx c
x2 + a + a = 0
c
c
bx c
x2 + a + a - a = 0 - a
bx
c
x2 + a = - a
2
2
2
b b ' 2l = c b m = b 2
a
2a
4a
bx
c
b2
b2
x2 + a + 2 = - a + 2
4a
4a
c
b2
b 2
cx +
m = -a + 2
2a
4a
- 4ac + b 2
=
4a 2
- 4ac + b 2
b
x+
=!
2a
4a 2
2
b - 4ac
=!
2a
b 2 - 4ac
b
b
b
x+
=!
2a
2a 2a
2a
b 2 - 4ac
-b
x=
!
2a
2a
2
- b ! b - 4ac
=
2a
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x 2 - x - 2 = 0 by using the quadratic formula.
Solution
a = 1, b = -1, c = - 2
b 2 - 4ac
2a
- (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 (1) (-2)
=
2 (1 )
1! 1+8
=
2
x=
-b !
CONTINUED
123
124
1! 9
2
1!3
=
2
= 2 or - 1
1! 3
gives two
2
1+ 3
separate solutions,
2
1- 3
and
.
2
x =
2. Solve 2y 2 - 9y + 3 = 0 by formula and give your answer correct to

2 decimal places.
Solution
a = 2, b = -9, c = 3
-b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- ] -9 g ! ] -9 g2 - 4 ] 2 g ] 3 g
y=
2] 2 g
9 ! 81 - 24
=
4
9 ! 57
=
4
Z 4.14 or 0.36
x=
These solutions are

irrational.
3.9
1.
Exercises
Solve by formula, correct to 3

significant figures where necessary
(a) y 2 + 6y + 2 = 0
(b) 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0
(c) b 2 - b - 9 = 0
(d) 2x 2 - x - 1 = 0
(e) - 8x 2 + x + 3 = 0
(f) n 2 + 8n - 2 = 0
(g) m 2 + 7m + 10 = 0
(h) x 2 - 7x = 0
(i) x 2 + 5x = 6
(j) y 2 = 3y - 1
2.
Solve by formula, leaving the

answer in simplest surd form
(a) x 2 + x - 4 = 0
(b) 3x 2 - 5x + 1 = 0
(c) q 2 - 4q - 3 = 0
(d) 4h 2 + 12h + 1 = 0
(e) 3s 2 - 8s + 2 = 0
(f) x 2 + 11x - 3 = 0
(g) 6d 2 + 5d - 2 = 0
(h) x 2 - 2x = 7
(i) t 2 = t + 1
(j) 2x 2 + 1 = 7x
Class Investigation
Here is a proof that 1 = 2. Can you see the fault in the proof?
x2 - x2 = x2 - x2
x(x - x) = (x + x) (x - x)
x=x+x
x = 2x
1=2
`
Chapter 3 Equations
125
Further Inequations
Inequations involving pronumerals in the denominator can be
solved in several ways. Here is one method. You will use a different
method in Chapter 10.
EXAMPLES
1
1. Solve x 1 3.
Solution
1
is undefined.
0
x!0
1
Solve x = 3.
1
x #x=3#x
1 = 3x
3x
1
=
3
3
1
=x
3
1
1
is not a solution of the inequation x 1 3.
3
1
Place x = 0 and x = on a number plane and test x values on either side
3
of these values in the inequation.
x=
-3
-2
-1
0 1
3
Test for x 1 0, say x = -1

Substitute into the inequation:
1
x 13
1
13
-1
-1 1 3
So x 1 0 is part of the solution.
1
1
Test for 0 1 x 1 , say x =
3
10
1
13
1
10
10 1 3
1
So 0 1 x 1 is not part of the solution.
3
1
Test for x 2 , say x = 1
3
(true)
(false)
CONTINUED
Circle these values as they

are not included in the
solution.
126
1
13
1
113
(true)
1
is part of the solution.
3
1
Solution is x 1 0, x 2 .
3
So x 2
-2
-3
2. Solve
-1
0 1
3
6
$ 1.
x+3
Solution
6
is undefined.
0
x ! -3
Solve
6
= 1.
x+3
6
# (x + 3) = 1 # (x + 3)
x+3
6 =x+3
6-3 =x+ 3-3
3=x
Circle x = - 3 and fill in

x = 3 since it is a part of
the solution.
6
$ 1.
x+3
Place x = - 3 and x = 3 on a number plane and test values on either side
in the inequation.
x = 3 is a solution of the inequation
-3
-2
-1
Test for x 1 - 3, say x = - 4

6
$1
x+3
6
$1
-4 + 3
-6 $ 3
(false)
So x 1 - 3 is not part of the solution.

Test for - 3 1 x # 3, say x = 0
6
$1
0+3
2$1
(true)
So - 3 1 x # 3 is part of the solution.

Test for x $ 3, say x = 4
6
$1
4+3
6
$1
7
So x $ 3 is not part of the solution.
(false)
Chapter 3 Equations
Solution is - 3 1 x # 3
-2
-3
3. Solve
-1
y2 - 6
# 1.
y
Solution
y!0
y2 - 6
= 1.
y
2
y -6
y #y=1#y
y2 - 6 = y
y2 - y - 6 = y - y
y2 - y - 6 = 0
^y - 3h^y + 2h = 0
y - 3 = 0,
y+2 =0
y - 3 + 3 = 0 + 3, y + 2 - 2 = 0 - 2
y = 3,
y = -2
Solve
Sketch these on a number line and test values on either side.

-3
-2
-1
Test for y # - 2, say y = - 3

y2 - 6
#1
y
2
]-3 g - 6
#1
-3
-1 # 1
(true)
So y # - 2 is part of the solution.

Test for - 2 # y 1 0, say y = -1
] -1 g2 - 6
#1
-1
5#1
(false)
So - 2 # y 1 0 is not part of the solution.

Test 0 1 y # 3, say y = 1
12 - 6
#1
1
-5 # 1
So 0 1 y # 3 is part of the solution.
(true)
Test y $ 3, say y = 4
CONTINUED
127
128
42 - 6
#1
4
1
2 #1
2
So y $ 3 is not part of the solution.
The solution is y # - 2, 0 1 y # 3
-3
3.10
-2
-1
(false)
Exercises
Solve
1.
1
y 11
16.
3x + 1 1
$
x-4
3
2.
1
x 22
17.
8p + 7
25
2p - 9
3.
3
x 12
18.
3
x-2
#
5x + 1 4
4.
2
m $7
19.
7t + 4
$ -1
3t - 8
5.
3
x 2 -5
20.
5m + 4
1
1
4
2m
6.
2
# -1
b
21.
x2 - 5
1 -4
x
7.
1
24
x -1
22.
n2 + 8
$6
n
8.
1
1 -5
z+3
23.
x 2 - 15
22
x
9.
3
$4
x-2
24.
m2 - 8
#4
m +1
10.
-1
16
2-x
25.
4
$x
x-3
11.
5
# -9
x+4
26.
2x 2
# -1
3x - 2
12.
2
25
3x - 4
27.
3
#x
x-2
13.
-3
12
2a + 5
28.
n+5
2n
n-3
14.
x
25
2x - 1
29.
3x 2
1 -2
7x + 4
15.
y
12
y +1
30.
2 x ( x - 4)
#7
x -1
Chapter 3 Equations
129
Quadratic Inequations
Solving quadratic inequations is similar to solving quadratic equations, but
you need to do this in two stages. The rst is to solve the equation and then
the second step is to look at either the number line or the number plane for
the inequality.
To solve a quadratic inequation:

1. Factorise and solve the quadratic equation
2. Test values in the inequality
In Chapter 10 you will look at how to use the number plane to solve
these quadratic inequations. Here are some examples of solving quadratic
inequations using the number line.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. x 2 + x - 6 2 0
Solution
Be careful: x 2 + x - 6 2 0
does not mean x - 2 2 0
and x + 3 2 0.
First solve x + x - 6 = 0
(x - 2 ) (x + 3 ) = 0
`
x = 2 or -3
2
Now look at the number line.

-4
-3
-2
-1
Choose a number between - 3 and 2, say x = 0.

Substitute x = 0 into the inequation.
x2 + x - 6 2 0
02 + 0 - 6 2 0
-6 2 0
(false)
So the solution is not between -3 and 2.

` the solution lies either side of -3 and 2.
Check by choosing a number on either side of the two numbers.
Choose a number on the RHS of 2, say x = 3.
CONTINUED
130

32 + 3 - 6 2 0
620
So the solution is on the RHS of 2.
Choose a number on the LHS of -3, say x = -4
Substitute x = -4 into the inequation
(true)
(- 4) 2 + ( - 4) - 6 2 0
620
So the solution is on the LHS of -3.
-4
-3
-2
-1
(true)
This gives the solution x 1 -3, x 2 2.

2. 9 - x 2 $ 0
Solution
First solve 9 - x 2 = 0
(3 - x) (3 + x) = 0
`
x = !3
-4
-3
-2
-1
Choose a number between -3 and 3, say x = 0.

Check numbers on the
RHS and LHS to verify this.
9 - x2 $ 0
9 - 02 $ 0
9$0
(true)
So the solution is between -3 and 3, that is -3 # x # 3.

On the number line:
-4
-3
-2
-1
Earlier in the chapter you learned how to solve inequations with the
unknown in the denominator. Some people like to solve these using quadratic
inequations. Here are some examples of how to do this.
Chapter 3 Equations
131
EXAMPLES
Solve
1
1. x 1 3
Solution
x 2 is positive, so the inequality
sign does not change.
x!0
First, multiply both sides by x 2 .
1
x 13
x 1 3x 2
0 1 3x 2 - x
Now, solve
3x 2 - x = 0
x(3x - 1) = 0
x = 0 or
-2
1
3
-1
0 1
3
By checking on each side of 0 and 1 , for 0 1 3x 2 - x, the solution is

3
x 1 0, x 2 1 .
3
2.
3
$2
x+5
Solution
2
(x + 5) is positive, so the
inequality sign does not
change.
x ! -5
First, multiply both sides by (x + 5)2 .
3
$2
x+5
3 ( x + 5 ) $ 2 ( x + 5) 2
0 $ 2 ( x + 5 ) 2 - 3 ( x + 5)
0 $ ( x + 5 ) [ 2 ( x + 5) - 3 ]
0 $ ( x + 5 ) ( 2 x + 7)
Now, solve (x + 5) (2x + 7) = 0
`
x + 5 = 0 or 2x + 7 = 0
x = -5
-6
-5
Check this factorisation

carefully.
x cannot be -5 as this would

give 0 in the denominator.
x = -3 1
2
-4 -3 1 -3
2
-2
1
Check by choosing a number on each side of -5 and -3 for
2
1
0 $ (x + 5) (2x + 7) that the solution is -5 1 x # -3 .
2
132
3.11
Exercises
Solve
1.
x 2 + 3x 1 0
21. x 2 1 2x
2.
y 2 - 4y 1 0
22. 2a 2 - 5a + 3 # 0
3.
n2 - n $ 0
23. 5y 2 + 6y $ 8
4.
x2 - 4 $ 0
24. 6m 2 2 15 - m
5.
1 - n2 1 0
25. 3x 2 # 7x - 4
6.
n 2 + 2n - 15 # 0
1
26. x 2 2
7.
c2 - c - 2 2 0
8.
x + 6x + 8 # 0
9.
x 2 - 9x + 20 1 0
3
27. x # 6
28.
1
15
y+1
29.
1
$2
n-3
30.
3
$ -1
x+5
31.
1
17
5x - 2
32.
4
$ -5
x-5
33.
x
#5
x+1
34.
2x + 1
21
x-2
35.
2x - 3
$6
5x + 3
10. 4b 2 + 10b + 4 $ 0
11. 1 - 2a - 3a 1 0
2
12. 2y 2 - y - 6 2 0
13. 3x 2 - 5x + 2 $ 0
14. 6 - 13b - 5b 1 0
2
15. 6x 2 + 11x + 3 # 0
16. y 2 + y # 12
17. x 2 2 16
18. a 2 # 1
19. x 2 1 x + 6
20. x $ 2x + 3
2
Simultaneous Equations
Two equations, each with two unknown pronumerals, can be solved together
to nd one solution that satises both equations.
There are different ways of solving simultaneous equations. The
elimination method adds or subtracts the equations. The substitution
method substitutes one equation into the other.
Chapter 3 Equations
Linear equations
These equations can be solved by either method. Many students prefer the
elimination method.
EXAMPLES
Solve simultaneously
1. 3a + 2b = 5 and 2a - b = -6
Solution
] 2 g # 2:
] 1 g + (3):
3a + 2b = 5
2a - b = -6
(1)
(2)
4a - 2b = -12
3a + 2b = 5
7a = - 7
a = -1
(3)
(1)
Substitute a = -1 in (1)
3 (-1) + 2b = 5
-3 + 2b = 5
2b = 8
b=4
` solution is a = -1, b = 4
2. 5x - 3y = 19 and 2x - 4y = 16
Solution
(1) # 4:
( 2 ) # 3:
(3) - (4):
5x - 3y = 19
2x - 4y = 16
20x - 12y = 76
6x - 12y = 48
14x = 28
x=2
Substitute x = 2 in (2)
2 ( 2) - 4 y
4 - 4y
- 4y
y
= 16
= 16
= 12
= -3
( 1)
( 2)
(3)
(4 )
133
134
3.12
Exercises
1.
a - b = -2 and a + b = 4
12. 3a - 4b = -16 and 2a + 3b = 12
2.
5x + 2y = 12 and 3x - 2y = 4
3.
4p - 3q = 11 and 5p + 3q = 7
13. 5p + 2q + 18 = 0 and
2p - 3q + 11 = 0
4.
y = 3x - 1 and y = 2x + 5
5.
2x + 3y = -14 and x + 3y = -4
6.
7t + v = 22 and 4t + v = 13
16. 5s - 3t - 13 = 0 and
3s - 7t - 13 = 0
7.
4x + 5y + 2 = 0 and
4x + y + 10 = 0
17. 3a - 2b = - 6 and a - 3b = - 2
8.
2x - 4y = 28 and 2x - 3y = -11
18. 3k - 2h = -14 and

2k - 5h = -13
9.
5x - y = 19 and 2x + 5y = -14
10. 5m + 4n = 22 and m - 5n = -13

11. 4w 1 + 3w 2 = 11 and 3w 1 + w 2 = 2
14. 7x 1 + 3x 2 = 4 and 3x 1 + 5x 2 = - 2
15. 9x - 2y = -1 and 7x - 4y = 9
19. 2v 1 + 5v 2 - 16 = 0 and
7v 1 + 2v 2 + 6 = 0
20. 1.5x + 3.4y = 7.8 and
2 . 1 x - 1 . 7y = 1 . 8
PROBLEM
A group of 39 people went to see a play. There were both adults and
children in the group. The total cost of the tickets was $939, with
children paying $17 each and adults paying $29 each. How many in
the group were adults and how many were children? (Hint: let x be the
number of adults and y the number of children.)
Non-linear equations
In questions involving non-linear equations there may be more than one set
of solutions. In some of these, the elimination method cannot be used. Here
are some examples using the substitution method.
Chapter 3 Equations
EXAMPLES
1. xy = 6 and x + y = 5
Solution
xy = 6
x+y=5
From (2):
y=5-x
Substitute (3) in (1)
x (5 - x) = 6
( 1)
(2 )
(3 )
5x - x 2 = 6
0 = x 2 - 5x + 6
0 = (x - 2 ) (x - 3 )
`
x - 2 = 0 or x - 3 = 0
x = 2 or x = 3
y=5-2=3
y=5-3=2
` solutions are x = 2, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 2
2. x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x - 4y - 20 = 0
Solution
x 2 + y 2 = 16
3x - 4y - 20 = 0
From ] 2 g: 3x - 20 = 4y
3x - 20
=y
4
Substitute (3) into (1)
3x - 20 2
m = 16
x2 + c
4
9x 2 - 120x + 400 n
= 16
x2 + d
16
16x 2 + 9x 2 - 120x + 400 = 256
25x 2 - 120x + 144 = 0
(5x - 12)2 = 0
`
5x - 12 = 0
5x = 12
x = 2.4
Substitute x = 2.4 into ] 3 g
3 (2.4) - 20
4
= -3.2
So the solution is x = 2.4, y = -3.2.
y=
(1)
( 2)
(3)
135
136
3.13
Exercises
Solve the simultaneous equations.

1.
y = x 2 and y = x
11. y = x - 1 and y = x 2 - 3
2.
y = x 2 and 2x + y = 0
12. y = x 2 + 1 and y = 1 - x 2
3.
x 2 + y 2 = 9 and x + y = 3
13. y = x 2 - 3x + 7 and y = 2x + 3
4.
x - y = 7 and xy = -12
14. xy = 1 and 4x - y + 3 = 0
5.
y = x 2 + 4x and 2x - y - 1 = 0
15. h = t 2 and h = ] t + 1 g2
6.
y = x 2 and 6x - y - 9 = 0
16. x + y = 2 and 2x 2 + xy - y 2 = 8
7.
x = t 2 and x + t - 2 = 0
17. y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 6x
8.
m 2 + n 2 = 16 and m + n + 4 = 0
18. y = | x | and y = x 2
9.
xy = 2 and y = 2x
19. y = x 2 - 7x + 6 and
24x + 4y - 23 = 0
10. y = x 3 and y = x 2
20. x 2 + y 2 = 1 and 5x + 12y + 13 = 0
Equations with 3 unknown variables

Four unknowns need 4
equations, and so on.
Three equations can be solved simultaneously to nd 3 unknown

pronumerals.
EXAMPLE
Solve simultaneously a - b + c = 7, a + 2b - c = -4 and 3a - b - c = 3.
Solution
a-b +c=7
a + 2b - c = - 4
3a - b - c = 3
(1) + (2):
a-b+c=7
a + 2b - c = - 4
2a + b
=3
(1) + (3):
a- b+c=7
3a - b - c = 3
4a - 2b
= 10
or
2a - b
=5
(4) + (5): 2a + b
=3
4a
=8
a=2
(1 )
(2)
(3)
( 4)
(5)
Chapter 3 Equations
Substitute a = 2 in (4)
2 ( 2) + b = 3
4+b=3
b = -1
Substitute a = 2 and b = -1 in (1)
2 - (-1) + c = 7
2 +1 + c = 7
3+c=7
c=4
` solution is a = 2, b = -1, c = 4
3.14
You will solve

3 simultaneous
equations in later
topics (for example,
in Chapter 10).
Exercises
Solve the simultaneous equations.

1.
x = - 2, 2x - y = 4 and
x - y + 6z = 0
2.
a = - 2, 2a - 3b = -1 and
a - b + 5c = 9
3.
2a + b + c = 1, a + b = - 2
and c = 7
4.
a + b + c = 0, a - b + c = - 4 and
2a - 3b - c = -1
5.
x + y - z = 7, x + y + 2z = 1 and
3x + y - 2z = 19
6.
x - y - z = 1, 2x + y - z = -9
and 2x - 3y - 2z = 7
137
7.
2p + 5q - r = 25,
2p - 2q - r = -24 and
3p - q + 5r = 4
8.
2x - y + 3z = 9,
3x + y - 2z = -2 and
3x - y + 5z = 14
9.
3h + j - k = -3,
h + 2j + k = -3 and
5h - 3j - 2k = -13
10. 2a - 7b + 3c = 7,
a + 3b + 2c = -4 and
4a + 5b - c = 9
138
Test Yourself 3
1.
Solve
(a) 8 = 3b - 22
a a+2
(b) =9
4
3
(c) 4 (3x + 1) = 11x - 3
-4
(d)
#3
x+3
(e) 3p + 1 # p + 9
2.
3.
The compound interest formula is

r n
m . Find correct to 2
A = P c1 +
100
decimal places.
(a) A when P = 1000, r = 6 and n = 4
(b) P when A = 12 450, r = 5.5 and n = 7
Complete the square on
(a) x 2 - 8x
(b) k 2 + 4k
9.
Solve -2 1 3y + 1 # 10, and plot your

solution on a number line.
10. Solve correct to 3 significant figures

(a) x 2 + 7x + 2 = 0
(b) y 2 - 2y - 9 = 0
(c) 3n 2 + 2n - 4 = 0
11. The surface area of a sphere is given by
A = 4rr 2 . Evaluate to 1 decimal place
(a) A when r = 7.8
(b) r when A = 102.9
12. Solve
x-3 3
- 2 9.
7
4
13. Solve x 2 - 11x + 18 2 0.

14. Solve the simultaneous equations
x 2 + y 2 = 16 and 3x + 4y - 20 = 0.
4 3
rr .
3
Evaluate to 2 significant figures
(a) V when r = 8
(b) r when V = 250
15. The volume of a sphere is V =
4.
Solve these simultaneous equations.

(a) x - y + 7 = 0 and 3x - 4y + 26 = 0
(b) xy = 4 and 2x - y - 7 = 0
5.
Solve
(a) 3 x + 2 = 81
(b) 16 y = 2
6.
Solve
(a) 3b - 1 = 5
(a) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0
(b) 5g - 3 = 3g + 1
(c) x - 2 = 7 - x
(c) 2x - 7 $ 1
(d) x 2 - x + 4 = 0
7.
8.
The area of a trapezium is given by

A = 1 h (a + b). Find
2
(a) A when h = 6, a = 5 and b = 7
(b) b when A = 40, h = 5 and a = 4.
Solve 2x 2 - 3x + 1 = 0 by
(a) factorisation
(b) quadratic formula.
16. Which of the following equations has

(i) 2 solutions (ii) 1 solution
(iii) no solutions?
(b) 2x - 3 = 7
(e) 2x + 1 = x - 2
17. Solve simultaneously
a + b = 5, 2 a + b + c = 4, a - b - c = 5.
18. Solve 3n + 5 2 5, and plot the solution
on a number line.
19. Solve
3
4
=x
x+1
^ x ! 0, -1 h .
Chapter 3 Equations
20. Solve 9 2x + 1 = 27 x .
(k) 27 2x - 1 = 9
(l) 4b - 3 # 5
(m) 3x + 2 = 2x - 3
(n) 4t - 5 = t + 2
(o) x 2 1 2x + 3
(p) m 2 + m $ 6
2t - 3
(q)
15
t
y+1
(r)
22
y-1
n
(s)
$3
2n - 4
3x - 2
(t)
# -1
2x + 1
21. Solve
(a) 2 ^ 3y - 5 h 2 y + 5
(b) n 2 + 3n # 0
(c) 3 2x - 1 = 27
(d) 5x 3 - 1 = 39
(e) 5x - 4 = 11
(f) 2t + 1 $ 3
(g) x 2 + 2x - 8 # 0
(h) 8 x + 1 = 4 x
(i) y 2 - 4 2 0
(j) 1 - x 2 # 0
1
.
a2
1.
Find the value of y if a 3y - 5 =
2.
Solve x 2 a .
3.
The solutions of x 2 - 6x - 3 = 0 are in

the form a + b 3 . Find the values of
a and b.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
2
1
= 1 correct to 3
x -1 x +1
signicant gures. (x ! ! 1)
y2 - 6
Solve
# 1.
y
Solve
11. Solve ] x - 4 g ] x - 1 g # 28.

3
12. Solve x 2 =
1
.
8
13. The volume of a sphere is given by

4
V = rr 3 . Find the value of r when
3
V = 51.8 (correct to three signicant
gures).
14. Solve x - 3 + x + 4 = x - 2 .
15. Find the solutions of x 2 - 2ax - b = 0 by
completing the square.
Factorise x 5 - 9x 3 - 8x 2 + 72. Hence

solve x 5 - 9x 3 - 8x 2 + 72 = 0.
16. Solve
Solve simultaneous equations y = x 3 + x 2

and y = x + 1.
17. Given A = P c 1 +
Find the value of b if x 2 - 8x + b 2

is a perfect square. Hence solve
x 2 - 8x - 1 = 0 by completing the
square.
18. Solve 3x 2 = 8 (2x - 1) and write the

solution in the simplest surd form.
Considering the denition of absolute

x-3
value, solve
= x, where x ! 3.
3-x
10. Solve t + 2 + 3t - 1 1 5.
6y 2
# - 3.
3y - 2
r n
m , nd P
100
correct to 2 decimal places when
A = 3281.69, r = 1.27 and n = 30.
19. Solve
5x + 3
2 2 x.
x+4
20. Solve 3y - 1 + 2y + 3 2 5.
139
4
Geometry 1
TERMINOLOGY
Altitude: Height. Any line segment from a vertex to the
opposite side of a polygon that is perpendicular to that side
Polygon: General term for a many sided plane figure. A

closed plane (two dimensional) figure with straight sides
Congruent triangles: Identical triangles that are the same

shape and size. Corresponding sides and angles are
equal. The symbol is /
Quadrilateral: A four-sided closed figure such as a square,

rectangle, trapezium etc.
Interval: Part of a line including the endpoints
Similar triangles: Triangles that are the same shape but

different sizes. The symbol is zy
Median: A line segment that joins a vertex to the

opposite side of a triangle that bisects that side
Vertex: The point where three planes meet. The corner of

a figure
Perpendicular: A line that is at right angles to another

line. The symbol is =
Vertically opposite angles: Angles that are formed

opposite each other when two lines intersect
Chapter 4 Geometry 1
INTRODUCTION
GEOMETRY IS USED IN many areas, including surveying, building and graphics.
These elds all require a knowledge of angles, parallel lines and so on, and
how to measure them. In this chapter, you will study angles, parallel lines,
triangles, types of quadrilaterals and general polygons.
Many exercises in this chapter on geometry need you to prove something
or give reasons for your answers. The solutions to geometry proofs only give
one method, but other methods are also acceptable.
DID YOU KNOW?

Geometry means measurement of the earth and comes from Greek. Geometry was used in ancient
civilisations such as Babylonia. However, it was the Greeks who formalised the study of geometry,
in the period between 500 BC and AD 300.
Notation
In order to show reasons for exercises, you must know how to name gures
correctly.
B
The point is called B.
The interval (part of a line) is called AB or BA.
If AB and CD are parallel lines, we write AB < CD.
This angle is named +BAC or +CAB. It can sometimes be named +A.

^
Angles can also be written as BAC or BAC.
This triangle is named 3ABC.
141
142
To name a quadrilateral,
go around it: for example,
BCDA is correct, but ACBD
is not.
Producing a line is the same

as extending it.
This quadrilateral is called ABCD.
Line AB is produced to C.
+ABD and +DBC are

equal.
DB bisects +ABC.
AM is a median of D ABC.
AP is an altitude of D ABC.
Types of Angles
Acute angle
0c1 xc1 90c
Right angle
A right angle is 90c.

Complementary angles are angles whose sum is 90c.
Obtuse angle
90c1 xc1180c
Straight angle
A straight angle is 180c.

Supplementary angles are angles whose sum is 180c.
Reflex angle
180c1 xc1 360c
Angle of revolution
An angle of revolution is 360c.
Vertically opposite angles
+AEC and +DEB are called vertically opposite angles. +AED and +CEB are
also vertically opposite angles.
143
144
Vertically opposite angles are equal.

That is, +AEC = +DEB and +AED = +CEB.
Proof
Let +AEC = xc
Then +AED = 180c - xc
(+CED straight angle, 180c)
Now +DEB = 180c - (180c - xc)
(+AEB straight angle, 180c)
= xc
Also +CEB = 180c - xc
(+CED straight angle, 180c)
`
+AEC = +DEB and +AED =+CEB
EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons.
1.
Solution
x + 154 = 180
(+ABC is a straight angle, 180c)
x + 154 - 154 = 180 - 154
`
x = 26
2.
Solution
2x + 142 + 90
2x + 232
2x + 232 - 232
2x
2x
2
x
= 360
(angle of revolution, 360c )
= 360
= 360 - 232
= 128
128
=
2
= 64
3.
Solution
y + 2y + 30 = 90
3y + 30
3y + 30 - 30
3y
3y
3
y
(right angle, 90c)
= 90
= 90 - 30
= 60
60
3
= 20
=
4.
Solution
x + 50 = 165
x + 50 - 50 = 165 - 50
x = 115
y = 180 - 165
= 15
w = 15
(+WZX and +YZV vertically opposite)
(+XZY straight angle, 180c)

(+WZY and +XZV vertically opposite)
5.
CONTINUED
145
146
Solution
a = 90
b + 53 + 90 = 180
b + 143 = 180
b + 143 - 143 = 180 - 143
b = 37
d = 37
c = 53
(vertically opposite angles)

(straight angle, 180c)

(similarly)
6. Find the supplement of 57c 12l.
Solution
Supplementary angles add up to 180c.
So the supplement of 57c 12l is
180c - 57c 12l = 122c 48l.
7. Prove that AB and CD are straight lines.
A
(x + 30)c
C
(6x + 10)c
(2x
2 + 10)c
E
(5x + 30)c
B
Solution
6x + 10 + x + 30 + 5x + 30 + 2x + 10 = 360
^ angle of revolution h
14x + 80 - 80 = 360 - 80
14x = 280
14x
280
=
14
14
x = 20
+AEC = (20 + 30)c
= 50c
+DEB = (2 # 20 + 10)c
= 50c
These are equal vertically opposite angles.
` AB and CD are straight lines
4.1 Exercises
1.
Find values of all pronumerals,

giving reasons.
(a)
yc
(i)
133c
(b)
(j)
(c)
2.
Find the supplement of

(a) 59c
(b) 107c 31l
(c) 45c 12l
3.
Find the complement of

(a) 48c
(b) 34c 23l
(c) 16c 57l
4.
Find the (i) complement and

(ii) supplement of
(a) 43c
(b) 81c
(c) 27c
(d) 55c
(e) 38c
(f) 74c 53l
(g) 42c 24l
(h) 17c 39l
(i) 63c 49l
(j) 51c 9l
5.
(a) Evaluate x.
(b) Find the complement of x.
(c) Find the supplement of x.
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(2x + 30)c
142c
147
148
6.
Find the values of all

pronumerals, giving reasons for
each step of your working.
8.
(a)
Prove that CD bisects +AFE.
9.
Prove that AC is a straight line.

D
C
(b)
(3x + 70)c
(110 - 3x)c
B
(c)
A
10. Show that +AED is a right angle.

A
(d)
(50 - 8y)c
(e)
(5y - 20)c
(f)
7.
Prove that AC and DE are straight

lines.
(3y + 60)c
149
Parallel Lines
When a transversal cuts two lines, it forms pairs of angles. When the two
lines are parallel, these pairs of angles have special properties.
Alternate angles
Alternate angles form

a Z shape. Can you
find another set of
alternate angles?
If the lines are parallel, then alternate angles are equal.
Corresponding angles
Corresponding angles form

an F shape. There are 4 pairs
of corresponding angles. Can
you find them?
If the lines are parallel, then corresponding angles are equal.
150
Cointerior angles
Cointerior angles form
a U shape. Can you find
another pair?
If the lines are parallel, cointerior angles are supplementary (i.e. their sum
is 180c).
Tests for parallel lines
If alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
If +AEF = +EFD,
then AB < CD.
If corresponding angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.
If +BEF = +DFG,
then AB < CD.
If cointerior angles are supplementary, then the lines are parallel.
If +BEF + +DFE = 180c,

then AB < CD.
If 2 lines are both parallel to a third line, then the 3 lines are parallel to
each other. That is, if AB < CD and EF < CD, then AB < EF.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y, giving reasons for each step of your working.
Solution
+AGF = 180c - 125c
= 55c
(+FGH is a straight angle)
(+AGF, +CFE corresponding angles, AB < CD)
y = 55c
2. Prove EF < GH.
Solution
+CBF = 180c - 120c (+ABC is a straight angle)
= 60c
` +CBF = +HCD = 60c
But +CBF and +HCD are corresponding angles
` EF < GH
Can you prove this

in a different way?
151
152
Think about the reasons for

each step of your calculations.
4.2 Exercises
1.
Find values of all pronumerals.

(a)
(h)
(i)
(b)
(j)
(c)
2.
Prove AB < CD.

(a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
(c)
(f)
(g)
104c
C 76c
(d)
(e)
B
138c
52c
E
C
E
128c
23c
F
115c
Types of Triangles
Names of triangles
A scalene triangle has no two sides or angles equal.
A right (or right-angled) triangle contains a right angle.
The side opposite the right angle (the longest side) is called the
hypotenuse.
An isosceles triangle has two equal sides.
The angles (called the base angles) opposite the equal sides in an
isosceles triangle are equal.
An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and angles.
A
D
153
154
All the angles are acute in an acute-angled triangle.
An obtuse-angled triangle contains an obtuse angle.
Angle sum of a triangle
The sum of the interior angles in any triangle is 180c,

that is, a + b + c = 180
Proof
Let +YXZ = ac, +XYZ = bc and +YZX = cc

Draw line AB < YZ
Then +BXZ = cc
(+BXZ, +XZY alternate angles, AB < YZ)
+AXY = bc
(similarly)
+YXZ + +AXY + +BXZ = 180c
(+AXB is a straight angle)
`
a + b + c = 180
Class Investigation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Could you prove the base angles in an isosceles triangle are equal?
Can there be more than one obtuse angle in a triangle?
Could you prove that each angle in an equilateral triangle is 60c?
Can a right-angled triangle be an obtuse-angled triangle?
Can you find an isosceles triangle with a right angle in it?
Exterior angle of a triangle
The exterior angle in any triangle is equal to the sum of the two opposite
interior angles. That is,
x+y=z
Proof
Let +ABC = xc , +BAC = yc and +ACD = zc

Draw line CE < AB
zc = +ACE + +ECD
+ECD = xc
+ACE = yc
`
z=x+y
(+ECD,+ABC corresponding angles, AB < CE)

(+ACE,+BAC alternate angles, AB < CE)
EXAMPLES
Find the values of all pronumerals, giving reasons for each step.
1.
CONTINUED
155
156
Solution
x + 53 + 82 = 180
(angle sum of D 180c)
x + 135 = 180
x + 135 - 135 = 180 - 135
x = 45
2.
Solution
+A = +C = x
x + x + 48 = 180
2x + 48 = 180
2x + 48 - 48 = 180 - 48
2x = 132
132
2x
=
2
2
x = 66
(base angles of isosceles D)

(angle sum in a D 180c)
3.
Solution
y + 35 = 141
(exterior angle of D)
y + 35 - 35 = 141 - 35
`
y = 106
This example can be done using the interior sum of angles.
+BCA = 180c - 141c
= 39c
y + 39 + 35 = 180
y + 74 = 180
y + 74 - 74 = 180 - 74
`
y = 106
(+BCD is a straight angle 180c)

(angle sum of D 180c)
Think of the reasons

for each step of your
calculations.
4.3 Exercises
1.

pronumerals.
(a)
(h)
(b)
(i)
(j)
(c)
(d)
(k)
(e)
(f)
(g)
157
2.
Show that each angle in an

equilateral triangle is 60c.
3.
Find +ACB in terms of x.
158
4.
5.
6.
Prove AB < ED.
(d)
8.
Prove D IJL is equilateral and

D JKL is isosceles.
9.
In triangle BCD below, BC = BD.

Prove AB ED.
Show D ABC is isosceles.
Line CE bisects +BCD. Find the

value of y, giving reasons.
A
B
C
46c
E
88c
7.
Evaluate all pronumerals, giving

reasons for your working.
(a)
10. Prove that MN QP .

32c
(b)
75c
73c
(c)
Congruent Triangles
Two triangles are congruent if they are the same shape and size. All pairs of
corresponding sides and angles are equal.
For example:
We write D ABC / D XYZ.
Tests
To prove that two triangles are congruent, we only need to prove that certain
combinations of sides or angles are equal.
Two triangles are congruent if

SSS: all three pairs of corresponding sides are equal
SAS: two pairs of corresponding sides and their included angles are
equal
AAS: two pairs of angles and one pair of corresponding sides are equal
RHS: both have a right angle, their hypotenuses are equal and one
other pair of corresponding sides are equal
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that DOTS / DOQP where O is the centre of the circle.
CONTINUED
The included angle

is the angle between
the 2 sides.
159
160
Solution
S:
A:
S:
OS = OQ
+TOS = +QOP
OT = OP
by SAS, DOTS / DOQP
(equal radii)
(equal radii)
2. Which two triangles are congruent?
Solution
To find corresponding sides, look at each side in relation to the angles.
For example, one set of corresponding sides is AB, DF, GH and JL.
D ABC / D JKL (by SAS)
3. Show that triangles ABC and DEC are congruent. Hence prove that
AB = ED.
Solution
A: +BAC = +CDE
A: +ABC = +CED
S:
AC = CD
(alternate angles, AB < ED)

(similarly)
(given)
` by AAS, D ABC / D DEC

`
AB = ED
(corresponding sides in congruent D s)
4.4 Exercises
1.
Are these triangles congruent?

If they are, prove that they are
congruent.
(a)
2.
Prove that these triangles are

congruent.
(a)
(b)
Y
4.7
110c
2.3
4.7
110
c
C
A
2
.3 m
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(d)
(e)
(e)
161
162
3.
Prove that
(a) ABD is congruent to ACD
(b) AB bisects BC, given D ABC is
isosceles with AB = AC.
4.
Prove that triangles ABD and CDB

are congruent. Hence prove that
AD = BC.
(a) Prove that TABC and TADC

are congruent.
(b) Show that +ABC = +ADC.
The centre of a circle is O and AC
is perpendicular to OB.
7.
5.
In the circle below, O is the centre

of the circle.
A
B
O
(a) Prove that TOAB and TOCD

are congruent.
(b) Show that AB = CD.
6.
(a) Show that TOAB and TOBC

are congruent.
(b) Prove that +ABC = 90c.
ABCF is a trapezium with
AF = BC and FE = CD. AE and BD
are perpendicular to FC.
8.
In the kite ABCD, AB = AD and

BC = DC.
(a) Show that TAFE and TBCD

are congruent.
(b) Prove that +AFE = +BCD.
9.
The circle below has centre O and

OB bisects chord AC.
10. ABCD is a rectangle as shown

below.
A
C
O
B
(a) Prove that TOAB is congruent

to TOBC.
(b) Prove that OB is perpendicular
to AC.
(a) Prove that TADC is

congruent to TBCD.
(b) Show that diagonals AC and
BD are equal.
Investigation
The triangle is used in many
structures, for example trestle
tables, stepladders and roofs.
Find out how many different ways
the triangle is used in the building
industry. Visit a building site, or
interview a carpenter. Write a
report on what you find.
Similar Triangles
Triangles, for example ABC and XYZ, are similar if they are the same shape but
different sizes.
As in the example, all three pairs of corresponding angles are equal.
All three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion (in the same ratio).
163
164
We write: D ABC <; D XYZ

D XYZ is three times larger than D ABC.
6
XY
= =3
AB
2
XZ
12
=
=3
4
AC
15
YZ
=
=3
5
BC
XY
XZ
YZ
`
=
=
AB
AC
BC
This shows that all 3 pairs

of sides are in proportion.
Application
Similar figures are used in many areas, including maps, scale drawings, models
and enlargements.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the values of x and y in similar triangles CBA and XYZ.
Solution
First check which sides correspond to one another (by looking at their
relationships to the angles).
YZ and BA, XZ and CA, and XY and CB are corresponding sides.
`
XZ
XY
=
CA
CB
y
5.4
=
4.9
3.6
3.6y = 4.9 # 5.4
165
4 . 9 # 5 .4
3 .6
= 7.35
XY
=
CB
5 .4
=
3.6
= 2 . 3 # 5 .4
2 . 3 # 5 .4
=
3 .6
= 3.45
y=
YZ
BA
x
2 .3
3 .6x
x
Tests
There are three tests for similar triangles.
Two triangles are similar if:
three pairs of corresponding angles are equal
three pairs of corresponding sides are in proportion
two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles
are equal
EXAMPLES
1.
(a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are similar.
(b) Hence find the value of y, to 1 decimal place.
Solution
(a) +A is common
+ABC = +ADE
+ACB = +AED
` D ABC <; D ADE
(b)
(corresponding angles, BC < DE)

(similarly)
(3 pairs of angles equal)
CONTINUED
If 2 pairs of angles are

equal then the third
pair must also be equal.
166
AE = 2.4 + 1.9
= 4 .3
DE
AE
=
BC
AC
y
4 .3
=
3 .7
2.4
2 .4 y = 3 . 7 # 4. 3
3 .7 # 4 .3
y=
2 .4
= 6 .6
2. Prove D XYZ <; DWVZ.
Solution
XZ
ZV
YZ
ZW
XZ
`
ZV
+XZY
3
15
=
7
35
3
6
=
=
7
14
YZ
=
ZW
= +WZV
=
` since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their included angles are
equal the triangles are similar
Ratio of intercepts
The following result comes from similar triangles.
When two (or more) transversals cut a series of parallel lines, the
ratios of their intercepts are equal.
That is, AB : BC = DE : EF
AB
DE
or
=
EF
BC
Proof
Draw DG and EH parallel to AC.
Then
Also
`
DG = AB
EH = BC
DG
AB
=
EH
BC
+GDE = +HEF
+DEG = +EFH
+DGE = +EHF
(opposite sides of a parallelogram)

(similarly)
(1)
(corresponding +s, DG < EH)
(corresponding +s, BE < CF)
(angle sum of Ds)
So D DGE <; D EHF

DG
DE
=
`
EH
EF
From (1) and (2):
(2)
AB
DE
=
EF
BC
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, to 3 significant figures.
Solution
x
1.5
=
^ ratios of intercepts on parallel lines h
8.9
9.3
9.3x = 8.9 # 1.5
8.9 # 1.5
x=
9.3
= 1.44
CONTINUED
167
168
2. Evaluate x and y, to 1 decimal place.
Solution
Use either similar triangles or ratios of intercepts to find x. You must use
similar triangles to find y.
Why?
x
2.7
=
5.8
3. 4
2.7 # 5.8
x=
3.4
= 4.6
y
2.7 + 3.4
=
7.1
3.4
6.1 # 7.1
y=
3.4
= 12.7
These ratios come

from intercepts on
parallel lines.
These ratios come from

similar triangles.
4.5 Exercises
1.
Find the value of all pronumerals,

to 1 decimal place where
appropriate.
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(b)
(f)
46 c
xc
11
8.9
25.7
9.1
1.3
5c
1.82
E
14.3
19
4.
52c
4.2
4.9
5.88
yc
6.86
The diagram shows two

concentric circles with centre O.
(a) Prove that DOAB <; D OCD.
(b) If radius OC = 5.9 cm and
radius OB = 8.3 cm, and the
length of CD = 3.7 cm, find the
length of AB, correct to 2 decimal
places.
7.
(a) Prove that D ABC <; D ADE.

(b) Find the values of x and y,
correct to 2 decimal places.
8.
ABCD is a parallelogram, with

CD produced to E. Prove that
D ABF <; DCEB.
Evaluate a and b to 2 decimal

places.
Show that D ABC and DCDE are

similar.
EF bisects +GFD. Show that

D DEF and D FGE are similar.
6.
(g)
3.
D
87c
46
2.
Show that D ABC and D DEF are

similar. Hence find the value of y.
5.
169
170
9.
Show that D AED <; D ABC. Find

the value of m.
10. Prove that D ABC and D ACD are

similar. Hence evaluate x and y.
(e)
12. Show that

AB
AF
(a)
=
BC
FG
AB
AF
(b)
=
AC
AG
BD
DF
(c)
=
CE
EG
11. Find the values of all

pronumerals, to 1 decimal place.
(a)
13. Evaluate a and b correct to
1 decimal place.
(b)
14. Find the value of y to 2

significant figures.
(c)
(d)
15. Evaluate x and y correct to
2 decimal places.
Pythagoras Theorem
DID YOU KNOW?
The triangle with sides in the
proportion 3:4:5 was known to be
right angled as far back as ancient
Egyptian times. Egyptian surveyors
used to measure right angles by
stretching out a rope with knots tied
in it at regular intervals.
They used the rope for forming
right angles while building and
dividing fields into rectangular plots.
It was Pythagoras (572495 BC)
who actually discovered the
relationship between the sides of the
right-angled triangle. He was able to
generalise the rule to all right-angled triangles.
Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician,
philosopher and mystic. He founded the Pythagorean
School, where mathematics, science and philosophy
were studied. The school developed a brotherhood and
performed secret rituals. He and his followers believed
that the whole universe was based on numbers.
Pythagoras was murdered when he was 77, and the
brotherhood was disbanded.
The square on the hypotenuse in any right-angled triangle is equal to the

sum of the squares on the other two sides.
That is,
c2 = a2 + b2
or
c=
a2 + b2
171
172
Proof
Draw CD perpendicular to AB
Let AD = x, DB = y
Then x + y = c
In D ADC and D ABC,
+A is common
+ADC = +ACB = 90c
`
D ADC <; D ABC (equal corresponding +s)

AC
AD
=
AB
AC
x
b
c =b
b 2 = xc
D BDC <; D ABC
Similarly,
BC
DB
=
AB
BC
y
a
a= c
a 2 = yc
Now
a 2 + b 2 = yc + xc
= c ^y + xh
= c ]c g
= c2
If c 2 = a 2 + b 2, then D ABC must be right angled
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 2 decimal places.
Solution
c2 = a2 + b2
x2 = 72 + 42
= 49 + 16
= 65
173
x = 65
= 8.06 to 2 decimal places
2. Find the exact value of y.
Solution
c2 = a2 + b2
82 = y2 + 42
64 = y 2 + 16
48 = y 2
`
Leave the answer in

surd form for the exact
answer.
y = 48
= 16 # 3
=4 3
3. Find the length of the diagonal in a square with sides 6 cm. Answer to
1 decimal place.
Solution
6 cm
6 cm
c =a +b
= 62 + 62
= 72
2
c = 72
= 8 .5
So the length of the diagonal is 8.5 cm.
CONTINUED
174
4. A triangle has sides 5.1 cm, 6.8 cm and 8.5 cm. Prove that the triangle
is right angled.
Solution
5.1 cm
8.5 cm
6.8 cm
Let c = 8.5 (largest side) and a and b the other two smaller sides.
a 2 + b 2 = 5 . 1 2 + 6. 8 2
= 72.25
c 2 = 8. 5 2
= 72.25
` c2 = a2 + b2
So the triangle is right angled.
4.6 Exercises
1.

(a)
2.
Find the exact value of all

pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
(d)
3.
Find the slant height s of a

cone with diameter 6.8 m and
perpendicular height 5.2 m, to
1 decimal place.
4.
Find the length of CE, correct

to 1 decimal place, in this
rectangular pyramid. AB = 8.6 cm
and CF = 15.9 cm.
5.
Prove that D ABC is a right-angled

triangle.
6.
7.
Show that AC = 2 BC.
8.
(a) Find the length of diagonal

AC in the figure.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, prove
that AC is perpendicular to DC.
9.
Find the length of side AB in

terms of b.
Show that D XYZ is a right-angled

isosceles triangle.
X
XY
in
YZ
terms of x and y in D XYZ.
10. Find the exact ratio of

2
175
176
11. Show that the distance squared

between A and B is given by
d 2 = 13t 2 - 180t + 625.
16. A ramp is 4.5 m long and 1.3 m

high. How far along the ground
does the ramp go? Answer correct
to one decimal place.
12. An 850 mm by 1200 mm gate
is to have a diagonal timber
brace to give it strength. To what
length should the timber be cut,
to the nearest mm?
4.5 m
1.3 m
17. The diagonal of a television

screen is 72 cm. If the screen is
58 cm high, how wide is it?
18. A property has one side 1.3 km
and another 1.1 km as shown
with a straight road diagonally
through the middle of the
property. If the road is 1.5 km
long, show that the property is
not rectangular.
13. A rectangular park has a length of

620 m and a width of 287 m. If I
walk diagonally across the park,
how far do I walk?
14. The triangular garden bed below
is to have a border around it.
How many metres of border are
needed, to 1 decimal place?
1.5 km
1.3 km
1.1 km
15. What is the longest length of

stick that will fit into the box
below, to 1 decimal place?
19. Jodie buys a ladder 2 m long and

wants to take it home in the boot
of her car. If the boot is 1.2 m by
0.7 m, will the ladder fit?
20. A chord AB in a circle with

centre O and radius 6 cm has a
perpendicular line OC as shown
4 cm long.
(a) By finding the lengths of AC

and BC, show that OC bisects the
chord.
(b) By proving congruent
triangles, show that OC bisects
the chord.
O
A
4 cm
6 cm
C
B
Types of Quadrilaterals
A quadrilateral is any four-sided figure
In any quadrilateral the sum of the interior angles is 360c
Proof
Draw in diagonal AC
+ADC + +DCA + +CAD = 180c
(angle sum of D)
+ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 180c
(similarly)
` +ADC + +DCA + +CAD + +ABC + +BCA + +CAB = 360c
That is,
+ADC + +DCB + +CBA + +BAD = 360c
177
178
EXAMPLE
Find the value of i.
Solution
i + 120 + 56 + 90 = 360 ^ angle sum of quadrilateral h
i + 266 = 360
i = 94
Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with opposite sides parallel

PROPERTIES
These properties can

all be proven.
opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal

opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal
diagonals in a parallelogram bisect each other
each diagonal bisects the parallelogram into two
congruent triangles
TESTS
A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if:
both pairs of opposite sides are equal
both pairs of opposite angles are equal
one pair of sides is both equal and parallel
the diagonals bisect each other
179
Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with one angle a right angle
If one angle is a right

angle, then you can
prove all angles are
right angles.
PROPERTIES
the same as for a parallelogram, and also
diagonals are equal
TEST
A quadrilateral is a rectangle if its diagonals are equal
Application
Builders use the property of equal diagonals to check if a rectangle is accurate.
For example, a timber frame may look rectangular, but may be slightly slanting.
Checking the diagonals makes sure that a building does not end up like the
Leaning Tower of Pisa!
Rhombus
A rhombus is a parallelogram with a pair of adjacent sides equal

PROPERTIES
the same as for parallelogram, and also
diagonals bisect at right angles
diagonals bisect the angles of the rhombus
It can be proved that

all sides are equal.
180
TESTS
A quadrilateral is a rhombus if:

all sides are equal
diagonals bisect each other at right angles
Square
A square is a rectangle with a pair of adjacent sides equal

PROPERTIES
the same as for rectangle, and also

diagonals are perpendicular
diagonals make angles of 45c with the sides
Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with one pair of sides parallel
Kite
A kite is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent sides equal
EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of i, x and y, giving reasons.
Solution
i = 83c
x = 6.7 cm
y = 2.3 cm
(opposite +s in < gram)

(opposite sides in < gram)
(opposite sides in < gram)
2. Find the length of AB in square ABCD as a surd in its simplest form if

BD = 6 cm.
Solution
Let AB = x
Since ABCD is a square, AB = AD = x (adjacent sides equal)
Also, +A = 90c
(by definition)
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
62 = x2 + x2
36 = 2x 2
18 = x 2
` x = 18
= 3 2 cm
CONTINUED
181
182
3.
(a) Two equal circles have centres O and P respectively. Prove that OAPB
is a rhombus.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that AB is the perpendicular bisector
of OP.
Solution
OA = OB
(equal radii)
PA = PB
(similarly)
Since the circles are equal, OA = OB = PA = PB
` since all sides are equal, OAPB is a rhombus
(b) The diagonals in any rhombus are perpendicular bisectors.
Since OAPB is a rhombus, with diagonals AB and OP, AB is the
perpendicular bisector of OP.
(a)
4.7 Exercises
1.

giving reasons.
(a)
(e)
(f)
(b)
(g)
(c)
(d)
2.
Given AB = AE, prove CD is

perpendicular to AD.
(c)
(d)
3.
(a) Show that +C = xc and

+B = +D = (180 - x)c.
(b) Hence show that the sum of
angles of ABCD is 360c.
(e)
(f)
4.
5.
Find the value of a and b.
3x
x+
6.
In the figure, BD bisects

+ADC. Prove BD also bisects
+ABC.
7.
(a)
Prove that each figure is a

parallelogram.
(a)
(b)
(b)

pronumerals, giving reasons.
183
184
(c)
(d)
(e)
(d)
8.
Evaluate all pronumerals.

(a)
9.
The diagonals of a rhombus

are 8 cm and 10 cm long. Find
the length of the sides of the
rhombus.
10. ABCD is a rectangle with

+EBC = 59c . Find +ECB, +EDC
and +ADE.
(b)
(c)
11. The diagonals of a square are

8 cm long. Find the exact length
of the side of the square.
12. In the rhombus, +ECB = 33c.
Find the value of x and y.
ABCD is a kite
Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane figure with straight sides
A regular polygon has all sides and all interior angles equal
EXAMPLES
3-sided
(equilateral
triangle)
4-sided
(square)
5-sided
(pentagon)
6-sided
(hexagon)
8-sided
(octagon)
10-sided
(decagon)
DID YOU KNOW?

Carl Gauss (17771855) was a famous German mathematician, physicist and astronomer. When
he was 19 years old, he showed that a 17-sided polygon could be constructed using a ruler and
compasses. This was a major achievement in geometry.
Gauss made a huge contribution to the study of mathematics and science, including
correctly calculating where the magnetic south pole is and designing a lens to correct
astigmatism.
He was the director of the Gttingen Observatory for 40 years. It is said that he did not
become a professor of mathematics because he did not like teaching.
The sum of the interior angles of an n-sided polygon is given by

S = 180n - 360
or S = (n - 2) # 180c
Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon and divide it into n triangles as
shown. Then the total sum of angles is n # 180c or 180n.
But this sum includes all the angles at O. So the sum of
interior angles is 180n - 360c .
That is, S = 180n - 360
= ] n - 2 g #180c
The sum of the exterior angles of any polygon is 360c
Proof
Draw any n-sided polygon. Then the sum of both the
exterior and interior angles is n #180c.
Sum of exterior angles = n #180c - sum of interior angles
= 180n - ] 180n - 360c g
= 180n - 180n + 360c
= 360c
185
186
EXAMPLES
1. Find the sum of the interior angles of a regular polygon with 15 sides.
How large is each angle?
Solution
n = 15
S = (n - 2)#180c
= (15 - 2)#180c
= 13#180c
= 2340c
Each angle has size 2340c' 15 = 156c.
2. Find the number of sides in a regular polygon whose interior angles
are 140c.
Solution
Let n be the number of sides
Then the sum of interior angles is 140n
But
S = (n - 2)#180c
So 140n = (n - 2)#180c
= 180n - 360
360 = 40n
9=n
So the polygon has 9 sides.
There are n sides and so n

angles, each 140c.
4.8 Exercises
1.
2.
Find the sum of the interior

angles of
(a) a pentagon
(b) a hexagon
(c) an octagon
(d) a decagon
(e) a 12-sided polygon
(f) an 18-sided polygon
Find the size of each interior
angle of a regular
(a) pentagon
(b) octagon
(c) 12-sided polygon
(d) 20-sided polygon
(e) 15-sided polygon
3.
Find the size of each exterior

angle of a regular
(a) hexagon
(b) decagon
(c) octagon
(d) 15-sided polygon
4.
Calculate the size of each

interior angle in a regular 7-sided
polygon, to the nearest minute.
5.
The sum of the interior angles of

a regular polygon is 1980c.
(a) How many sides has the
polygon?
(b) Find the size of each interior
angle, to the nearest minute.
6.
Find the number of sides of a

regular polygon whose interior
angles are 157c 30l.
7.
Find the sum of the interior

angles of a regular polygon whose
exterior angles are 18c.
8.
9.
A regular polygon has interior

angles of 156c. Find the sum of its
interior angles.
13. A regular octagon has a

quadrilateral ACEG inscribed as
shown.
B
Find the size of each interior

angle in a regular polygon if
the sum of the interior angles is
5220c.
10. Show that there is no regular

polygon with interior angles of
145c.
11. Find the number of sides of a
regular polygon with exterior
angles
(a) 40c
(b) 30c
(c) 45c
(d) 36c
(e) 12c
Show that ACEG is a square.

14. In the regular pentagon below,
show that EAC is an isosceles
triangle.
A
12. ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.

A
B
D
(a) Show that triangles AFE and

BCD are congruent.
(b) Show that AE and BD are
parallel.
15. (a) Find the size of each exterior

angle in a regular polygon with
side p.
(b) Hence show that each interior
180 (p - 2)
.
angle is
p
187
188
Areas
Most areas of plane figures come from the area of a rectangle.
Rectangle
A = lb
Square
A square is a
special rectangle.
A = x2
Triangle
The area of a triangle

is half the area of a
rectangle.
A=
1
bh
2
Proof
Draw rectangle ABCD, where b = length and h = breadth.
189
area = bh
1
1
area AEFD and area DCEF = area EBCF
2
2
1
area DCDE =
area ABCD
2
1
That is, A = bh
2
Area D DEF =
`
Parallelogram
A = bh
Proof
In parallelogram ABCD, produce DC to E and draw BE perpendicular to CE.
Then ABEF is a rectangle.
Area ABEF = bh
In D ADF and D BCE,
+AFD = +BEC = 90c
AF = BE = h
(opposite sides of a rectangle)
AD = BC
(opposite sides of a parallelogram)
` by RHS, D ADF / D BCE
`
area D ADF = area D BCE
So
area ABCD = area ABEF
= bh
Rhombus
1
xy
2
(x and y are lengths of diagonals)
A=
The area of a
parallelogram is the
same as the area of
two triangles.
190
Proof
Let AC = x and BD = y
By properties of a rhombus,
1
1
AE = EC = x and DE = EB = y
2
2
Also +AEB = 90c
Area D ABC =
=
Area D ADC =
=
` total area of rhombus =
=
1
1
x: y
2
2
1
xy
4
1
1
x: y
2
2
1
xy
4
1
1
xy + xy
4
4
1
xy
2
Trapezium
A=
Proof
Let
DE = x
Then DF = x + a
`
FC = b - ] x + a g
=b-x-a
1
h ( a + b)
2
Area trapezium = area D ADE + area rectangle ABFE + area D BFC

1
1
= xh + ah + (b - x - a) h
2
2
1
= h (x + 2a + b - x - a)
2
1
= h (a + b)
2
Circle
You will study the circle in

more detail in Chapter 9.
A = rr 2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the area of this trapezium.
Solution
1
h ( a + b)
2
1
= ( 4) ( 7 + 5)
2
= 2 # 12
A=
= 24 m 2
4.2 cm
8.9 cm
3.7 cm
2. Find the area of the shaded region in this figure.
12.1 cm
CONTINUED
191
Solution
Area large rectangle = lb
= 8.9 #12.1
= 107.69 cm 2
Area small rectangle = lb
= 3 . 7 # 4 .2
`
= 15.54 cm 2
shaded area = 107.69 - 15.54
= 92.15 cm 2
3. A park with straight sides of length 126 m and width 54 m has semicircular ends as shown. Find its area, correct to 2 decimal places.
126 m
54 m
192
Solution
Area of 2 semi-circles = area of 1 circle
54
r =
2
= 27
A = rr 2
= r (27) 2
= 2290.22 m2
Area rectangle = 126 # 54
= 6804
Total area = 2290.22 + 6804
= 9094.22 m2
4.9 Exercises
1.
Find the area of each figure.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(d)
(e)
(f)
cm
2 cm
(g)
4.
2.
Find the area of a rhombus with

diagonals 2.3 m and 4.2 m.
3.
Find each shaded area.

(a)
Find the area of each figure.

(a)
(b)
193
194
(c)
(d)
8.
The dimensions of a battleaxe

block of land are shown below.
(a) Find its area.
(b) A house in the district where
this land is can only take up 55%
of the land. How large (to the
nearest m 2) can the area of the
house be?
(c) If the house is to be a
rectangular shape with width
8.5 m, what will its length be?
9.
A rhombus has one diagonal

25 cm long and its area is
600 cm 2 . Find the length of
(a) its other diagonal and
(b) its side, to the nearest cm.
(e)
5.
Find the exact area of the figure.
6.
Find the area of this figure,

The arch is a semicircle.
7.
Jenny buys tiles for the floor of

her bathroom (shown top next
column) at $45.50 per m 2 . How
much do they cost altogether?
10. The width w of a rectangle is

a quarter the size of its length.
If the width is increased by 3
units while the length remains
constant, find the amount of
increase in its area in terms of w.
195
Test Yourself 4
1.
Find the values of all pronumerals

(a)
2.
Prove that AB and CD are parallel lines.
3.
Find the area of the figure, to 2 decimal

places.
4.
(a) Prove that triangles ABC and ADE are

similar.
(b) Evaluate x and y to 1 decimal place.
5.
Find the size of each interior angle in a

regular 20-sided polygon.
6.
Find the volume of a cylinder with radius

5.7 cm and height 10 cm, correct to
1 decimal place.
7.
Find the perimeter of the triangle below.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(O is the centre
of the circle.)
(f)
(g)
The perimeter
is the distance
around the outside
of the figure.
196
8.
(a) Prove triangles ABC and ADC are

congruent in the kite below.
(b) Prove triangle AOB and COD are

congruent. (O is the centre of the circle.)
12. Triangle ABC is isosceles, and AD bisects

BC.
(a) Prove triangles ABD and ACD are

congruent.
(b) Prove AD and BC are perpendicular.
13. Triangle ABC is isosceles, with AB = AC.
Show that triangle ACD is isosceles.
9.
Find the area of the figure below.
14. Prove that opposite sides in any

parallelogram are equal.
10. Prove triangle ABC is right angled.
15. A rhombus has diagonals 6 cm and 8 cm.

(a) Find the area of the rhombus.
(b) Find the length of its side.
16. The interior angles in a regular polygon
are 140c . How many sides has the
polygon?
17. Prove AB and CD are parallel.
11. Prove
AF
AB
.
=
AG
AC
18. Find the area of the figure below.

6 cm
5 cm
8 cm
20. (a) Prove triangles ABC and DEF are

similar.
(b) Evaluate x to 1 decimal place.
2 cm
10 cm
19. Prove that z = x + y in the triangle

below.
1.
Find the value of x.
4.
Given +BAD =+DBC, show that D ABD

and D BCD are similar and hence find d.
2.
Evaluate x, y and z.
5.
Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram.

AB = DC.
3.
Find the sum of the interior angles of a

regular 11-sided polygon. How large is
each exterior angle?
6.
Find the shaded area.
197
198
7.
Prove that the diagonals in a square

make angles of 45c with the sides.
8.
Prove that the diagonals in a kite are

perpendicular.
9.
Prove that MN is parallel to XY.
12. Find the values of x and y correct to

1 decimal place.
13. Find the values of x and y, correct to

2 decimal places.
10. Evaluate x.
11. The letter Z is painted on a billboard.
(a) Find the area of the letter.

(b) Find the exact perimeter of the letter.
14. ABCD is a square and BD is produced to

1
E such that DE = BD.
2
(a) Show that ABCE is a kite.
2x
(b) Prove that DE =
units when
2
sides of the square are x units long.
PRACTICE ASSESSMENT TASK 1
Practice Assessment Task

SET 1
p-3 p+1
= 1.
5
2
1.
Solve for p:
2.
Factorise fully: 10x + 2xy - 10y - 2y 2.
3.
Write in index form

1
(a) x
(b)
4.
5.
6.
16. Simplify
2x + 6
.
2
17. Solve 2x 2 - 3x - 1 = 0 correct to

3 significant figures.
18. The radius r of a circle with area A is
A
given by r =
. Find r, correct to
r
2 decimal places, if A = 7.59.
x4
Simplify the expression 8y - 2 ^ y + 5 h .

5
Rationalise the denominator of
.
5- 2
Expand and simplify
] x - 3 g ^ x 2 + 5x - 1 h .
7.
3x
2
Solve the equation
= . ^ x ! -1h
x+1
3
8.
Simplify
9.
Show that TABC and TEDC are

congruent triangles. Hence, or otherwise,
show that TACE is an isosceles triangle.
x 2 - 2x - 3
x+1
.
'
5
10
19. Solve 5 - 2x 1 3 and sketch the solution

on a number line.
20. Evaluate
3
5
1
2
+
+ .
20 15 3 12
21. Solve the equation x 2 - 4x + 1 = 0,

giving exact solutions in simplest surd
form.
22. Write 7 - 2 as a rational number.
23. Solve simultaneous equations y = 3x - 1
and y = x 2 - 5.
24. Find integers x and y such that
3
= x + y 3.
2 3+3
10. Evaluate ] 3.9 g4, correct to 1 decimal

place.
25. Evaluate |-2 | 2 - | -1 | + | 4 |.

26. Find the value of x.
11. Simplify 2 3 - 27 .
12. Find the size of each interior angle in a
regular octagon.
13. Evaluate 0.72 ' 9.82 in scientific
notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
2 ^3 5 - 2 2 h.
15. Find, correct to 2 decimal places, the

] 2.14 g3
value of
.
6.94 - 3.72
27. Factorise 8x 3 - 1.
2 3
.
3 5- 2
199
200
29. Simplify 2 | -4 | - | 3 | + | -2 |.
o as a fraction.
42. Write 0.16
30. Find the sale price if a discount of 8% is

given on a DVD player that usually sells
for $699.
43. Prove that the diagonals in any rhombus

bisect the angles they make with the
sides of the rhombus.
5.21 + 4.71
correct to
3.94 # 1.76
2 significant figures.
31. Evaluate 3
5 +1
.
2 2+3
33. The price of roller skates has increased
by 6.5% to $89. Find the price before the
increase.
34. Find the values of all pronumerals,

giving reasons for each step of your
calculations.
1
in index form.
x+3
45. Expand and simplify ] x + 2 g3.
44. Write
46. Find the value of a 3 b - 2 in index form if

4 2
1 3
a = c m and b = c m .
5
2
47. Find the value of x, giving reasons for
each step of your working out.
48. Find values of x and y.

35. Find the area of this figure.
36. Simplify
^ a - 4 h3 # b 6
a9 # ^ b-1 h
.
4
37. Solve 5x - 9 2 21.

38. Evaluate 4
3
2
as a rational number.
39. Simplify 2 ] x - 5 g -3 ] x - 1 g .
40. Solve 4 2x + 1 = 8.
41. Solve x 2 $ 9.
5
49. Solve x 2 1.
-
50. Write ] 3x + 2 g
1
2
without an index.
51. Simplify
(a) 8x - 7y - y + 4x
(b)
124
(c)
x2 - 9
x 3 + 27
(d)
(e)
1
+
2+1
56. ABCD is a parallelogram with CD

produced to E so that ED = AD.
Prove that +ABC = 2+DEA.
2
2-1
3
2
4
+
x + 1 x2 - 1 x - 1
1
(f) x - x when x = 2 3
(g)
^ x - 2 h5 y 4 z - 3
x4 _ y3 i
-1
^ z - 4 h- 2
a+b
a + 2ab + b
'
3 - 6b
5a - 20ab 2
2
(h)
(i) 8 5 - 3 20 + 2 45
a3 b2 ^ c4 h
1 2
2 3
c
m
c
m
,
if
a
=
,
b
=
2
3
^ a 2 h2 bc 5
4 -1
and c = c m
9
2
(j)
52. Find the values of x and y, correct to

1 decimal place.
53. Evaluate x.
2 1
5 3
.
5
16
1
1
58. Tran spent of her salary on rent,
4
3
1
1
on food, on bus and taxi fares, and
5
6
on going out. If she puts the rest of her
salary into savings, what percentage of
her salary is savings?
59. The speed of light is about
2.99 # 10 8 ms - 1 . If a rocket travels at
one-fifth the speed of light, find its speed
in kmh - 1 (in scientific notation correct
to 2 significant figures).
60. Find the value of k if
] 2x + 5 g2 = 4x 2 + kx + 25.
61. Simplify
54. The volume of a sphere is given by the

4
formula V = rr 3. Find the exact radius r,
3
2
if the volume V is 10 cm 3.
3
55. Find the perimeter of the figure below,
81x 2 y 3 .
62. The sum of the interior angles in a

regular polygon is 1620c. Find the size
of each interior angle, to the nearest
minute.
63. Find the area of the shaded region
in this figure, correct to 2 decimal
places.
201
202
64. Factorise
(a) 5 ] a - 2 g3 + 40b 3
(b) ] 2a - b + c g2 - ] a + 5b - c g2
65. Solve -2 #
8x - 1
1 9.
5
20 m
66. ABCD and BCEF are parallelograms.

Show that AFED is a parallelogram.
25 m
72. In the figure, BD is the perpendicular

bisector of AC. Prove that triangle ABC is
isosceles.
B
67. Find the value of b correct to 2 decimal

places.
73. The diagonals of a rhombus are x and y.

Find the length of its side.
68. The diagonals of a rhombus are 6 cm and
10 cm long. Find the
(a) exact length of the sides of the
rhombus
(b) area of the rhombus.
69. Write as a single fraction with a rational
2
1
denominator
.
3 3- 2
2+ 5
70. The exterior angles of a regular polygon
are 18c . How many sides has the
polygon?
71. A cable is used to support a 20 m tower
as shown. If the cable is placed 25 m
away from the base of the tower, how
long must it be, to the nearest metre?
74. Write
1
in index form.
3 ] x - 2 g5
-
5
3
5
2
(a) ] x - 2 g
]x - 2 g
(b)
3
(c) 3 ] x - 2 g
1
(d)
5
] x - 2 g3
5
2
75. Write the number 54 000 000 in

scientific notation.
(a) 5.4 # 108
(b) 54 # 106
(c) 5.4 # 107
(d) 54 # 108
76. Simplify
^ 2a 3 b h 3
] ab g
o to a fraction.
79. Convert 0.36
(a) 8a b
(b) 8a8b
(c) 2a7b
(d) 2a8b
77. A computer costs $1850. If it has
increased in cost by 4% since last week,
how much did it cost last week?
(a) $1924.00
(b) $1778.85
(c) $1867.80
(d) $1776.00
78. Evaluate 4
(a) - 8
(b)
1
8
(c)
1
6
(d) 6
3
2
(a)
9
25
(b)
12
33
(c) 3
(d)
80.
1
3
11
30
A
E
C
The triangles ABC and CDE can be

proven congruent by using the test
(a) SSS
(b) SAS
(c) RHS
(d) AAS.
203
5
Functions and
Graphs
TERMINOLOGY
Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two
points
Even function: An even function has line symmetry

(reflection) about the y-axis, and f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Asymptote: A line towards which a curve approaches but

never touches
Function: For each value of the independent variable x,

there is exactly one value of y, the dependent variable.
A vertical line test can be used to determine if a
relationship is a function
Cartesian coordinates: Named after Descartes. A system of

locating points (x, y) on a number plane. Point (x, y) has
Cartesian coordinates x and y
Curve: Another word for arc. When a function consists
of all values of x on an interval, the graph of y = f ] x g is
called a curve y = f ] x g
Dependent variable: A variable is a symbol that can
represent any value in a set of values. A dependent
variable is a variable whose value depends on the value
chosen for the independent variable
Direct relationship: Occurs when one variable varies
directly with another i.e. as one variable increases, so
does the other or as one variable decreases so does
the other
Discrete: Separate values of a variable rather than a
continuum. The values are distinct and unrelated
Domain: The set of possible values of x in a given domain
for which a function is defined
Independent variable: A variable is independent if it may

be chosen freely within the domain of the function
Odd function: An odd function has rotational symmetry
about the origin (0, 0) and where f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Ordered pair: A pair of variables, one independent and
one dependent, that together make up a single point in
the number plane, usually written in the form (x, y)
Ordinates: The vertical or y coordinates of a point are
called ordinates
Range: The set of real numbers that the dependent
variable y can take over the domain (sometimes called
the image of the function)
Vertical line test: A vertical line will only cut the graph of
a function in at most one point. If the vertical line cuts
the graph in more than one point, it is not a function
Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics,
science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function
notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in
more detail in later chapters.
DID YOU KNOW?

The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene
Descartes (15961650). He was known as one of the rst
modern mathematicians along with Pierre de Fermat
(16011665). Descartes used the number plane to develop
analytical geometry. He discovered that any equation
with two unknown variables can be represented by a line.
The points in the number plane can be called Cartesian
coordinates.
Descartes used letters at the beginning of the
alphabet to stand for numbers that are known, and letters
near the end of the alphabet for unknown numbers. This is
why we still use x and y so often!
Do a search on Descartes to nd out more details of
his life and work.
Descartes
Functions
Denition of a function
Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These
occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called
variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern.
We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
205
206
EXAMPLES
1. Eye colour
Name
Anne
Colour Blue
Jacquie Donna Hien
Marco
Russell
Trang
Brown
Green
Brown
Brown
Grey
Brown
Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien,
Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown).
2. y = x + 1
x
The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5).
3.
A
C
3
D
4
The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).
Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each
variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue
and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye thats a
different colour from the other.)
A relation is a set of ordered points (x, y) where the variables x and y are
related according to some rule.
A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for
every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.
INPUT
PROCESS
OUTPUT
The first variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the
second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
For example, in y = x + 1, we can use any number for x (the independent

variable), say x = 3.
When x = 3
y=3+1
=4
As this value of y depends on the number we choose for x, y is called the
dependent variable.
A function is a relationship between two variables where for

every independent variable, there is only one dependent variable.
This means that for every x value, there is only one y value.
Investigation
When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable
(usually the x-value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable (usually the y-value) is on the vertical axis.
In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find
out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or
students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the
Internet to find some examples.
Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the
difference between this example and the previous ones?
A
B
1
2
C
3
D
E
In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3)
and (E, 2).
Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is
NOT a function.
While we often call the

independent variable
x and the dependent
variable y, there are other
pronumerals we could
use. You will meet some
of these in this course.
207
208
Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane.

1.
2.
There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that
in the first example, there are two values of y when x = 0. The y-axis passes
through both these points.
y
There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If
we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in
two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is?
In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one
place.
So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that
it is not a function.
If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the
graph is a function.
y
If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the
graph, the graph is not a function.
y
209
210
EXAMPLES
1. Is this graph a function?
Solution
You will learn how to sketch these

graphs later in this chapter.
A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function.
2. Is this circle a function?
Solution
A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is
not a function.
3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function?

^ - 2 , 3 h , ^ - 1, 4 h , ^ 0 , 5 h , ^ 1 , 3 h , ^ 2 , 4 h
Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a
function.
4. Is this a function?
y
Solution
y
Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x = 3 on

the top line means that x = 3 is not included, while the closed circle on
the bottom line means that x = 3 is included on this line.
So a vertical line only touches the graph once at x = 3. The graph is
a function.
211
212
5.1 Exercises
Which of these curves are functions?
1.
6.
2.
7.
3.
8.
4.
9.
^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 3, 3 h, ^ 4, 0 h
10. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 2, 7 h, ^ 4, 0 h
11.
5.
12.
13.
14. Name Ben

Paul
Pierre Hamish Jacob
Lee
Pierre
Lien
Sport Tennis Football Tennis Football Football Badminton Football Badminton
15. A
Function notation
If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a
function of x. We can write this as y = f ] x g.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.
Solution
When x = 3:
y = x +1
= 3+1
=4
2. If f ] x g = x + 1, evaluate f (3).
Solution
f ]x g = x + 1
f ]3 g = 3 + 1
=4
Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is
the value of the function when x = 3.
If y = f ] x g then f (a) is the value of y at the point on the function where x = a
213
214
EXAMPLES
1. If f ] x g = x 2 + 3x + 1, find f ] - 2 g .
Solution
This is the same as finding y
when x = - 2.
f ( - 2) = ] - 2 g 2 + 3 (- 2) + 1
=4-6+1
= -1
2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, find the value of f ] - 1 g .
Solution
f (x) = x 3 - x 2
f (- 1) = ] - 1 g 3 - ] - 1 g 2
= -1 - 1
= -2
3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.
Solution
f (x) = 0
Putting f (x) = 0 is different
from finding f (0) . Follow
this example carefully.
i.e.
x + 3x - 10 = 0
( x + 5 ) ( x - 2) = 0
x + 5 = 0,
x-2=0
x = -5
x=2
2
4. Find f ] 3 g, f ] 2 g, f ] 0 g and f ] - 4 g if f ] x g is defined as

3x + 4 when x $ 2
f ]x g = )
- 2x
when x 1 2.
Use f (x) = 3x + 4 when
x is 2 or more, and use
f (x) = - 2x when x is less
than 2.
Solution
f (3 ) = 3 ( 3) + 4
= 13
f (2 ) = 3 ( 2) + 4
= 10
f (0) = - 2 (0)
=0
f (- 4) = - 2 ( - 4)
=8
x2
g ] x g = * 2x - 1
5
since
3$2
since
2$2
since
012
since -4 1 2
g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if
when x 2 2
when - 1 # x # 2
when x 1 - 1
215
Solution
g (1 ) = 2 ( 1) - 1
=1
g (- 2) = 5
since -1 # 1 # 2
since - 2 1 - 1
g (3) = 3
since 3 2 2
=9
So g (1) + g (- 2) - g (3) = 1 + 5 - 9
= -3
2
DID YOU KNOW?

Leonhard Euler (170783), from Switzerland, studied functions and invented the term
f (x) for function notation. He studied theology, astronomy, medicine, physics and oriental
languages as well as mathematics, and wrote more than 500 books and articles on
mathematics. He found time between books to marry and have 13 children, and even when
he went blind he kept on having books published.
5.2 Exercises
1.
Given f ] x g = x + 3, find f ] 1 g and

f ]-3 g.
10. If f ] x g = 2x - 9, find f ^ p h and

f ]x + h g.
2.
If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, find h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g
and h ] - 4 g .
11. Find g ] x - 1 g when

g ] x g = x 2 + 2x + 3.
3.
If f ] x g = - x 2, find f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g
and f ] - 2 g .
12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, find f ] k g as a
product of factors.
4.
Find the value of f ] 0 g + f ] - 2 g if

f ] x g = x 4 - x 2 + 1.
5.
Find f ] - 3 g if f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x + 4.
13. Given f ] t g = t 2 + 2t + 1, find

t when f ] t g = 0. Also find any
values of t for which f ] t g = 9.
6.
If f ] x g = 2x - 5, find x when
f ] x g = 13.
7.
Given f ] x g = x + 3, find any

values of x for which f ] x g = 28.
15. f ] x g = )
8.
If f ] x g = 3 x, find x when
1
f ]x g =
.
27
9.
Find values of z for which

f ] z g = 5 given f ] z g = 2z + 3 .
Z 2x - 4 if x $ 1
]
16. f ] x g = [x + 3
if -1 1 x 1 1
] 2
x
if x # -1
\
Find the values of
14. Given f ] t g = t 4 + t 2 - 5, find the

value of f ] b g - f ] - b g .
x3
for x 2 1
x
for x # 1
Find f ] 5 g, f ] 1 g and ] - 1 g .
f ] 2 g - f ] - 2 g + f ] -1 g .
We can use pronumerals

other than f for functions.
216
17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if
x+1
when x $ 0
g ]x g = )
- 2x + 1 when x 1 0
f ] 3 g - f ] 2 g + 2f ] - 3 g when
x for x 2 2
f ] x g = * x2
4
for -2 # x # 2
for x 1 -2
19. Find the value of f ] - 1 g - f ] 3 g

if f (x) = *
x3 - 1
2x 2 + 3x - 1
for x $ 2
for x 1 2
x 2 - 2x - 3
x-3
(a) evaluate f (2)
(b) explain why the function
does not exist for x = 3
(c) by taking several x values
close to 3, find the value of y that
the function is moving towards
as x moves towards 3.
20. If f ] x g =
21. If f ] x g = x 2 5x + 4, find
f ] x + h g - f ] x g in its simplest
form.
f ]x + h g - f ]x g
where
22. Simplify
h
2
]
g
f x = 2x + x
23. If f ] x g = 5x - 4, find f ] x g - f ] c g
in its simplest form.
24. Find the value of f ^ k 2 h if
3x + 5
for x $ 0
f ]x g = * 2
x
for x 1 0
Z 3
25. If
when x $ 3
]x
f ] x g = [5
when 0 1 x 1 3
] 2
x - x + 2 when x # 0
\
evaluate
(a) f (0)
(b) f ] 2 g - f ] 1 g
(c) f ^ - n 2 h
Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table
of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other
techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important
features.
Intercepts
One of the most useful techniques is to find the x- and y-intercepts.
Everywhere on the x-axis,

y = 0 and everywhere on
the y-axis x = 0 .
For x-intercept, y = 0
For y-intercept, x = 0
217
EXAMPLE
Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.
Solution
This is the same as

y = x 2 + 7x - 8.
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = x 2 + 7x - 8
= ]x + 8g]x - 1g
x + 8 = 0,
x- 1=0
x = - 8,
x=1
For y-intercept: x = 0
You will use the intercepts

to draw graphs in the next
section in this chapter.
y = ] 0 g2 + 7 ] 0 g - 8
= -8
Domain and range

You have already seen that the x-coordinate is called the independent variable
and the y-coordinate is the dependent variable.
The set of all real numbers x for which a function is defined is called the
domain.
The set of real values for y or f (x) as x varies is called the range (or
image) of f.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .
Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola y = x 2 .
y
CONTINUED
218
Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any
real value for x. However, it is always on or above the x-axis.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ 0}
You can also find the domain and range from the equation y = x 2. Notice
that you can substitute any value for x and you will find a value of y.
However, all the y-values are positive or zero since squaring any number
will give a positive answer (except zero).
Odd and even functions

When you draw a graph, it can help to know some of its properties, for
example, whether it is increasing or decreasing on an interval or arc of the
curve (part of the curve lying between two points).
If a curve is increasing, as x increases, so does y, and the curve is moving
upwards, looking from left to right.
If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve

moves downwards from left to right.
219
EXAMPLES
1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing.
y
x2
x1
x3
The curve isnt increasing or

decreasing at x2. We say that it is
stationary at that point. You will
study stationary points and further
curve sketching in the HSC Course.
Solution
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is
increasing.
So the curve is increasing for x 2 x2 and the curve is decreasing when
x 1 x2.
2.
y
x1
x2
x3
Solution
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y-axis
(where x = 0). It then turns around and decreases until x3 and then
increases again.
So the curve is increasing for x 1 0, x 2 x 3 and the curve is
decreasing for 0 1 x 1 x 3 .
Notice that the curve is

stationary at x = 0 and x = x 3 .
220
As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can

see if the curve is symmetrical in some way. You have already seen that the
parabola is symmetrical in earlier stages of mathematics and you have learned
how to find the axis of symmetry. Other types of graphs can also be symmetrical.
Functions are even if they are symmetrical about the y-axis. They have
line symmetry (reflection) about the y-axis.
This is an even function:
y
For even functions, f ] x g = f ] - x g for all values of x.

Functions are odd if they have point symmetry about the origin. A graph
rotated 180 about the origin gives the original graph.
This is an odd function:
y
For odd functions, f ] - x g = - f ] x g for all values of x in the domain.
221
EXAMPLES
1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 + 3
= x2 + 3
= f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function
2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g3 - ] - x g
= -x3 + x
= - ^ x3 - x h
= -f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function
Investigation
Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n.
For what values of n is the function even?
For what values of n is the function odd?
Which families of functions are still even or odd given k? Let k take on
different values, both positive and negative.
1. f ] x g = kx n
2. f ] x g = x n + k
3. f ] x g = ] x + k gn
5.3 Exercises
1.
Find the x- and y-intercept of

each function.
(a) y = 3x - 2
(b) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0
(c) x + 3y - 12 = 0
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
f ] x g = x 2 + 3x
f ] x g = x2 - 4
p ] x g = x 2 + 5x + 6
y = x 2 - 8x + 15
p ] x g = x3 + 5
k is called a parameter.
Some graphics calculators
and computer programs use
parameters to show how
changing values of k change the
shape of graphs.
222
x+3
]x ! 0 g
x
2
(j) g ] x g = 9 - x
(i) y =
2.
Show that f ] x g = f ] - x g where

f ] x g = x 2 - 2. What type of
function is it?
3.
If f ] x g = x 3 + 1, find
(a) f ^ x 2 h
(b) 6 f (x) @ 2
(c) f ] - x g
(d) Is it an even or odd function?
4.
Show that g ] x g = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 is
an even function.
5.
Show that f (x) is odd, where

f ] x g = x.
6.
Show that f ] x g = x 2 - 1 is an even

function.
7.
Show that f ] x g = 4x - x 3 is an
odd function.
8.
Prove that f ] x g = x 4 + x 2 is an
even function and hence find
f ]x g - f ]-x g.
9.
Are these functions even, odd or

neither?
x3
(a) y = 4
x - x2
1
(b) y = 3
x -1
3
(c) f ] x g = 2
x -4
x-3
(d) y =
x+3
x3
(e) f ] x g = 5
x - x2
10. If n is a positive integer, for

what values of n is the function
f ] x g = xn
(a) even?
(b) odd?
11. Can the function f ] x g = x n + x
ever be
(a) even?
(b) odd?
12. For the functions below, state

(i) the domain over which the
graph is increasing
(ii) the domain over which
the graph is decreasing
(iii) whether the graph is odd,
even or neither.
y
(a)
(b)
(c)
-2
(d)
(e)
4
2
-2
-1
-2
-4
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch
graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of
graph.
If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters
(this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by
choosing several values for k. Make sure you include positive and negative
numbers and fractions for k.
Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.
1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
(a) y = kx
(b) y = kx 2
(c) y = kx 3
(d) y = kx 4
k
(e) y = x
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = k f ] x g?
(a) y = ] x + k g 2
(b) y = x 2 + k
(c) y = x 3 + k
(d) y = x 4 + k
1
(e) y = x + k
general comment about y = f ] x g + k?
CONTINUED
223
224

(a) y = x + k
(b) y = ] x + k g2
(c) y = ] x + k g3
(d) y = ] x + k g4
1
(e) y =
x+k
general comment about y = f ] x + k g?
When k 2 0 , the graph

moves to the left and when
k 1 0 , the graph moves to
the right.
For the family of functions y = k f ] x g, as k varies, the function changes

its slope or steepness.
For the family of functions y = f ] x g + k, as k varies, the graph moves up
or down (vertical translation).
For the family of functions y = f ] x + k g, as k varies, the graph moves left
or right (horizontal translation).
Notice that the shape of most graphs is generally the same regardless of the
parameter k. For example, the parabola still has the same shape even though it
may be narrower or wider or upside down.
This means that if you know the shape of a graph by looking at its
equation, you can sketch it easily by using some of the graphing techniques in
this chapter rather than a time-consuming table of values. It also helps you to
understand graphs more and makes it easier to find the domain and range.
You have already sketched some of these graphs in previous years.
Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.
Gradient form:
y = mx + b has gradient m and y-intercept b
General form:
ax + by + c = 0
Investigation
Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you find an example of a
straight line that is not a function?
Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
225
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on a linear function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k
1. y = kx
2. y = x + k
3. y = mx + b where m and b are both parameters
What effect do the parameters m and b have on these graphs?
EXAMPLE
Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.
Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as y = 3x - 5.
Find the intercepts
y
6
0 = 3x - 5
5
5 = 3x
4
2
=x
3
1
y = 3 ]0 g - 5
= -5
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 23
1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that
it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range.
Range: {all real y}
The linear function ax + by + c = 0 has domain {all real x}

and range {all real y} where a and b are non-zero
Special lines
Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.
Notice too, that you can

substitute any real number
into the equation of the
function for x, and any real
number is possible for y.
226
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y = 2 on a number plane. What is its domain and range?
Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2.
Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2).
This gives a horizontal line with y-intercept 2.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " all real x ,

Range: " y: y = 2 ,
2. Sketch x = - 1 on a number plane and state its domain and range.
Solution
y can be any value and x is always - 1.
Some of the points on the line will be ^ - 1, 0 h, ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ - 1, 2 h .
This gives a vertical line with x-intercept - 1.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " x: x = - 1 ,
Range: " all real y ,
x = a is a vertical line with x-intercept a

Domain: ! x: x = a +
Range: {all real y}
y = b is a horizontal line with y-intercept b
Range: " y: y = b ,
5.4 Exercises
1.
Find the x- and y-intercepts of

each function.
(a) y = x - 2
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 3
(c) 2x + y - 1 = 0
(d) x - y + 3 = 0
(e) 3x - 6y - 2 = 0
2.
Draw the graph of each straight

line.
(a) x = 4
(b) x - 3 = 0
(c) y = 5
(d) y + 1 = 0
(e) f ] x g = 2x - 1
(f) y = x + 4
(g) f ] x g = 3x + 2
(h) x + y = 3
(i) x - y - 1 = 0
(j) 2x + y - 3 = 0
3.
Find the domain and range of

(a) 3x - 2y + 7 = 0
(b) y = 2
(c) x = - 4
(d) x - 2 = 0
(e) 3 - y = 0
4.
Which of these linear functions

are even or odd?
(a) y = 2x
(b) y = 3
(c) x = 4
(d) y = - x
(e) y = x
5.
By sketching x - y - 4 = 0 and
2x + 3y - 3 = 0 on the same set
of axes, find the point where they
meet.
227
228
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.
f ] x g = ax 2 + bx + c is the general equation of a parabola.

If a 2 0 the parabola is concave upwards
If a 1 0 the parabola is concave downwards
The pronumeral
a is called the
coefficient of x 2.
Applications
The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special
properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola
at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and
bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a
strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property
of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look
like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary.
Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.
Investigation
Is the parabola always a function? Can you find an example of a parabola
that is not a function?
to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.
1. y = kx 2
2. y = x 2 + k
3. y = ] x + k g2
4. y = x 2 + kx
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic
functions?
229
230
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 - 1, showing intercepts.
(b) State the domain and range.
Solution
(a) This is the graph of a parabola. Since a 2 0, it is concave upward
0=x -1
1 = x2
!1 = x
2
y = 02 - 1
= -1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
(b) From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend
to all real x values. The minimum y value is - 1.
Range: " y: y $ -1 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2.
Solution
This is a quadratic function. We nd the intercepts to see where the
parabola will lie.
Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that
f ] x g = ] x + a g 2 will move the function f ] x g = x 2 horizontally a units to the
left.
So f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 moves the parabola f ] x g = x 2 1 unit to the left.
0 = ]x + 1 g2
x+1=0
x = -1
y = ]0 + 1 g2
=1
231
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
3. For the quadratic function f ] x g = x 2 + x - 6

(a) Find the x- and y-intercepts
(b) Find the minimum value of the function
(c) State the domain and range
(d) For what values of x is the curve decreasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
This means f ] x g = 0
0 = x2 + x - 6
= ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3, x = 2
f ] 0 g = ] 0 g2 + ] 0 g - 6
= -6
(b) Since a 2 0, the quadratic function has a minimum value.
Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the
x-intercepts.
Halfway between x = - 3 and x = 2:
-3 + 2
1
=2
2
1
Minimum value is f c - m
2
1
1 2
1
f c- m = c- m + c- m - 6
2
2
2
1 1
= - -6
4 2
1
= -6
4
1
So the minimum value is - 6 .
4
CONTINUED
You will learn more

about this in Chapter 10.
232
(c) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave upward parabola.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1 , -6 14
2
From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and
will include all real x values.
Since the minimum value is - 6 1 , all y values are greater than this.
4
1
Range: ' y: y $ -6 1
4
(d) The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then
1
increases. So the curve is decreasing for all x 1 - .
2
4. (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts and the maximum value of the
quadratic function f ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 5.
(b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range.
(c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
So
f ]x g = 0
0 = - x 2 + 4x + 5
x 2 - 4x - 5 = 0
]x - 5 g]x + 1 g = 0
x - 5 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 5,
x = -1
f ] 0 g = - ] 0 g2 + 4 ] 0 g + 5
=5
Since a 1 0, the quadratic function is concave downwards and has a

maximum value halfway between the x-intercepts x = - 1 and x = 5.
-1 + 5
=2
2
f ]2 g = -]2 g 2+ 4 ]2 g + 5
=9
So the maximum value is 9.
(b) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave downward parabola.
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x, but the
maximum value for y is 9.
Range: " y: y # 9 ,
(c) From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the
maximum point and decreasing on the right.
So the function is increasing when x 1 2.
5.5 Exercises
1.

each function.
(a) y = x 2 + 2x
(b) y = - x 2 + 3x
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1
(d) y = x 2 - x - 2
(e) y = x 2 - 9x + 8
2.
Sketch
(a) y = x 2 + 2
(b) y = - x 2 + 1
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 4
2
(d) y = x + 2x
(e) y = - x 2 - x
(f) f ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2
233
234
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
f ] x g = ] x + 1 g2
y = x 2 + 3x - 4
y = 2x 2 - 5 x + 3
f ] x g = - x 2 + 3x - 2
For each parabola, find

(i) the x- and y-intercepts
(ii) the domain and range
(a) y = x 2 7x + 12
(b) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x
(c) y = x 2 - 2x - 8
(d) y = x 2 - 6x + 9
(e) f ] t g = 4 - t 2
4.

(a) y = x 2 - 5
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 6x
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - x - 2
(d) y = - x 2
(e) f ] x g = ] x - 7 g 2
5.
Find the range of each function

over the given domain.
(a) y = x 2 for 0 # x # 3
(b) y = - x 2 + 4 for -1 # x # 2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 for -2 # x # 5
(d) y = x 2 + 2x - 3 for -2 # x # 4
(e) y = - x 2 - x + 2 for 0 # x # 4
6.
Find the domain over which each

function is
(i) increasing
(ii) decreasing
(a) y = x 2
(b) y = - x 2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 9
(d) y = - x 2 + 4x
(e) f ] x g = ] x + 5 g2
7.
Show that f ] x g = - x 2 is an even

function.
8.
State whether these functions are

even or odd or neither.
(a) y = x 2 + 1
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 3
(c) y = -2x 2
(d) f ] x g = x 2 - 3x
(e) f ] x g = x 2 + x
(f) y = x 2 - 4
(g) y = x 2 - 2x - 3
(h) y = x 2 - 5x + 4
(i) p ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2
(j) y = ] x - 2 g 2
Absolute Value Function

You may not have seen the graphs of absolute functions before. If you are not
sure about what they look like, you can use a table of values or look at the
definition of absolute value.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch f ] x g = x - 1 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Method 1: Table of values
When sketching any new graph for the first time, you can use a table of
values. A good selection of values is -3 # x # 3 but if these dont give
enough information, you can find other values.
e.g. When x = -3:

y = | -3 | -1
=3-1
=2
x
-3
-2
-1
-1
This gives a v-shaped graph.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 2: Use the definition of absolute value

when x $ 0
x-1
y = | x | - 1 = &x - 1 when x 1 0
This gives 2 straight line graphs:
y = x - 1 ]x $ 0 g
y
5
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
235
236
y = -x - 1 ] x 1 0 g
y
y=-x-1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted
lines to get the graph shown in method 1.
y
y = -x - 1
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, find the
intercepts.
So f ] x g = 0
0 = | x |- 1
1 =| x |
` x = !1
f (0) = | 0 | - 1
= -1
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
x
If you already know how
to sketch the graph of
y = | x | , translate the
graph of y = | x | - 1
down 1 unit, giving it a
y-intercept of -1.
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the
minimum value of y is - 1.
Range: {y: y $ -1}
2. Sketch y = | x + 2 | .
Solution
Method 1: Use the definition of absolute value.
+2
when x + 2 $ 0
y = | x + 2 | = 'x
- (x + 2) when x + 2 1 0
This gives 2 straight lines:
y = x + 2 when x + 2 $ 0
x $ -2
y
5
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
237
238
y = - ] x + 2 g when x + 2 1 0
i.e. y = - x - 2 when
x 1 -2
y
5
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.
y
5
y = -x - 2
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
-4 -3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 2: Find intercepts

So f ] x g = 0
There is only one
solution for the
equation | x + 2 | = 0.
Can you see why?
0 =| x + 2 |
0=x+2
-2 = x
f (0) = | 0 + 2 |
=2
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Investigation
Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you find an
example of one that is not a function?
Can you find any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What
are their equations?
to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or
choose different values of k (both positive and negative).
1. f ] x g = k | x |
2. f ] x g = | x | + k
3. f ] x g = | x + k |
The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in
Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
If you know how to

sketch the graph of
y = | x | , translate it 2
places to the left for the
graph of y = | x + 2 | .
239
240
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. | 2x - 1 | = 3
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x - 1 | and y = 3 on the same number plane.
The solution of | 2x - 1 | = 3 occurs at the intersection of the graphs, that

is, x = -1, 2.
2. | 2x + 1 | = 3x - 2
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x + 1 | and y = 3x - 2 on the same number plane.
The graph shows that

there is only one solution.
Algebraically, you need to
find the 2 possible solutions
and then check them.
The solution is x = 3.
3. | x + 1 | 1 2
Solution
Sketch y = | x + 1 | and y = 2 on the same number plane.
The solution of | x + 1 | 1 2 is where the graph y = | x + 1 | is below the

graph y = 2, that is, - 3 1 x 1 1.
5.6 Exercises
1.
2.
3.

each function.
(a) y = | x |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 7
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 2
(d) y = 5 | x |
(e) f ] x g = - | x | + 3
(f) y = | x + 6 |
(g) f ] x g = | 3x - 2 |
(h) y = | 5x + 4 |
(i) y = | 7x - 1 |
(j) f ] x g = | 2x | + 9
Sketch each graph on a number
plane.
(a) y = | x |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 1
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 3
(d) y = 2 | x |
(e) f ] x g = -| x |
(f) y = | x + 1 |
(g) f ] x g = -| x - 1 |
(h) y = | 2x - 3 |
(i) y = | 4x + 2 |
(j) f ] x g = | 3x | + 1
each function.
(a) y = | x - 1 |
(b) f ] x g = | x | - 8
(c)
(d)
(e)
f ] x g = | 2x + 5 |
y = 2 | x |- 3
f ] x g = -| x - 3 |
4.
Find the domain over which each

function is
(i) increasing
(ii) decreasing
(a) y = | x - 2 |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 2
(c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |
(d) y = 4 | x | - 1
(e) f ] x g = - | x |
5.
For each domain, find the range

of each function.
(a) y = | x | for - 2 # x # 2
(b) f ] x g = - | x | - 4 for
-4 # x # 3
(c) f ] x g = | x + 4 | for -7 # x # 2
(d) y = | 2x - 5 | for -3 # x # 3
(e) f ] x g = -| x | for - 1 # x # 1
6.
For what values of x is each

function increasing?
(a) y = | x + 3 |
(b) f ] x g = - | x | + 4
(c) f ] x g = | x - 9 |
(d) y = | x - 2 | - 1
(e) f ] x g = - | x + 2 |
241
242
7.
(k) | 2x + 3 | # 5
(l) | 2x - 1 | $ 1
(m) | 3x - 1 | = x + 3
(n) | 3x - 2 | = x - 4
(o) | x - 1 | = x + 1
(p) | x + 3 | = 2x + 2
(q) | 2x + 1 | = 1 - x
(r) | 2x - 5 | = x - 3
(s) | x - 1 | = 2x
(t) | 2x - 3 | = x + 3
Solve graphically
(a) | x | = 3
(b) | x | 2 1
(c) | x | # 2
(d) | x + 2 | = 1
(e) | x - 3 | = 0
(f) | 2x - 3 | = 1
(g) | x - 1 | 1 4
(h) | x + 1 | # 3
(i) | x - 2 | 2 2
(j) | x - 3 | $ 1
The Hyperbola
a
A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form xy = a or y = x .
EXAMPLE
1
Sketch y = x .
Solution
1
y = x is a discontinuous curve since the function is undefined at x = 0.
Drawing up a table of values gives:
x
-3
1
3
1
2
-2
-1
1
2
-1
-2
1
4
1
4
1
2
-4
1
2
1
3
Class Discussion
What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x
becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of
y is never 0. Why?
To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and
range to help nd the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches
but never touches).
The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap
in it and is in two separate parts.
Investigation
Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you nd an example of a
hyperbola that is not a function?
Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their
equations?
to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different
values of k (both positive and negative).
k
1. y = x
1
2. y = x + k
3. y =
1
x+k
EXAMPLES
3
.
x-3
(b) Hence sketch the graph of the function.
1. (a) Find the domain and range of f ] x g =
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola.
To nd the domain, we notice that x - 3 ! 0.
So x ! 3
Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 242).
Domain: {all real x: x ! 3}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
The lines x = 3 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are called asymptotes.
CONTINUED
The denominator cannot

be zero.
243
244
To make the graph more accurate we can find another point or two. The
easiest one to find is the y-intercept.
3
y=
0-3
= -1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
Notice that this graph is

3
a translation of y =
x
three units to the right.
y=0
Asymptotes
x=3
-4
-5
2. Sketch y = -
1
.
2x + 4
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola
around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure
where it will be, you can find two or three points on the curve.
To find the domain, we notice that 2x + 4 ! 0.
2x ! - 4
x ! -2
For the range, y can never be zero.
Domain: {all real x: x ! -2}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
So there are asymptotes at x = -2 and y = 0 (the x-axis).
To make the graph more accurate we can find the y-intercept.
1
2 ( 0) + 4
1
=4
y=-
-2
- 14
a
is a hyperbola with
bx + c
c
domain & all real x: x ! - 0 and
b
The function f ] x g =
range {all real y: y ! 0}
5.7 Exercises
1.
For each graph

(i) State the domain and range.
(ii) Find the y-intercept if it
exists.
(iii) Sketch the graph.
2
(a) y = x
1
(b) y = - x
1
(c) f ] x g =
x+1
3
(d) f ] x g =
x-2
1
(e) y =
3x + 6
2
(f) f ] x g = x-3
4
(g) f ] x g =
x-1
2
x+1
2
(i) f ] x g =
6x - 3
6
(j) y = x+2
(h) y = -
2.
2
Show that f ] x g = x is an odd
function.
3.
Find the range of each function

over the given domain.
1
(a) f ] x g =
for -2 # x # 2
2x + 5
1
(b) y =
for -2 # x # 0
x+3
5
(c) f ] x g =
for - 3 # x # 1
2x - 4
245
246
3
for - 3 # x # 3
x-4
2
for 0 # x # 5
(e) y = 3x + 1
1
1
for -1 # y # 7
x-1
3
for
(d) f ] x g = 2x + 1
1
-1 # y # 3
6
1
(e) y =
for 1 # y # 6
3x - 2
2
(c) f ] x g =
(d) f ] x g = -
4.
Find the domain of each function

over the given range.
3
(a) y = x for 1 # y # 3
2
1
(b) y = - x for - 2 # y # 2
Circles and Semi-circles

The circle is used in many applications, including building and design.
Circle gate
A graph whose equation is in the form x 2 + ax + y 2 + by + c = 0 has the

shape of a circle.
There is a special case of this formula:
The graph of x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r
Proof
y
(x, y)
r
x
y
x
247
Given the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r:

Let (x, y) be a general point on the circle, with distances from the origin x
on the x-axis and y on the y-axis as shown.
c2 = a2 + b2
` r2 = x2 + y2
EXAMPLE
(a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4. Is it a function?
(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The radius is
(a) This is a circle with radius 2 and centre (0, 0).

y
-2
-2
The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than
one place.
y
-2
-2
CONTINUED
4.
248
(b) Notice that the x-values for this graph lie between - 2 and 2 and
the y-values also lie between - 2 and 2.
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 2}
The circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 has domain: ! x: -r # x # r + and

range: " y: -r # y # r ,
We can use Pythagoras theorem to find the equation of a more general circle.
The equation of a circle, centre (a, b) and radius r is ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
Proof
Take a general point on the circle, (x, y) and draw a right-angled triangle as
shown.
y
(x, y)
y
r
b
y-b
x-a
(a, b)
a
Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x a and y b and the
hypotenuse is r, the radius.
c2 = a2 + b2
r 2 = ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 81.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.
y
-9
-9
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -9 # x # 9}
Range: {y: -9 # y # 9}
2. (a) Sketch the circle ] x 1 g2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4.
Solution
(a) The equation is in the form ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2.
] x 1 g 2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4
] x 1 g 2 + _ y ] - 2 g i2 = 2 2
So a = 1, b = - 2 and r = 2
CONTINUED
249
250
This is a circle with centre ^ 1, - 2 h and radius 2.

To draw the circle, plot the centre point ^ 1, - 2 h and count 2 units up,
down, left and right to find points on the circle.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
(1, -2)
-4
-5
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -1 # x # 3}
Range: {y: -4 # y # 0}
3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre ^ -2, 1 h in
expanded form.
Solution
This is a general circle with equation ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2 where
a = - 2, b = 1 and r = 3.
Substituting:
] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
You may need to revise this
in Chapter 2.
] x - ] - 2 g g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 3 2
] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 9
Remove the grouping symbols.
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
So ] x + 2 g2 = x 2 + 2 ] x g ] 2 g + 2 2
= x 2 + 4x + 4
2
] a b g = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
So ^ y 1 h2 = y 2 - 2 ^ y h ] 1 g + 1 2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
The equation of the circle is:
x 2 + 4x + 4 + y - 2y + 1 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y - 2y + 5 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y 2y + 5 - 9 = 9 - 9
x 2 + 4x + y - 2y - 4 = 0
Investigation
The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into
two functions?
Change the subject of this equation to y.
What do you notice when you change the subject to y? Do you get two
functions? What are their domains and ranges?
If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a
circle?
By rearranging the equation of a circle, we can also find the equations of

semi-circles.
The equation of the semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = r 2 - x 2
The equation of the semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = - r 2 - x 2
Proof
x2 + y2 = r2
y2 = r2 x2
y = ! r2 - x2
This gives two functions:
y = r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is y $ 0

for all values.
y
-r
The domain is {x: -r # x # r } and the range is {y: 0 # y # r }
251
252
y = - r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is

y # 0 for all values.
y
-r
-r
The domain is {x: - r # x # r } and the range is {y: -r # y # 0}
EXAMPLES
Sketch each function and state the domain and range.
1. f ] x g =
9 - x2
Solution
This is in the form f ] x g = r 2 - x 2 where r = 3.
It is a semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.
y
-3
Domain: {x: -3 # x # 3}
Range: {y: 0 # y # 3}
2. y = - 4 - x 2
Solution
This is in the form y = - r 2 - x 2 where r = 2.
It is a semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
y
-2
-2
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 0}
5.8 Exercises
1.
2.
For each of the following

(i) sketch each graph
(ii) state the domain and
range.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 9
(b) x 2 + y 2 - 16 = 0
(c) ] x 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 4
(d) ] x + 1 g2 + y 2 = 9
(e) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 1
For each semi-circle
(i) state whether it is above or
below the x-axis
(ii) sketch the function
(iii) state the domain and
range.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3.
y = - 25 - x 2
y = 1 - x2
y = 36 - x 2
y = - 64 - x 2
y = - 7 - x2
Find the length of the radius and

the coordinates of the centre of
each circle.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5
(c) ] x 4 g2 + ^ y 5 h2 = 16
(d) ] x 5 g2 + ^ y + 6 h2 = 49
(e) x 2 + ^ y 3 h2 = 81
253
254
4.
Find the equation of each circle

in expanded form (without
grouping symbols).
(a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4
(b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5
(c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3
(d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Centre ^ -4, 2 h and radius 5

Centre ^ 0, -2 h and radius 1
Centre (4, 2) and radius 7
Centre ^ -3, -4 h and radius 9
Centre ^ -2, 0 h and radius 5
Centre ^ -4, -7 h and radius 3
Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these
graphs and explore their domain and range.
You will meet these
graphs again in the
HSC Course.
Exponential and logarithmic functions

EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = 3 x and state its domain and range.
Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values.
You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1.
e.g. When x = 0:
y = 3c
=1
When x = -1:
y = 3-1
1
= 1
3
1
=
3
x
y
-3
1
27
-2
1
9
-1
1
3
27
If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it
just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
You learned about

exponential graphs in earlier
stages of maths.
This is an exponential function with y-intercept 1. We can find one

other point.
When x = 1
y = 31
=3
3
2
1
x
From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well
since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y).
From the graph, y is always positive, which can be confirmed by
substituting different values of x into the equation.
Range: " y: y 2 0 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = log x and state the domain and range.
Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values.
Notice that you cant find the log of 0 or a negative number.
x
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.5
0.6
2
1
-1
From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be
any real number while x is always positive.
Domain: ! x: x 2 0 +
255
256
The exponential function y = a x has domain {all real x} and

range {y: y 2 0}
The logarithmic function y = log a x has domain ! x: x 2 0 + and
range {all real y}
Cubic function
A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is x 3 .
EXAMPLE
1. Sketch the function f ] x g = x 3 + 2 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Draw up a table of values.
x
25
10
29
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1
-1
-2
If you already
know the shape of
y = x 3, f (x) = x 3 + 2 has
the same shape as f (x) = x 3
but it is translated 2 units up
(this gives a y-intercept of 2).
-3
-4
-5
The function can have any real x or y value:

Domain and range

Sometimes there is a restricted domain that affects the range of a function.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the range of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 over the given domain of -1 # x # 4.
Solution
The graph of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 is the cubic function in the previous example.
From the graph, the range is {all real y}. However, with a restricted
domain of -1 # x # 4 we need to see where the endpoints of this
function are.
f ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 + 2
= -1 + 2
=1
f ] 4 g = ] 4 g3 + 2
= 64 + 2
= 66
Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between
these points.
y
(4, 66)
(-1, 1)
x
Range: " y: 1 # y # 66 ,
257
258
You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still
find its domain and range by looking at its equation.
When finding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible.
For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator
of a fraction cannot be zero.
For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are
substituted into the equation. For example, x2 will always give zero or a
positive number.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g =
x - 4.
Solution
We can only find the square root of a positive number or zero.
So x 4 $ 0
x$4
When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive
(or zero). So y $ 0
Domain: ! x: x $ 4 +
Range: " y: y $ 0 ,
5.9 Exercises
1.
(c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |

(a) y = 4x + 3
(b) f ] x g = -4
(d) y = | x | - 2
(e) f ] x g = - 2x + 5
(c) x = 3
(d) f ] x g = 4x 2 1
(e) p ] x g = x 3 2
You may like to

simplify the function
by dividing by x.
(f) y = 5 - | x |
(g) y = 2 x
(h) y = -5 x
x+1
(i) f ] x g = x
4x - 3
(j) y =
2x
(f) f ] x g = 12 - x - x 2
(g) x 2 + y 2 = 64
3
t-4
2
(i) g (z) = + 5
z
(j) f ] x g = | x |
(h) f ] t g =
2.

(a) y = x
(b) y =
x-2
3.
Find the x-intercepts of

(a) y = x ] x - 5 g2
(b) f ] x g = ] x 1 g ] x 2 g ] x + 3 g
(c) y = x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x
(d) g ] x g = x 4 - 16x 2
(e) x 2 + y 2 = 49
4.
(a) Solve 1 - x 2 $ 0.
(b) Find the domain of
f ] x g = 1 - x2 .
5.
Find the domain of

(a) y = x 2 - x - 2
(b) g ] t g = t 2 + 6t
6.
Each of the graphs has a

restricted domain. Find the range
in each case.
(a) y = 2x - 3 in the domain
-3 # x # 3
(b) y = x 2 in the domain
-2 # x # 3
(c) f ] x g = x 3 in the domain
9.
x
Given the function f ] x g = x
(a) find the domain of the
function
(b) find its range.
Draw each graph on a number
plane
(a) f ] x g = x 4
(b) y = - x 3
(c) y = x 4 - 3
(d) p ] x g = 2x 3
(e) g ] x g = x 3 + 1
(f) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(g) y = 2 x + 1
-2 # x # 1
1
(d) y = x in the domain
1# x #5
10. (a) Find the domain and range of

y = x - 1.
(b) Sketch the graph of y = x - 1 .
(e) y = | x | in the domain

0#x#4
11. Sketch the graph of y = 5 x .
(f) y = x 2 - 2x in the domain

-3 # x # 3
(g) y = - x 2 in the domain
-1 # x # 1
(h) y = x 2 - 1 in the domain
-2 # x # 3
(i) y = x 2 - 2x - 3 in the domain
-4 # x # 4
(j) y = - x 2 + 7x - 6 in the
domain 0 # x # 7
7.
8.
(a) Find the domain for the

3
function y =
.
x+1
(b) Explain why there is no
x- intercept for the function.
(c) State the range of the
function.
12. For each function, state

(i) its domain and range
(ii) the domain over which the
function is increasing
(iii) the domain over which the
function is decreasing.
(a) y = 2x - 9
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2
1
(c) y = x
(d) f ] x g = x 3
(e) f ] x g = 3 x
13. (a) Solve 4 - x 2 $ 0.
(b) Find the domain and range of
(i) y = 4 - x 2
(ii) y = - 4 - x 2 .
259
260
DID YOU KNOW?

A lampshade can produce a hyperbola
where the light meets the flat wall.
Can you find any other shapes made by
a light?
Lamp casting its light
Limits and Continuity

Limits
A line that a graph approaches

but never touches is called an
asymptote.
The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that
approach a limit. The curve y = a x approaches the x-axis when x approaches
very large negative numbers, but never touches it.
That is, when x " - 3, a x " 0.
Putting a - 3 into index form gives
1
a-3 = 3
a
1
=3
Z0
We say that the limit of a x as x approaches -3 is 0. In symbols, we write
lim a x = 0.
x " -3
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "0
x 2 + 5x
.
x
Solution
0
, which is undened.
0
Factorising and cancelling help us nd the limit.
x 1 ]x + 5 g
x 2 + 5x
lim
lim
=
x
x "0
x "0
x1
= lim (x + 5)
Substituting x = 0 into the function gives
x "0
=5
2. Find lim
x "2
x-2
.
x2 - 4
Solution
Substituting x = 2 into the function gives
0
, which is undefined.
0
x-2
x-2
= lim
2
1
x
"
2
x -4
^x + 2h _x - 2i
1
= lim
x "2 x + 2
1
=
4
1
lim
x "2
3. Find lim
h "0
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
.
h
Solution
lim
h "0
h ^ 2hx + x 2 - 7 h
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
= lim
h "0
h
h
= lim 2hx + x 2 - 7
h "0
= x2 - 7
Continuity
Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve
(or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in
their graphs. The hyperbola is an example.
If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to find the
value that the curve approaches at that point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "1
y=
x2 - 1
and hence describe the domain and range of the curve
x-1
x -1
. Sketch the curve.
x-1
2
Solution
Substituting x = 1 into
x2 - 1
0
gives
x-1
0
CONTINUED
261
262
lim
x "1
]x + 1 g]x - 1 g
x2 - 1
= lim
x-1
x-1
x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=2
y=
x2 - 1
is discontinuous at x = 1 since y is undefined at that point.
x-1
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y " 2 as x " 1, so
the gap is at ^ 1, 2 h .
Domain: " x: all real x, x ! 1 ,
Range: " y: all real y, y ! 2 ,
y=
=
x2 - 1
x-1
^x + 1h ^x - 1h
x-1
=x+1
the graph is y = x + 1 where x ! 1
Remember that x ! 1.
2. Find lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2
x2 + x - 2
and hence sketch the curve y =
.
x+2
x+2
Solution
Substituting x = -2 into
lim
x " -2
x2 + x - 2
0
gives
x+2
0
^x - 1h ^x + 2h
x2 + x - 2
= lim
x
"
2
x+2
^x + 2h
= lim ^ x - 1 h
x " -2
= -3
y=
y=
x2 + x - 2
is discontinuous at x = - 2
x+2
^x + 2h ^x - 1h
x+2
=x-1
So the function is y = x - 1 where x ! -2. It is discontinuous at ^ -2, -3 h .
5.10 Exercises
1.
Find
(a) lim x 2 + 5
2.
x "4
(b) lim t - 7
t " -3
(c) lim x 3 + 2x - 4
x "2
(d) lim
x 2 + 3x
x
(e) lim
h2 - h - 2
h-2
(f) lim
y 3 - 125
y-5
(g) lim
x 2 + 2x + 1
x+1
(h) lim
x 2 + 2x - 8
x+4
x "0
h "2
y "5
x "-1
x " -4
Determine which of these

functions are discontinuous and
find x values for which they are
discontinuous.
(a) y = x 2 - 3
1
(b) y =
x+1
(c) f ] x g =
x-1
1
(d) y = 2
x +4
1
(e) y = 2
x -4
3.
Sketch these functions, showing

any points of discontinuity.
(a) y =
x 2 + 3x
x
(i) lim
c-2
c2 - 4
(b) y =
(j) lim
x-1
x2 - x
x 2 + 3x
x+3
(c) y =
x 2 + 5x + 4
x+1
(k) lim
h 3 + 2h 2 - 7h
h
(l) lim
hx 2 - 3hx + h 2
h
(m) lim
2hx 3 - h 2 x 2 + 3hx - 5h
h
c "2
x "1
h "0
h "0
h "0
x3 - c3
(n) lim
x "c x - c
263
264
Further Graphs
Graphs of functions with asymptotes can be difficult to sketch. It is important
to find the limits as the function approaches the asymptotes.
1
A special limit is lim x = 0
x "3
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "3
3x 2
.
x 2 - 2x + 3
Solution
3x 2
3x
x2
(dividing by the highest power of x)
= lim 2
lim 2
x " 3 x - 2x + 3
x "3 x
3
2x
+
x2 x2 x2
3
= lim
x "3
3
2
1-x+ 2
x
3
=
1-0+0
=3
2
2. Find
(a) lim
x "3
(b)
x
x 2 + 4x + 4
lim
x " -3
x
x + 4x + 4
2
Solution
x
x
x2
(a) lim 2
= lim 2
x " 3 x + 4x + 4
x "3 x
4x
4
+
+
x2 x2 x2
1
x
= lim
x "3
4
4
1+x+ 2
x
0
1+0+0
=0
=
265
1
Since x " 0 from the positive side when x " + 3, we can write
x
lim
= 0+
x " 3 x 2 + 4x + 4
1
x
x
(b) lim 2
= lim
x " -3 x + 4x + 4
x " -3
4
4
1+x+ 2
x
=0
1
Since x " 0 from the negative side when x " - 3, we can write
x
lim
= 0x " -3 x 2 + 4x + 4
3. Find lim
x "3
3x 2
.
x-1
Solution
3
Dividing by x 2 will give .
0
Divide by x.
3x 2
3x
x
lim
= lim
x "3 x - 1
x "3 x
1
x-x
3x
= lim
x "3
1
1-x
3x
=
1-0
= 3x
2
General graphs
It is not always appropriate to sketch graphs, for example, a hyperbola or
circle, from a table of values. By restricting the table of values, important
features of a graph may be overlooked.
Other ways of exploring the shape of a graph include:

intercepts
The x-intercept occurs when y = 0.
The y-intercept occurs when x = 0.
even and odd functions
Even functions 6 f ^ - x h = f (x) @ are symmetrical about the y-axis.
Odd functions 6 f ^ - x h = - f (x) @ are symmetrical about the origin.
1+
4
4
+
is positive
x x2
whether x is + or -. Can
you see why?
266
asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes occur when f ] x g ! 0 and h ] x g = 0, given
g ]x g
f ]x g =
.
h ]x g
Horizontal and other asymptotes are found (if they exist) when
finding lim f ] x g .
x "!3
domain and range
The domain is the set of all possible x values for a function.
The range is the set of all possible y values for a function.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y =
Solution
x2
.
x -9
2
Intercepts:
x2
x2 - 9
0 = x2
0=x
0=
So the x-intercept is 0.
02
0-2
=0
y=
So the y-intercept is 0
Type of function:
f (- x) =
] - x g2
] - x g2 - 9
x2
= 2
x -9
= f (x)
The function is even so it is symmetrical about the y-axis.

Vertical asymptotes:
x2 - 9 ! 0
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g ! 0
x + 3 ! 0, x - 3 ! 0
x ! -3,
x!3
So there are asymptotes at x = !3.
267
As x " 3 from LHS:

^ 3 - h2
f (3 ) =
^ 3 - h2 - 9
+
==So y " - 3
As x " 3 from RHS:
f (3 +) =
^ 3 + h2
^ 3 + h2 - 9
+
+
=+
So y " 3
=
You could substitute values

close to 3 on either side into
the equation, say 2.9 on LHS
and 3.1 on RHS.
As x " - 3 from LHS:

f (- 3 -) =
^ - 3 - h2
^ - 3 - h2 - 9
+
+
=+
=
So y " 3
As x " - 3 from RHS:
^ - 3 + h2
f (- 3 +) =
^ - 3 + h2 - 9
+
==So y " - 3
You could substitute values

close to - 3 on either side
into the equation, say - 3.1
on LHS and - 2.9 on RHS.
Horizontal asymptotes:
2
x2
x2
x
= lim
9
x2 - 9 x " 3 x2
- 2
2
x
x
1
= lim
x "3
9
1- 2
x
1
=
1-0
=1
As x " 3
32
f ( 3) = 2
3 -9
21
So as x " 3, y " 1 from above
lim
x "3
CONTINUED
268
As x " - 3
You could substitute
values such as 1000 and
-1000 to see what
y does as x
approaches !3.
f (-3) =
] -3 g 2
] -3 g 2 - 9
21
So as x " -3, y " 1 from above

Domain: {x: all real x ! !3}
Range:
When x 2 3, y 2 1
When - 3 1 x 1 3, y # 0
When x 1 - 3, y 2 1
So the range is {y: y 2 1, y # 0}.
All this information put together gives the graph below.
2. Sketch f (x) =
x2
.
x-2
Solution
Intercepts:
x2
0=
x-2
0 = x2
0=x
So the x-intercept is 0
02
0-2
=0
y=
So the y-intercept is 0.
Type of function:
] - x g2
f (- x) =
]-x g - 2
x2
=
-x - 2
x2
=x+2
! - f (x)
The function is neither even nor odd.
269
Vertical asymptotes:
x-2!0
x!2
So there is an asymptote at x = 2.
As x " 2 from LHS:
^ 2 - h2
f (2 -) =
2- - 2
+
==So y " - 3
As x " 2 from RHS:
^ 2 + h2
f (2 +) =
2+ - 2
+
=
+
=+
So y " 3
You could substitute values close to 2 on either side into the equation, say
1.9 on LHS and 2.1 on RHS.
e.g. When x = 2.1
] 2.1 g2
f (2.1) =
2 .1 - 2
= 44.1
Horizontal asymptotes:
x2
x
x
= lim
x - 2 x "3 x 2
x-x
x
= lim
x "3
2
1-x
x
=
1-0
=x
This means that as x approaches !3, the function approaches y = x.
As x " 3
lim
x "3
32
3- 2
2x
f ( 3) =
So as x " 3, y " x from above.

As x " -3
f (-3) =
Note: If we divide everything

1
. Divide by x.
0
by x 2, we get
] -3 g 2
-3 - 2
1x
So as x " -3, y " x from above.
CONTINUED
270
This is not easy to see, so substitute values such as 1000 and -1000 to see
what y does as x approaches 3.
e.g. When x = - 1000
] -1000 g2
-1000 - 2
= - 998
f (-1000) =
The point ^ -1000, -998 h is just above the line y = x.

Domain: {x: all real x ! 2}
Range:
When x 2 2 we find that an approximate range is y 2 35 (substituting
different values of x)
When x 1 2, y # 0
So the range is {y: y 2 35, y # 0}
Putting all this information together gives the graph below.
y
x
2
There is a method that combines all these features to make sketching easier.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y =
Solution
x2
.
x2 - 9
First find the critical points (x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes).

x#x
y=
]x + 3g]x - 3g
271
x-intercepts: y = 0
x2
x -9
0 = x2
0=x
asymptotes: (x + 3) (x - 3) = 0
x = !3
0=
These critical points, x = 0, !3, divide the number plane into four regions.
Then sketch y = x, y = x + 3 and y = x - 3 on your graph.
These are straight lines at the

critical points.
A graph is positive if it is
above the x-axis.
Look at the sign of the curve in each region.

Re gion 1: y = x
+
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 +
x#x
y=
`
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
+#+
=
+#+
=+
Re gion 2: y = x
+
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 x#x
y=
`
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
+#+
=
+#+
==-
The curve is above the x-axis

in this region.
The curve is below the x-axis

in this region.
CONTINUED
272
The curve is below the

x-axis in this region.
The curve is above the

x-axis in this region.
Re gion 3: y = x
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 x#x
y=
`
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
-#=
+#+
==Re gion 4: y = x
y=x+3 y=x-3 x#x
y=
`
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
-#=
-#+
=
+
=+
Find any horizontal asymptotes.
x2
1
lim 2
= lim
x "3 x - 9
x "3
9
1- 2
x
= 1 from above
Check these!
lim
x " -3
x2
= 1 from above
x2 - 9
All this information put together gives the following graph.
2. Sketch y =
Solution
x+1
.
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
Find the critical points.

x = -1 (x - intercept)
x = - 2 0 vertical asymptotes
^
h
x=1
273
Use these to divide the number plane into 4 regions and sketch
y = x + 1, y = x + 2 and y = x - 1.
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
+
=
+#+
=+
Re gion 1: y =
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
+
=
+#=-
Re gion 2: y =
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
=
+#=+
Re gion 3: y =
x+1
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
=
-#=-
Re gion 4: y =
For horizontal asymptotes

x+1
x+1
= xlim
"3
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
x2 + x - 2
1
1
x + x2
= xlim
"3
1
2
1+x- 2
x
= 0+
x+1
= 0lim
x " -3 ]
x + 2 g]x - 1 g
lim
x "3
All this information put together gives the following graph.
The y-intercept is -
1
.
2
274
Class Investigation
You can explore graphs of this type on a graphical calculator or by using
computer software designed to draw graphs.
5.11 Exercises
1.
4.
Find
x
(a) lim 2
x "3 x
(b) lim
x "3
2
x+4
5.
x2
(e) lim 2
x " 3 x + 7x + 1
5
(f) lim
6x
x 5 - 2x - 7
(g) lim
2x - 3x - 6
3x 3 + 1
3
(h) lim
x "3
x2
4x 3 + 27x - 9
2
(i) lim
x "3
5x
x+2
x-1
x "3
(a) Show that

x +x+3
3
1
=1+x+ 2
x2
x
x2 + x + 3
(b) Find lim
x "3
x2
2
x +x+3
(c) Find lim
x " -3
x2
2
3.
Find
(a) lim
2x
x+5
(b) lim
2x
x+5
x "3
(b) lim
5x 3
4x + 3
Sketch
(a) y =
1
x +1
(b) y =
1
x2 - 1
(c) y =
x
x+1
(d) y =
x2
x +1
(e) y =
x2
x2 - 4
x " -3
(f) y = 1 +
x
x2 + 1
(g) y =
x+2
x2 - 4
(h) y =
4 - x2
4 + x2
3 x
(j) lim
2.
x4
3x 3 + 7x
x "3
2x 3
(d) lim 3
x "3 x - x
x "3
(a) lim
x "3
5x
(c) lim 2
x "3 x + 1
x "3
Find
1
(i) y = x + x
(j) y =
3
x -4
2
Solving inequations graphically

There are different methods of solving inequations involving pronumerals in
the denominator. You learned how to solve these using the number line in
Chapter 3.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve
1
$ 2 graphically.
x+1
Solution
Sketch y =
1
and y = 2 on the same number plane.
x+1
The hyperbola has domain {all real x: x ! -1} and range {all real y: y ! 0}.
1
y=
0+1
=1
y
y=2
2
1
1
-1 - 2
-2
-1
y=
1
x+1
-2
1
1
is on or
$ 2 occurs when the hyperbola y =
x+1
x+1
above the line y = 2.
The solution of
CONTINUED
275
276
The two graphs intersect where
1
= 2.
x+1
1
# (x + 1) = 2 # (x + 1)
x+1
1 = 2 ]x + 1 g
= 2x + 2
-1 = 2x
2x
-1
=
2
2
1
- =x
2
1
The solution is -1 1 x # (from the graph).
2
2. Solve
1
1 1 graphically.
x-2
Solution
Sketch y =
1
and y = 1 on the same number plane.
x-2
The hyperbola has domain {all real x: x ! 2} and range {all real y: y ! 0}.
1
y=
0-2
1
=2
y
2
y=1
-2
-1
- 12
-1
-2
The solution of
the line y = 1.
y= 1
x-2
1
1
is below
1 1 occurs when the hyperbola y =
x-2
x-2
The two graphs intersect where
1
=1
x-2
1
# ( x - 2) = 1 # ( x - 2 )
x-2
1=x-2
3=x
The solution is x 1 2, x 2 3
5.12 Exercises
Solve graphically and algebraically.
1.
1
x 1 -2
2.
1
x 23
3.
1
x $1
4.
1
-x $2
5.
1
23
x-1
1
x+2
2
7.
x-2
3
8.
x+3
-1
9.
x-1
x
10.
x+2
6.
#1
$5
2 -1
#3
$4
Regions
Class Investigation
How many solutions are there for y $ x + 2? How would you record
them all?
Inequalities can be shown as regions in the Cartesian plane.

You can shade regions on a number plane that involve either linear or
non-linear graphs. This means that we can have regions bounded by a circle or
a parabola, or any of the other graphs you have drawn in this chapter.
Regions can be bounded or unbounded.
A bounded region means that the line or curve is included in the region.
277
278
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 3.
Solution
Remember that x = 3 is a
vertical line with x-intercept 3.
x # 3 includes both x = 3 and x 1 3 in the region.

Sketch x = 3 as an unbroken or filled in line, as it will be included in the
region. Shade in all points where x 1 3 as shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
x=3
An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the
region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region y 2 -1.
Solution
y 2 -1 doesnt include y = -1. When this happens, it is an unbounded
region and we draw the line y = -1 as a broken line to show it is not
included.
Sketch y = -1 as a broken line and shade in all points where y 2 -1 as

shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
y = -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to
check a point to see if it lies in the region.
EXAMPLES
Find the region defined by
1. y $ x + 2
Solution
First sketch y = x + 2 as an unbroken line.
On one side of the line, y 2 x + 2 and on the other side, y 1 x + 2.
To find which side gives y 2 x + 2, test a point on one side of the
line (not on the line).
For example, choose ^ 0, 0 h and substitute into
y$x+2
0$0+2
0$2
(false)
CONTINUED
279
Remember that y = -1 is a
horizontal line with
y-intercept -1.
280
This means that ^ 0, 0 h does not lie in the region y $ x + 2. The

region is on the other side of the line.
Any point in the region will

make the inequality true.
Test one to see this.
2. 2x - 3y 1 6
Solution
First sketch 2x - 3y = 6 as a broken line, as it is not included in the
region.
To find which side of the line gives 2x - 3y 1 6, test a point on one
side of the line.
For example, choose ^ 0, 1 h and substitute into
2x - 3y 1 6
2 ] 0 g - 3 (1 ) 1 6
-3 1 6 (true)
This means that ^ 0, 1 h lies in the region 2x - 3y 1 6.
2x - 3y = 6
3. x 2 + y 2 2 1
Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle, radius 1 and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
Draw x 2 + y 2 = 1 as a broken line, since the region does not include
the curve.
Choose a point inside the circle, say ^ 0, 0 h

x2 + y2 2 1
02 + 02 2 1
0 2 1 (false)
So the region lies outside the circle.
4. y $ x 2
Solution
The equation y = x 2 is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is
included in the region.
Choose a point inside the parabola, say ^ 1, 3 h.
y $ x2
3 2 12
3 2 1 (true)
So ^ 1, 3 h lies in the region.
y = x2
Sometimes a region includes two or more inequalities. When this

happens, sketch each region on the number plane, and the final region is
where they overlap (intersect).
281
282
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 4, y 2 -2 and y # x 2 .
Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and
see where they overlap.
.
Put the three regions together.
If you are given a region, you should also be able to describe it

algebraically.
EXAMPLES
Describe each region.
1.
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2
-1
-1
-2
-3
-4
Solution
The shaded area is below and including y = 6 so can be described as
y # 6.
It is also to the left of, but not including the line x = 4, which can be
described as x 1 4.
The region is the intersection of these two regions:
y # 6 and x 1 4
y
2.
2
-2
-2
CONTINUED
283
284
Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but
it does not include the circle.
The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2 2 or x 2 + y 2 = 4.
You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle.
If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the
equation e.g. (0, 0).
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= 02 + 02
=0
1 4 ] RHS g
So the region is x 2 + y 2 1 4.
5.13 Exercises
1.
2.
Shade the region defined by

(a) x # 2
(b) x 2 1
(c) y $ 0
(d) y 1 5
(e) y # x + 1
(f) y $ 2x - 3
(g) x + y 2 1
(h) 3x - y - 6 1 0
(i) x + 2y - 2 $ 0
(j) 2x - 1 1 0
(b)
y
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
Write an inequation to describe

each region.
(a)
-4
(c)
y=x+1
3
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-4
(d)
y
5
5.
Shade the region

(a) ] x - 2 g2 + y 2 # 4
(b) ] x - 1 g2 + ^ y - 2 h2 # 1
(c) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 1 h2 2 9
6.
Shade the intersection of these

regions.
(a) x # 3, y $ -1
(b) x $ -3, y 2 x -3
(c) y # 1, y $ 3x - 5
(d) y 2 x + 1, y # 3 - x
(e) y # 1, x 2 + y 2 # 9
(f) x 2 -1, x 2 + y 2 1 4
(g) y # 4, y $ x 2
(h) x 1 -2, y # 3, y 2 x 3
(i) y # 0, x 2 + y 2 $ 1
(j) -1 1 x - y # 2
7.
Shade the region bounded by

(a) the curve y = x 2, the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 3
(b) the curve y = x 3, the y-axis
and the lines y = 0 and y = 1
(c) the curve x 2 + y 2 = 4, the
x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
x = 1 in the first quadrant
2
(d) the curve y = x , the x-axis
and the lines x = 1 and x = 4
y = x2 - 4
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
(e)
y
y = 2x
3
2
1
1
3.
4.
Shade each region described.

(a) y 2 x 2 1
(b) x 2 + y 2 # 9
(c) x 2 + y 2 $ 1
(d) y # x 2
(e) y 1 x 3
Describe as an inequality
(a) the set of points that lie
below the line y = 3x - 2
(b) the set of points that lie
inside the parabola y = x 2 + 2
(c) the interior of a circle with
radius 7 and centre (0, 0)
(d) the exterior of a circle with
radius 9 and centre (0, 0)
(e) the set of points that lie to
the left of the line x = 5 and
above the line y = 2
1
, the
x+2
x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
(e) the curve y =

x=2
8.
Shade the regions bounded by

the intersection of
(a) x 1 2, y 1 5 and y # x 2
(b) x 1 3, y $ -1, y # x - 2
(c) y # 1 - x, y # 2x + 1, 2x - 3y # 6
(d) x $ -3, y # 2, x 2 + y 2 $ 9
(e) x 1 2, y # 3, y $ | x |
The first quadrant is

where x and y values
are both positive.
285
286
Application
Regions are used in business applications to find optimum profit. Two (or more)
equations are graphed together, and the region where a profit is made is shaded.
The optimum profit occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.
EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates (X ) and ice skates (Y ). Roller skates make a
$25 profit, while ice skates make a profit of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends
2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B
(available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A
and 1 hour on machine B.
How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest
profit while making the most efficient use of the machines?
SOLUTION
Profit P = $25 X + $21Y
Machine A: 2X + 3Y # 12
Machine B: 2X + Y # 8
Sketch the regions and find the
point of intersection of the lines.
The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a profit. Optimum profit
occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions.
(0, 4): P = $25 ] 0 g + $21 ] 4 g = $84
(4, 0): P = $25 ] 4 g + $21 ] 0 g = $100
(3, 2): P = $25 ] 3 g + $21 ] 2 g = $117
^ 3, 2 h gives the greatest profit, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum profit.
Test Yourself 5
1.
If f ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 4, find
(a) f ] -2 g
(b) f ] a g
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
2.
Sketch each graph

(a) y = x 2 - 3x - 4
(b) f ] x g = x 3
(c) x 2 + y 2 = 1
(d) y = 1 - x 2
(e) y = - 1 - x 2
2
(f) y = x
(g) 2x - 5y + 10 = 0
(h) y = | x + 2 |
(b)
3.
Find the domain and range of each graph

in question 2.
4.
If f ] x g = *
2x
if x $ 1
x -3
if x 1 1
11. Describe each region

(a)
find f ] 5 g - f ] 0 g + f ] 1 g
3
if x 2 3
5.
Given f ] x g = * x
if 1 # x # 3
2 - x if x 1 1
find
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) f ] -3 g
(c) f ] 3 g
(d) f ] 5 g
(e) f ] 0 g
6.
Shade the region y $ 2x + 1.
7.
Shade the region where x 1 3 and y $ -1.
8.
Shade the region given by x 2 + y 2 $ 1.
9.
Shade the region given by

2x + 3y - 6 # 0 and x $ -2.
10. Shade the region y 2 x + 1 and

x + y # 2.
(c)
12. (a) Write down the domain and range of

2
the curve y =
.
x-3
2
(b) Sketch the graph of y =
.
x-3
287
288
13. (a) Sketch the graph y = | x + 1 |.

(b) From the graph, solve
(i) | x + 1 | = 3
(ii) | x + 1 | 1 3
(iii) | x + 1 | 2 3
14. If f ] x g = 3x - 4, find
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) x when f ] x g = 7
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
15. Find the x- and y-intercepts of
(a) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0
(b) y = x 2 - 5x - 14
16. State which functions are (i) even
(ii) odd (iii) neither even nor odd.
(a) y = x 2 - 1
(b) y = x + 1
(c) y = x 3
(d) y = x 4
(e) y = 2 x
17. Find
(a) lim
x 2 - 2x - 3
x-3
(b) lim
2x
x 2 + 5x
x "3
x "0
(c) lim
x " -1
(d) lim
h "0
x3 + 1
x2 - 1
2xh 2 + 3h
h
18. Sketch y = 10 x, y = log x and y = x on the

same number plane.
19. (a) State the domain and range of
y = 2x - 4 .
(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x - 4 .
20. Show that
(a) f ] x g = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1 is even
(b) f ] x g = x 3 - x is odd.
21. Sketch the following graphs showing
asymptotes and other features.
5
(a) y = 2
x +5
x
x2 - 1
2x 2
(c) f ] x g = 2
x - 16
x2
(d) y = 2
x +3
x+2
(e) f ] x g = 2
x - 2x - 8
(b) y =
Find the values of b if f ] x g = 3x 2 - 7x + 1
and f ] b g = 7.
5.
2.
Sketch y = ] x + 2 g2 - 1 in the domain

-3 # x # 0.
6.
3.
Sketch the curve y =
4.
Sketch the region y 2

quadrant.
1.
2x 3
.
x2 - 4
4 - x 2 in the first
7.
Draw the graph of y = | x | + 3x - 4.

Z 2x + 3 when x 2 2
]
f ] x g = [1
when -2 # x # 2
] 2
x
when x 1 -2
\
Find f ] 3 g, f ] -4 g, f ] 0 g and sketch the
curve.
1
y= 2
.
x -1
8.
9.
Sketch the region x 1 y, x + 2y 1 6,

x + 2y - 4 $ 0.
Find the domain and range of x 2 = y in
the first quadrant.
10. If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 2x 2 - 12x, find x when

f ] x g = 0.
1
11. Sketch the region defined by y 2
x+2
in the first quadrant.
1 - t2
if t 2 1
2
t -1
if t # 1
]
find the value of h 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g and
sketch the curve.
12. If h ] t g = )
13. Sketch y =
1 - x 2 in the first quadrant.
(b) Find the domain and range of

y=
2x + 7
.
x+3
(c) Hence sketch the graph of

y=
2x + 7
.
x+3
18. Sketch y = 2 x - 1 .
19. Sketch y =
|x |
.
x2
20. Find the domain and range of
f ] x g = 2x - 6 .
21. What is the domain of y =
22. Sketch f ] x g = 1 -
1
.
x2
14. Sketch the region y $ x - 5, y 1 x 2 + x.

15. If f ] x g = 2x - 1, show that
f ^ a 2 h = f _ (-a)2 i for all real a.
16. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0
when f ] x g = 2x 2 - x - 5 (give exact
answers).
17. (a) Show that
2x + 7
1
=2+
.
x+3
x+3
23. (a) Find lim
x "3
2 x
.
x-1
(b) Sketch y =
24. Sketch y =
2 x
.
x-1
x+1
.
x2 - 1
1
4 - x2
289
6
Trigonometry
TERMINOLOGY
Angle of depression: The angle between the horizontal
and the line of sight when looking down to an object
below
Angle of elevation: The angle between the horizontal and
the line of sight when looking up to an object above
Angles of any magnitude: Angles can be measured around
a circle at the centre to find the trigonometric ratios of
angles of any size from 0c to 360c and beyond
Bearing: The direction relative to north. Bearings may
be written as true bearings (clockwise from North) or as
compass bearings (using N, S, E and W)
Complementary angles: Two or more angles that add up

to 90c
Cosecant: The reciprocal ratio of sine (sin). It is the
hypotenuse over the opposite side in a right triangle
Cotangent: The reciprocal ratio of tangent (tan). It is the
adjacent over the opposite side in a right triangle
Secant: The reciprocal ratio of cosine (cos). It is the
hypotenuse over the adjacent side in a right triangle
Trigonometric identities: A statement that is true for
all trigonometric values in the domain. Relationships
between trigonometric ratios
Chapter 6 Trigonometry
291
INTRODUCTION
TRIGONOMETRY IS USED IN many elds, such as building, surveying and
navigating. Wave theory also uses trigonometry.
This chapter revises basic right-angled triangle problems and applies them
to real-life situations. Some properties of trigonometric ratios, angles greater
than 90c and trigonometric equations are introduced. You will also study
trigonometry in non-right-angled triangles.
DID YOU KNOW?

Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), in the second century, wrote He mathematike syntaxis (or
Almagest as it is now known) on astronomy. This is considered to be the first treatise on
trigonometry, but was based on circles and spheres rather than on triangles. The notation chord
of an angle was used rather than sin, cos or tan.
Ptolemy constructed a table of sines from 0c to 90c in steps of a quarter of a degree. He also
calculated a value of r to 5 decimal places, and established the relationship for sin (X ! Y ) and
cos (X ! Y ) .
Trigonometric Ratios
In similar triangles, pairs of corresponding angles are equal and sides are in
proportion. For example:
You studied similar triangles in

Geometry in Chapter 4.
In any triangle containing an angle of 30c, the ratio of AB:AC = 1:2.

Similarly, the ratios of other corresponding sides will be equal. These ratios of
sides form the basis of the trigonometric ratios.
In order to refer to these ratios, we name the sides in relation to the angle
being studied:
the hypotenuse is the longest side, and is always opposite

the right angle
the opposite side is opposite the angle marked in the
triangle
the adjacent side is next to the angle marked
ch6.indd 291
8/11/09 10:58:08 AM
292
The opposite and adjacent sides vary according to where the angle is
marked. For example:
The trigonometric ratios are
You can learn these by their

initials SOH, CAH, TOA.
What about Some Old Hags

Cant Always Hide Their Old
Age?
Sine
sin i =
Cosine
cos i =
Tangent tan i =
opposite
hypotenuse
adjacent
hypotenuse
opposite
adjacent
As well as these ratios, there are three inverse ratios,
Cosecant cosec i =
1
sin i
Secant
sec i =
1
cos i
Cotangent cot i =
1
tan i
hypotenuse
p
opposite
hypotenuse
f=
p
adjacent
adjacent
f=
p
opposite
f=
DID YOU KNOW?

Trigonometry, or triangle measurement, progressed from the study of geometry in ancient
Greece. Trigonometry was seen as applied mathematics. It gave a tool for the measurement of
planets and their motion. It was also used extensively in navigation, surveying and mapping,
and it is still used in these fields today.
Trigonometry was crucial in the setting up of an accurate calendar, since this involved
measuring the distances between the Earth, sun and moon.
293
EXAMPLES
1. Find sin a, tan a and sec a.
Solution
AB = hypotenuse = 5
BC = opposite side = 3
AC = adjacent side = 4
opposite
sin a =
hypotenuse
3
=
5
opposite
tan a =
adjacent
3
=
4
1
sec a =
cos a
hypotenuse
=
adjacent
5
=
4
2. If sin i =
2
, find the exact ratios of cos i, tan i and cot i.
7
Solution
To find the other ratios
you need to find the
adjacent side.
c2 = a2 + b2
72 = a2 + 22
49 = a 2 + 4
45 = a 2
à=
45
CONTINUED
294
cos i =
=
tan i =
adjacent
hypotenuse
45
7
opposite
adjacent
2
=
45
1
cot i =
tan i
45
=
2
Complementary angles
In D ABC, if+B = i, then +A = 90c - i
(angle sum of a )
a
(90c - i) = c
b
cos (90c - i) = c
a
tan (90c - i) =
b
c
sec (90c - i) =
b
c
cosec (90c - i) = a
b
cot (90c - i) = a
b
i= c
a
cos i = c
b
tan i = a
c
sec i = a
c
cosec i =
b
a
cot i =
b
sin
sin
From these ratios come the results.
sin i = cos (90 - i)

cos i = sin (90 - i)
sec i = cosec (90 - i)
cosec i = sec (90 - i)
tan i = cot (90 - i)
cot i = tan (90 - i)
295
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify tan 50c - cot 40c.
Solution
tan 50c = cot ] 90c - 50c g
= cot 40c
` tan 50c - cot 40c = tan 50c - tan 50c
=0
Check this answer on

your calculator.
2. Find the value of m if sec 55c = cosec ] 2m - 15 g c.
Solution
sec 55c = cosec ] 90c - 55c g
= cosec 35c
` 2m - 15 = 35
2m = 50
m = 25
Check this by substituting

m into the equation.
6.1 Exercises
1.
Write down the ratios of

cos i, sin i and tan i.
2.
Find sin b, cot b and sec b.
3.
Find the exact ratios of

sin b, tan b and cos b.
4.
Find exact values for cos x, tan x

and cosec x.
296
5.
6.
7.
Hint: Change 0.7 to a fraction.
8.
9.
4
, find cos i and sin i.
3
2
If cos i = , find exact values for
3
tan i, sec i and sin i.
If tan i =
1
If sin i = , find the exact ratios
6
of cos i and tan i.
If cos i = 0.7, find exact values
for tan i and sin i.
D ABC is a right-angled isosceles
triangle with +ABC = 90c and
AB = BC = 1.
(a) Find the exact length of AC.
(b) Find +BAC.
(c) From the triangle, write down
the exact ratios of sin 45c, cos 45c
and tan 45c.
10.
(c) Write down the exact ratios of

sin 60c, cos 60c and tan 60c.
11. Show sin 67c = cos 23c.
12. Show sec 82c = cosec 8c.
13. Show tan 48c = cot 42c.
14. Simplify
(a) cos 61c + sin 29c
(b) sec i - cosec ] 90c - i g
(c) tan 70c + cot 20c - 2 tan 70c
(d)
sin 55c
cos 35c
(e)
cot 25c + tan 65c

cot 25c
15. Find the value of x if

sin 80c = cos ] 90 - x g c.
16. Find the value of y if
tan 22c = cot ^ 90 - y h c.
17. Find the value of p if
cos 49c = sin ^ p + 10 h c.
18. Find the value of b if
sin 35c = cos ] b + 30 g c.
19. Find the value of t if
cot ] 2t + 5 g c = tan ] 3t - 15 g c.
(a) Using Pythagoras theorem,

find the exact length of AC.
(b) Write down the exact ratios of
sin 30c, cos 30c and tan 30c.
20. Find the value of k if

tan ] 15 - k g c = cot ] 2k + 60 g c.
Trigonometric ratios and the calculator

Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes. In this section you will
practise rounding off angles and finding trigonometric ratios on the calculator.
Angles are usually given in degrees and minutes in this course. The
calculator uses degrees, minutes and seconds, so you need to round off.
60 minutes = 1 deg ree (60l = 1c)
60 sec onds = 1 min ute (60m = 1l)
In normal rounding off, you round up to the next number if the number
to the right is 5 or more. Angles are rounded off to the nearest degree by
rounding up if there are 30 minutes or more. Similarly, angles are rounded off
to the nearest minute by rounding up if there are 30 seconds or more.
297
EXAMPLES
Round off to the nearest minute.
1. 23c 12l 22m
Solution
23c 12l 22m = 23c 12l
2. 59c 34l 41m
Solution
59c 34l 41m = 59c 35l
3. 16c 54l 30m
Because 30 seconds is
half a minute, we round
up to the next minute.
Solution
16c 54l 30m = 16c 55l
% , ,,
KEY
Some calculators have
This key changes decimal angles into degrees, minutes and seconds
deg or dms keys.
and vice versa.
EXAMPLES
1. Change 58c 19l into a decimal.
Solution
Press 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, = % , ,,
So 58c 19l = 58.31666667
2. Change 45.236c into degrees and minutes.
Solution
Press 45.236 = SHIFT % , ,,
So 45.236c = 45c14l
If your calculator does not

give these answers, check
the instructions for its use.
298
In order to use trigonometry in right-angled triangle problems, you need

to find the ratios of angles on your calculator.
EXAMPLES
1. Find cos 58c 19l, correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
If your calculator
doesn't give this
answer, check that it
is in degree mode.
Press COS 58 % , ,, 19 % , ,, =
So cos 58c19l = 0.525
2. Find sin 38c14l, correct to 3 decimal places.
Solution
Press SIN 38 % , ,, 14 % , ,, =
So sin 38c 14l = 0.619
3. If tani = 0.348, find i in degrees and minutes.
Solution
This is the reverse of finding trigonometric ratios.
To find the angle, given the ratio, use the inverse key ^ tan - 1 h .
Press SHIFT TAN - 1 0.348 = SHIFT % , ,,
tan i = 0.348
i = tan - 1 (0.348)
= 19c11l
4. Find i in degrees and minutes if cos i = 0.675.
Solution
Press SHIFT COS - 1 0.675 = SHIFT % , ,,
cos i = 0.675
i = cos - 1 (0.675)
= 47c 33l
6.2 Exercises
1.
Round off to the nearest degree.

(a) 47 13l 12m
(b) 81 45l 43m
(c) 19 25l 34m
(d) 76 37l 19m
(e) 52 29l 54m
2.
Round off to the nearest minute.

(a) 47 13l 12m
(b) 81 45l 43m
(c) 19 25l 34m
(d) 76 37l 19m
(e) 52 29l 54m
3.
Change to a decimal.
(a) 77c45l
(b) 65c30l
(c) 24c51l
(d) 68c21l
(e) 82c31l
5.
Find correct to 3 decimal places.

(a) sin 39c25l
(b) cos 45c 51l
(c) tan18c43l
(d) sin 68c06l
(e) tan 54c20l
4.
Change into degrees and minutes.

(a) 59.53c
(b) 72.231c
(c) 85.887c
(d) 46.9c
(e) 73.213c
6.
Find i in degrees and minutes if

(a) sin i = 0.298
(b) tan i = 0.683
(c) cos i = 0.827
(d) tan i = 1.056
(e) cos i = 0.188
Right-angled Triangle Problems

Trigonometry is used to find an unknown side or angle of a triangle.
Finding a side
We can use trigonometry to find a side of a right-angled triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
cos i =
adjacent
hypotenuse
x
cos 23 49l =
11.8
x
11.8 # cos 23 49l = 11.8 #
11.8
11.8 cos 23 49l = x
`
10.8 cm = x ^ to 1 decimal point h
CONTINUED
299
300
2. Find the value of y, correct to 3 significant figures.
Solution
sin i =
opposite
hypotenuse
9.7
sin 41c 15l = y
9.7
y # sin 41c 15l = y # y
y sin 41c 15l = 9.7
y sin 41c 15l
9.7
=
sin 41c 15l
sin 41c 15l
9.7
y=
sin 41c 15l
= 14.7 m ^ to 3 significant figures h
6.3 Exercises
1.
Find the values of all pronumerals,

(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
(e)
(l)
4.7 cm
(f)
37c22l
72c18l
(m)
x
6.3 cm
(g)
(n)
63c14l
23 mm
(o)
39c47l
(h)
3.7 m
(i)
(p)
k
(j)
46c5l
14.3 cm
(q)
5.4 cm
(k)
31c12l
4.8 m
74c29l
301
302
68c41l
(r)
0.45 m
6.2 cm
73c
4.
(s)
5.75 cm
19c17l
17.3 m
(t)
Hamish is standing at an angle of

67c from a goalpost and 12.8 m
away as shown. How far does he
need to kick a football for it to
reach the goal?
12.8 m
67c
b
5.
6c3l
Square ABCD with side 6 cm has

line CD produced to E as shown
so that +EAD = 64c 12l. Evaluate
the length, correct to 1 decimal
place, of
(a) CE
(b) AE
E
2.
A roof is pitched at 60c. A room

built inside the roof space is to
have a 2.7 m high ceiling. How
far in from the side of the roof
will the wall for the room go?
64c12l
2.7 m
60c
3.
A diagonal in a rectangle with

breadth 6.2 cm makes an angle
of 73c with the vertex as shown.
Find the length of the rectangle
6.
6 cm
A right-angled triangle with

hypotenuse 14.5 cm long has one
interior angle of 43c 36l. Find the
lengths of the other two sides of
the triangle.
7.
8.
9.
A right-angled triangle ABC

with the right angle at A has
+B = 56c44l and AB = 26 mm.
Find the length of the
hypotenuse.
A triangular fence is made for a
garden inside a park. Three holes
A, B and C for fence posts are
made at the corners so that A and
B are 10.2 m apart, AB and CB are
perpendicular, and angle CAB is
59c 54l. How far apart are A and C?
Triangle ABC has +BAC = 46c
and +ABC = 54c. An altitude
is drawn from C to meet AB at
point D. If the altitude is 5.3 cm
long, find, correct to 1 decimal
place, the length of sides
(a) AC
(b) BC
(c) AB
(a) Find the length of the side of

the rhombus.
(b) Find the length of the other
diagonal.
11. Kite ABCD has diagonal
BD = 15.8 cm as shown.
If +ABD =57c29l and
+DBC = 72c51l, find the length
of the other diagonal AC.
A
57c29l
72c51l
15.8 cm
10. A rhombus has one diagonal

12 cm long and the diagonal
makes an angle of 28c 23l with
the side of the rhombus.
Finding an angle
Trigonometry can also be used to find one of the angles in a right-angled
triangle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
CONTINUED
303
304
Solution
cos i =
adjacent
hypotenuse
5.8
=
7.3
5.8
` i = cos - 1 c
m
7.3
= 37c 23l
2. Find the value of a, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
tan a =
opposite
adjacent
4
= .9
2 .1
4 .9
` a = tan - 1 c
m
2 .1
= 66c 48l
6.4 Exercises
1.
Find the value of each pronumeral,

in degrees and minutes.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(i)
(j)
(d)
(e)
3.8 cm
(k)
2.4 cm
(l)
(f)
8.3 cm
5.7 cm
(m)
i
6.9 mm
(g)
11.3 mm
(n)
(h)
3m
7m
305
306
(o)
b
20 m
5.1 cm
11.6 cm
3.
(p)
15 m
A eld is 13.7 m wide and Andre is

on one side. There is a gate on the
opposite side and 5.6 m along from
where Andre is. At what angle will
he walk to get to the gate?
Andre
13 m
(q)
4.4 cm
12.3 m
7.6 cm
13.7 m
(r)
5.6 m
14.3 cm
8.4 cm
(s)
4.
Gate
A 60 m long bridge has an opening

in the middle and both sides open
up to let boats pass underneath.
The two parts of the bridge oor
rise up to a height of 18 m.
Through what angle do they move?
3m
18 m
5m
(t)
i
18.9 cm
10.3 cm
2.
A kite is ying at an angle of i

above the ground as shown. If the
kite is 12.3 m above the ground and
has 20 m of string, nd angle i.
5.
60 m
An equilateral triangle ABC with

side 7 cm has an altitude AD that
is 4.5 cm long. Evaluate the angle
the altitude makes with vertex A
]+DAB g.
6.
7.
Rectangle ABCD has dimensions

18 cm # 7 cm. A line AE is drawn
so that E bisects DC.
(a) How long is line AE? (Answer
to 1 decimal place).
(b) Evaluate +DEA.
A 52 m tall tower has wire stays
on either side to minimise wind
movement. One stay is 61.3 m
long and the other is 74.5 m long
as shown. Find the angles that
the tower makes with each stay.
a b
61.3 m
5 cm
D
1 cm
(a) Find +BEC.

(b) Find the length of the
rectangle.
10. A diagonal of a rhombus with
side 9 cm makes an angle of 16c
with the side as shown. Find the
lengths of the diagonals.
74.5 m
16c
52 m
9 cm
8.
(a) The angle from the ground up

to the top of a pole is 41c when
standing 15 m on one side of it.
Find the height h of the pole, to
the nearest metre.
(b) If Seb stands 6 m away on the
other side, find angle i.
11. (a) Kate is standing at the side of

a road at point A, 15.9 m away
from an intersection. She is at an
angle of 39c from point B on the
other side of the road. What is
the width w of the road?
(b) Kate walks 7.4 m to point
C. At what angle is she from
point B?
B
i
6m
9.
15 m
41c
Rectangle ABCD has a line BE

drawn so that +AEB = 90c and
DE = 1 cm. The width of the
rectangle is 5 cm.
w
A
39c
7.4 m
i
15.9 m
307
308
Applications
DID YOU KNOW?

The Leaning Tower of Pisa was built as a belfry for the cathedral nearby. Work started on the
tower in 1174, but when it was only half completed the soil underneath one side of it subsided.
This made the tower lean to one side. Work stopped, and it wasnt until 100 years later that
architects found a way of completing the tower. The third and fifth storeys were built close to
the vertical to compensate for the lean. Later a vertical top storey was added.
The tower is about 55 m tall and 16 m in diameter. It is tilted about 5 m from the vertical, and
tilts by an extra 0.6 cm each year.
Class Investigation
Discuss some of the problems with the Leaning Tower of Pisa.
Find the angle at which it is tilted from the vertical.
Work out how far it will be tilted in 10 years.
Use research to find out if the tower will fall over, and if so, when.
Angle of elevation
The angle of elevation is used to measure the
height of tall objects that cannot be measured
directly, for example a tree, cliff, tower or
building.
Class Exercise
Stand outside the school building and look up to the top of the building.
Think about which angle your eyes pass through to look up to the top of
the building.
The angle of elevation, i, is the angle measured when

looking from the ground up to the top of the object. We
assume that the ground is horizontal.
EXAMPLE
The angle of elevation of a tree from a point 50 m out from its base is
38c 14l. Find the height of the tree, to the nearest metre.
Solution
We assume that the tree is vertical!
A clinometer is used to
measure the angle of
elevation or depression.
tan 38c 14l =
h
50
50 # tan 38c 14l = 50 #
h
50
50 tan 38c 14l = h

39 Z h
So the tree is 39 m tall, to the nearest metre.
309
310
Angle of depression
The angle of depression is the angle
formed when looking down from a high
place to an object below.
Class Exercise
If your classroom is high enough, stand at the window and look down to
something below the window. If the classroom is not high enough, find
a hill or other high place. Through which angle do your eyes pass as you
look down?
The angle of depression, i, is the angle measured when

looking down from the horizontal to an object below.
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of depression from the top of a 20 m building to a boy
below is 61c 39l. How far is the boy from the building, to 1 decimal place?
Solution
+DAC = +ACB
= 61c 39l
20
tan 61c 39l = x
20
x # tan 61c 39l = x # x
x tan 61c 39l = 20
x tan 61c 39l
20
=
tan 61c 39l
tan 61c 39l
20
x=
tan 61c 39l
Z 10.8
(alternate angles, AD < BC)
So the boy is 10.8 m from the building.

2. A bird sitting on top of an 8 m tall tree looks down at a possum 3.5 m
out from the base of the tree. Find the angle of elevation to the nearest
minute.
Solution
B
8m
3.5 m
The angle of depression is i

Since AB < DC
+BDC = i
tan i =
8
3.5
8
m
3 .5
= 66c 22l
` i = tan - 1 c
] horizontal lines g
^ alternate angles h
311
312
Bearings
Bearings can be described in different ways:
For example, N70c W:
Start at north and

measure 70o around
towards the west.
True bearings measure angles clockwise from north
EXAMPLES
We could write
315o T for true bearings.
1. Sketch the diagram when M is on a bearing of 315c from P.
Solution
Measure clockwise,
starting at north.
2. X is on a bearing of 030c from Y. Sketch this diagram.
Solution
All bearings have 3 digits

so 30 becomes 030 for
a bearing.
3. A house is on a bearing of 305c from a school. What is the bearing of

the school from the house?
Solution
The diagram below shows the bearing of the house from the school.
North
House
School
305c
To find the bearing of the school from the house, draw in North from the
house and use geometry to find the bearing as follows:
N2
N1
H
S
305c
The bearing of the school from the house is +N 2 HS.

+N 1 SH = 360c - 305c
= 55c
+N 2 HS = 180c - 55c
= 125c
(cointerior angles, N 2 H < N 1 S)
So the bearing of the school from the house is 125c.
4. A plane leaves Sydney and flies

100 km due east, then
125 km due north. Find the
bearing of the plane from Sydney,
to the nearest degree.
CONTINUED
313
314
Solution
125
100
= 1.25
tan x =
x = tan - 1 (1.25)
(to the nearest degree)
= 51c
i = 90c - xc
= 90c - 51c
= 39c
So the bearing of the plane from Sydney is 039.
5. A ship sails on a bearing of 140 from Sydney for 250 km. How far
east of Sydney is the ship now, to the nearest km?
Solution
A navigator on a ship
uses a sextant to
measure angles.
Could you use a

different triangle for
this question?
i = 140c - 90c
= 50c
x
cos 50c =
250
x
250 # cos 50c = 250 #
250
250 cos 50c = x
161 Z x
So the ship is 161 km east of Sydney, to the nearest kilometre.
6.5 Exercises
1.
2.
Draw a diagram to show the

bearing in each question.
(a) A boat is on a bearing of 100c
from a beach house.
(b) Jamie is on a bearing of 320c
from a campsite.
(c) A seagull is on a bearing of
200c from a jetty.
(d) Alistair is on a bearing of
050c from the bus stop.
(e) A plane is on a bearing of
285c from Broken Hill.
(f) A farmhouse is on a bearing
of 012c from a dam.
(g) Mohammed is on a bearing of
160c from his house.
(h) A mine shaft is on a bearing
of 080c from a town.
(i) Yvonne is on a bearing of
349c from her school.
(j) A boat ramp is on a bearing of
280c from an island.
North
(b)
West
East
35c
X
South
(c)
North
X
10c
West
East
South
(d)
X
Find the bearing of X from Y in

each question in 3 figure (true)
bearings.
North
(a)
North
23c
West
East
South
(e)
112c
North
West
X
X
South
East
315
316
3.
Jack is on a bearing of 260c from

Jill. What is Jills bearing from
Jack?
4.
A tower is on a bearing of 030c

from a house. What is the bearing
of the house from the tower?
5.
Tamworth is on a bearing of
340c from Newcastle. What is
the bearing of Newcastle from
Tamworth?
6.
7.
8.
9.
The angle of elevation from a

point 11.5 m away from the base
of a tree up to the top of the tree
is 42c 12l. Find the height of the
tree to one decimal point.
Geoff stands 25.8 m away from
the base of a tower and measures
the angle of elevation as 39c 20l.
Find the height of the tower to
the nearest metre.
A wire is suspended from the
top of a 100 m tall bridge tower
down to the bridge at an angle of
elevation of 52c. How long is the
wire, to 1 decimal place?
10. A plane leaves Melbourne and

flies on a bearing of 065c for
2500 km.
(a) How far north of Melbourne
is the plane?
(b) How far east of Melbourne
is it?
(c) What is the bearing of
Melbourne from the plane?
11. The angle of elevation of a tower
is 39c 44l when measured at a
point 100 m from its base. Find
the height of the tower, to
1 decimal place.
12. Kim leaves his house and walks
for 2 km on a bearing of 155c .
How far south is Kim from his
house now, to 1 decimal place?
13. The angle of depression from
the top of an 8 m tree down to
a rabbit is 43c 52l. If an eagle is
perched in the top of the tree,
how far does it need to fly to
reach the rabbit, to the nearest
metre?
14. A girl rides a motorbike through
her property, starting at her
house. If she rides south for
1.3 km, then rides west for
2.4 km, what is her bearing from
the house, to the nearest degree?
15. A plane flies north from Sydney
for 560 km, then turns and
flies east for 390 km. What is
its bearing from Sydney, to the
nearest degree?
A cat crouches at the top of a

4.2 m high cliff and looks down
at a mouse 1.3 m out from the
foot (base) of the cliff. What is
the angle of depression, to the
nearest minute?
16. Find the height of a pole, correct

to 1 decimal place, if a 10 m rope
tied to it at the top and stretched
out straight to reach the ground
makes an angle of elevation of
67c13l.
17. The angle of depression from the

top of a cliff down to a boat
100 m out from the foot of the
cliff is 59c42l. How high is the
cliff, to the nearest metre?
18. A group of students are
bushwalking. They walk north
from their camp for 7.5 km, then
walk west until their bearing
from camp is 320c. How far are
they from camp, to 1 decimal
place?
19. A 20 m tall tower casts a shadow
15.8 m long at a certain time
of day. What is the angle of
elevation from the edge of the
shadow up to the top of the
tower at this time?
20 m
15.8 m
20. A flat verandah roof 1.8 m deep

is 2.6 m up from the ground. At a
certain time of day, the sun makes
an angle of elevation of 72c 25l.
How much shade is provided on
the ground by the verandah roof
at that time, to 1 decimal place?
21. Find the angle of elevation of a

15.9 m cliff from a point 100 m
out from its base.
22. A plane leaves Sydney and flies
for 2000 km on a bearing of 195c.
How far due south of Sydney
is it?
top of a 15 m tree down to a pond
is 25c41l. If a bird is perched in
the top of the tree, how far does it
need to fly to reach the pond, to
the nearest metre?
24. A girl starting at her house, walks
south for 2.7 km then walks east
for 1.6 km. What is her bearing
from the house, to the nearest
degree?
top of a tower down to a car
250 m out from the foot of the
tower is 38c19l. How high is the
tower, to the nearest metre?
26. A hot air balloon flies south for
3.6 km then turns and flies east
until it is on a bearing of 127c
from where it started. How far
east does it fly?
27. A 24 m wire is attached to the
top of a pole and runs down to
the ground where the angle of
elevation is 22c 32l. Find the
height of the pole.
317
318
28. A train depot has train tracks

running north for 7.8 km where
they meet another set of tracks
going east for 5.8 km into a
station. What is the bearing of
the depot from the station, to the
nearest degree?
29. Jessica leaves home and walks for
4.7 km on a bearing of 075c. She
then turns and walks for 2.9 km
on a bearing of 115c and she is
then due east of her home.
(a) How far north does Jessica
walk?
(b) How far is she from home?
30. Builder Jo stands 4.5 m out from

the foot of a building and looks
up at to the top of the building
where the angle of elevation is
71c. Builder Ben stands at the top
of the building looking down at
his wheelbarrow that is 10.8 m
out from the foot of the building
on the opposite side from where
Jo is standing.
(a) Find the height of the
building.
(b) Find the angle of depression
from Ben down to his
wheelbarrow.
Exact Ratios
A right-angled triangle with one angle of 45 is isosceles. The exact length of
its hypotenuse can be found.
Pythagoras theorem is used

to find the length of the
hypotenuse.
c2 = a2 + b2
AC 2 = 1 2 + 1 2
=2
AC =
This means that the trigonometric ratios of 45c can be written as exact ratios.
1
2
1
cos 45c =
2
tan 45c = 1
sin 45c =
319
This angle is commonly used; for example, 45 is often used for the pitch of
a roof. The triangle with angles of 60 and 30 can also be written with exact
sides.
Halve the equilateral

triangle to get TABD.
AD 2 = 2 2 - 1 2
=3
AD =
3
2
1
cos 60 =
2
tan 60 = 3
sin 30c =
sin 60 =
1
2
3
2
1
tan 30c =
3
It may be easier to
remember the triangle
rather than all these ratios.
cos 30c =
DID YOU KNOW?

The ratios of all multiples of these angles follow a pattern:
A
0c
30c
45c
60c
90c
120c
135c
150c
sin A
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
cos A
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
2
- 1
2
- 2
2
- 3
2
The rules of the pattern are:

for sin A, when you reach 4, reverse the numbers
for cos A, when you reach 0, change signs and reverse
320
EXAMPLES
1. Find the exact value of sec 45.
Solution
1
cos 45
1
=
1
2
= 2
sec 45 =
2. A boat ramp is to be made with an angle of 30c and base length 5 m.

What is the exact length of the surface of the ramp?
Solution
5
cos 30c = x
x cos 30c = 5
5
cos 30c
5
=
3
2
2
=5#
3
10
=
3
10 3
=
3
x=
So the exact length of the ramp is
10 3
m.
3
321
6.6 Exercises
Find the exact value in all questions,
with rational denominator where
relevant.
1.
(b)
Evaluate
(a) sin 60c + cos 60c
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
cos 2 45c = (cos 45c) 2
cos 2 45c + sin 2 45c

cosec 45c
2 sec 60c
cot 30c + cot 60c
(c)
(f) tan 60c - tan 30c

(g) sin 2 60c + sin 2 45c
(h) sin 45c cos 30c + cos 45c sin 30c
(i) 3 tan 30c
tan 45c + tan 60c
(j)
1 - tan 45c tan 60c
3.
(k) cos 30c cos 60c - sin 30c sin 60c 4.

(l) cos 2 30c + sin 2 30c
(m) 2 sec 45c - cosec 30c
2 sin 60c
sin 45c
(o) 1 + tan 2 30c
(n)
(p)
1 - cos 45c
1 + cos 45c
(q)
cot 30c
sec 60c
(r) sin 2 45c - 1

(s) 5 cosec 2 60c
(t)
2.
(a)
A 2-person tent is pitched at an

angle of 45c. Each side of the
tent is 2 m long. A pole of what
height is needed for the centre of
the tent?
5.
If the tent in the previous

question was pitched at an angle
of 60c, how high would the pole
need to be?
6.
The angle of elevation from a

point 10 m out from the base of
a tower to the top of the tower
is 30c. Find the exact height
of the tower, with rational
denominator.
2 - tan 60c
sec 2 45c
Find the exact value of all

pronumerals
A 2.4 m ladder reaches 1.2 m up

a wall. At what angle is it resting
against the wall?
322
7.
the floor. How far out from the

wall is it?
The pitch of a roof is 45c and

spans a length of 12 m.
9.
(a) What is the length l of the

roof?
(b) If a wall is placed inside the
roof one third of the way along
from the corner, what height will
the wall be?
8.
A 1.8 m ladder is placed so that it

makes a 60c angle where it meets
Find the exact length of AC.

top of a 100 m cliff down to a
boat at the foot of the cliff is 30c.
How far out from the cliff is the
boat?
Angles of Any Magnitude

The angles in a right-angled triangle are always acute. However, angles greater
than 90c are used in many situations, such as in bearings. Negative angles are
also used in areas such as engineering and science.
We can use a circle to find trigonometric ratios of angles of any magnitude
(size) up to and beyond 360c.
Investigation
1. (a) Copy and complete the table for these acute angles
(between 0c and 90c).
x
0c
10c
20c
30c
40c
50c
60c
70c
80c
90c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(b) Copy and complete the table for these obtuse angles
x
sin x
cos x
tan x
100c
110c
120c
130c
140c
150c
160c
170c
180c
(c) Copy and complete the table for these reflex angles
x
190c
200c
210c
220c
230c
240c
250c
260c
270c
350c
360c
sin x
cos x
tan x
(d) Copy and complete the table for these reflex angles
x
280c
290c
300c
310c
320c
330c
340c
sin x
cos x
tan x
2. What do you notice about their signs? Can you see any patterns?
Could you write down any rules for the sign of sin, cos and tan for
different angle sizes?
3. Draw the graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x for
0c # x # 360c. For y = tan x, you may need to find the ratios of
angle close to and either side of 90c and 270c.
Drawing the graphs of the trigonometric ratios can help us to see the
change in signs as angles increase.
We divide the domain 0c to 360c into 4 quadrants:
1st quadrant:
0c to 90c
2nd quadrant: 90c to 180c
3rd quadrant: 180c to 270c
4th quadrant: 270c to 360c
EXAMPLES
1. Describe the sign of sin x in each section (quadrant) of the graph y = sin x.
Solution
We can sketch the graph using the table below or using the values from
the tables in the investigation above for more accuracy.
x
0c
90c
180c
270c
-1
360c
0
CONTINUED
323
324
1
y = sin x
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
The graph is above the x-axis for the first 2 quadrants, then below for the
3rd and 4th quadrants.
This means that sin x is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants and
negative in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.
2. Describe the sign of cos x in each section (quadrant) of the graph of
y = cos x.
Solution
x
0c
90c
180c
-1
270c
360c
y = cos x
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, then below for the 2nd
and 3rd quadrants and above again for the 4th quadrant.
325
This means that cos x is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants and
negative in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
3. Describe the sign of tan x in each section (quadrant) of the
graph y = tan x.
Solution
x
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
No result
No result
Neither tan 90c nor tan 270c exists (we say that they are undefined).
Find the tan of angles close to these angles, for example tan 89c 59l and
tan 90c 01l, tan 279c 59l and tan 270c 01l.
There are asymptotes at 90c and 270c. On the left of 90c and 270c,
tan x is positive and on the right, the ratio is negative.
y
90c
180c
270c
360c
y = tan x
The graph is above the x-axis in the 1st quadrant, below for the 2nd,
above for the 3rd and below for the 4th quadrant.
This means that tan x is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants and
negative in the 2nd and 4th quadrants.
To show why these ratios have different signs in different quadrants, we

look at angles around a unit circle (a circle with radius 1 unit).
We use congruent triangles when finding angles of any magnitude.
Page 326 shows an example of congruent triangles all with angles of 20c inside
a circle with radius 1 unit.
You will see why these

ratios are undefined later
on in this chapter.
326
1 unit
1 unit
20c
20c
20c
20c
1 unit
1 unit
If we divide the circle into 4 quadrants, we notice that the x- and y-values
have different signs in different quadrants. This is crucial to notice when
looking at angles of any magnitude and explains the different signs you get
when finding sin, cos and tan for angles greater than 90c.
Quadrant 1
Looking at the first quadrant (see diagram below), notice that x and y are both
positive and that angle i is turning anticlockwise from the x-axis.
y
First quadrant
The angle at the x-axis is 0 and
the angle at the y-axis is 90c,
with all other angles in this
quadrant between these two
angles.
(x, y)
1 unit
i
x
Point (x, y) forms a triangle with sides 1, x and y, so we can find the
trigonometric ratios for angle i.
327
y
1
=y
sin i =
x
1
=x
cos i =
y
tan i = x
Investigation
Since cos i = x and sin i = y, we can write the point (x, y) as (cos i, sin i).
The polar coordinates (cos i, sin i) give a circle.
The polar coordinates 6 A sin ] ai + c g, B sin ] bi g @ form a shape called a
Lissajous figure. These are sometimes called a Bowditch curve and they
are often used as logos, for example the ABC logo.
Use the Internet to research these and other similar shapes.
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program such as Autograph to draw
other graphs with polar coordinates using variations of sin i and cos i.
Quadrant 2
In the second quadrant, angles are between 90c and 180c.
If we take the 1st quadrant coordinates (x, y), where x 2 0 and y 2 0 and
put them in the 2nd quadrant, we notice that all x values are negative in the
second quadrant and y values are positive.
So the point in the 2nd quadrant will be (-x, y)
y
90c
Second quadrant
(-x, y)
y
180c
1 unit
180c- i
0c
These are called polar

coordinates.
328
Since cos i = x, cos i will negative in the 2nd quadrant.

Since sin i = y , sin i will be positive in the 2nd quadrant.
y
tan i = x so it will be negative (a positive number divided by a negative
number).
To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c - i.
Quadrant 3
In the third quadrant, angles are between 180c and 270c.
y
90c
180c
180c + i
x
y
0c
1 unit
(-x, -y)
Third quadrant
270c
Notice that x and y are both negative in the third quadrant, so cos i and
sin i will be both negative.
y
tan i = x so will be positive (a negative divided by a negative number).
To have an angle of i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 180c + i.
Quadrant 4
In the fourth quadrant, angles are between 270c and 360c.
y
90c
180c
i
360c - i
0c
1 unit
360c
(x, -y)
270c
Fourth quadrant
329
While y remains negative in the fourth quadrant, x is positive again, so

sin i is negative and cos i is positive.
y
tan i = x so will be negative (a negative divided by a positive number)
For an angle i in the triangle, the angle around the circle is 360c - i.
ASTC rule
Putting all of these results together gives a rule for all four quadrants that we
usually call the ASTC rule.
y
90c
2nd quadrant
1st quadrant
180c - i
A
0c
180c
360c
180c + i
3rd quadrant
360c - i
4th quadrant
270c
A: ALL ratios are positive in the 1st quadrant

S: Sin is positive in the 2nd quadrant (cos and tan are negative)
T: Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant (sin and cos are negative)
C: Cos is positive in the 4th quadrant (sin and tan are negative)
This rule also works for the reciprocal trigonometric ratios. For example,
where cos is positive, sec is also positive, where sin is positive, so is cosec and
where tan is positive, so is cot.
We can summarise the ASTC rules for all 4 quadrants:
First quadrant:
Angle i:
sin i is positive
cos i is positive
tan i is positive
You could remember

this rule as All Stations
To Central or A Silly
Trigonometry Concept, or
you could make up your
own!
330
Second quadrant:
Angle 180c - i:
sin ] 180c - i g = sin i
cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i
Third quadrant:
Angle 180c + i:
sin ] 180c + i g = - sin i
cos ] 180c + i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c + i g = tan i
Fourth quadrant:
Angle 360c - i:
sin ] 360c - i g = - sin i
cos ] 360c - i g = cos i
tan ] 360c - i g = - tan i
EXAMPLES
1. Find all quadrants where
(a) sin i 2 0
(b) cos i 1 0
(c) tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0
Solution
(a) sin i 2 0 means sin i is positive.
Using the ASTC rule, sin i is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
(b) cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants, so cos i is negative in
the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
(c) tan i is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants so tan i is negative
in the 2nd and 4th quadrants. Also cos i is positive in the 1st and 4th
quadrants.
So tan i 1 0 and cos i 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
331
2. Find the exact ratio of tan 330c.
Solution
First we find the quadrant that 330c is in. It is in the 4th quadrant.
y
330c
30c
The angle inside the triangle in the 4th quadrant is 30c and tan is
negative in the 4th quadrant.
Notice that
360c - 30c = 330c.
tan 330c = - tan 30c

1
=3
30c
:3
60c
3. Find the exact value of sin 225c.
Solution
The angle in the triangle in the 3rd quadrant is 45c and sin is negative in
the 3rd quadrant.
CONTINUED
Notice that
180c + 45c = 225c.
332
225c
45c
sin 225c = - sin 45c

1
=2
45c
:2
45c
4. Find the exact value of cos 510c.
Solution
To find cos 510c, we move around the circle more than once.
y
30c
150c
510c
510c - 360c = 150c

So
510c = 360c + 150c
The angle is in the 2nd quadrant where cos is

negative. The triangle has 30c in it.
30c
cos 510c = - cos 30c

=-
333
3
2
:3
60c
Notice that
180c - 30c = 150c.
5. Simplify cos (180c + x).
Solution
180c + x is an angle in the 3rd quadrant where cos is negative.
So cos ] 180c + x g = - cos x
6. If sin x = -
3
and cos x 2 0, find the value of tan x and sec x.
5
Solution
sin x 1 0 in the 3rd and 4th quadrants and cos x 2 0 in the 1st and 4th
quadrants.
So sin x 1 0 and cos x 2 0 in the 4th quadrant.
This means that tan x 1 0 and sec x 2 0.
sin x =
sec x is the reciprocal of

cos x so is positive in the
4th quadrant.
opposite
hypotenuse
So the opposite side is 3 and the hypotenuse is 5.

y
x
5
This is a 3-4-5 triangle.
By Pythagoras theorem, the adjacent side is 4.

CONTINUED
334
3
4
1
sec x = cos x
5
=
4
So tan x = -
The ASTC rule also works for negative angles. These are measured in the
opposite way (clockwise) from positive angles as shown.
y
-270c
2nd quadrant
-(180c+ i )
1st quadrant
-360c
0
-180c
-(180c- i )
-(360c- i )
3rd quadrant
-i
4th quadrant
-90c
The only difference with this rule is that the angles are labelled differently.
EXAMPLE
Find the exact value of tan (-120c).
Solution
Notice that
- (180c - 60c) = -120c.
Moving around the circle the opposite way, the angle is in the 3rd
quadrant, with 60c in the triangle.
y
60c
120c
Tan is positive in the 3rd quadrant.

tan ] -120c g = tan 60c
=
3
30c
:3
60c
6.7 Exercises
1.
Find all quadrants where

(a) cos i 2 0
(b) tan i 2 0
(c) sin i 2 0
(d) tan i 1 0
(e) sin i 1 0
(f) cos i 1 0
(g) sin i 1 0 and tan i 2 0
(h) cos i 1 0 and tan i 2 0
(i) sin i 2 0 and tan i 1 0
(j) sin i 1 0 and tan i 1 0
2.
(a) Which quadrant is the angle

240c in?
(b) Find the exact value of cos 240c.
3.

315c in?
(b) Find the exact value of sin 315c.
4.

120c in?
(b) Find the exact value of
tan 120c .
5.

-225c in?
sin (-225c).
6.

-330c in?
cos (-330c).
7.
Find the exact value of each ratio.

(a) tan 225c
(b) cos 315c
(c) tan 300c
(d) sin 150c
(e) cos 120c
(f) sin 210c
(g) cos 330c
(h) tan 150c
(i) sin 300c
(j) cos 135c
8.
Find the exact value of each ratio.

(a) cos (-225c)
(b) cos (-210c)
(c) tan (-300c)
(d) cos (-150c)
(e) sin (-60c)
(f) tan (-240c)
(g) cos (-300c)
(h) tan (-30c)
(i) cos (-45c)
(j) sin (-135c)
335
336
9.
Find the exact value of

(a) cos 570c
(b) tan 420c
(c) sin 480c
(d) cos 660c
(e) sin 690c
(f) tan 600c
(g) sin 495c
(h) cos 405c
(i) tan 675c
(j) sin 390c
3
and cos i 1 0, find
4
sin i and cos i as fractions.
10. If tan i =
Use Pythagoras theorem to

find the third side.
4
11. Given sin i = and tan i 1 0,
7
find the exact value of cos i and
tan i.
5
12. If sin x 1 0 and tan x = - , find
8
the exact value of cos x and cosec x.
2
and tan x 1 0,
5
find the exact value of cosec x,
cot x and tan x.
13. Given cos x =
14. If cos x 1 0 and sin x 1 0, find

cos x and sin x in surd form with
5
rational denominator if tan x = .
7
4
and
9
270c 1 i 1 360c, find the exact
15. If sin i = -
value of tan i and sec i.

3
and
8
180 1 i 1 270, find the exact
value of tan x, sec x and cosec x.
16. If cos i = -
17. Given sin x = 0.3 and tan x 1 0,

(a) express sin x as a fraction
(b) find the exact value of cos x
and tan x.
18. If tan a = - 1.2 and
270 1 i 1 360, find the exact
values of cot a, sec a and cosec a.
19. Given that cos i = - 0.7 and
90c 1 i 1 180c , find the exact
value of sin i and cot i.
20. Simplify
(a) sin ] 180c - i g
(b) cos ] 360c - x g
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
tan ^ 180c + b h
sin ] 180c + a g
tan ] 360c - i g
sin ] - i g
cos ] - a g
tan ] - x g
Trigonometric Equations
This is called the principle
solution.
Whenever you find an unknown angle in a triangle, you solve a trigonometric

equation e.g. cos x = 0.34. You can find this on your calculator.
Now that we know how to find the trigonometric ratios of angles of any
magnitude, there can be more than one solution to a trigonometric equation if
we look at a larger domain.
337
EXAMPLES
1. Solve cos x =
3
in the domain 0 # x # 360.
2
Solution
3
is a positive ratio and cos is positive in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
2
So there are two possible answers.
In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 4th quadrant
angles are in the form of 360c - i.
cos 30c =
3
2
30c
But there is also a solution in the 4th quadrant where

the angle is 360c - i.
3
2
x = 30c , 360c - 30c
= 30c , 330c
:3
For cos x =
60c
2. Solve 2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
Solution
2 sin 2 x - 1 = 0
2 sin 2 x = 1
1
sin 2 x =
2
sin x = !
This is called the principle

solution.
2
1
=!
2
Since the ratio could be positive or negative, there are solutions in all
4 quadrants.
1st quadrant: angle i
2nd quadrant: angle 180c - i
3rd quadrant: angle 180c + i
4th quadrant: angle 360c - i
CONTINUED
338
1
2
x = 45c , 180c - 45c , 180c + 45c , 360c - 45c
= 45c , 135c , 225c , 315c
sin 45c =
45c
:2
45c
3. Solve tan x =
3 for - 180c # x # 180c.
Solution
3 is a positive ratio and tan is positive in the 1st and 3rd quadrants.
So there are two possible answers.
In the domain - 180c # x # 180c, we use positive angles for
0c # x # 180c and negative angles for - 180c # x # 0c.
y
90c
2nd quadrant
1st quadrant
180c - i
180c
0c
-180c
-(180c - i)
0c
3rd quadrant
-i
4th quadrant
-90c
In the 1st quadrant, angles are in the form of i and in the 3rd quadrant
angles are in the form of - ^ 180c - i h .
tan 60c = 3
But there is also a solution in the 3rd quadrant where the angle is
- ^ 180c - i h .
For tan x = 3
x = 60c , - ] 180c - 60c g
= 30c , -120c
30c
:3
60c
339
4. Solve 2 sin 2x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
Solution
Notice that the angle is 2x but the domain is for x.
If 0c # x # 360c then we multiply each part by 2 to get the domain for 2x.
0c # 2x # 720c
This means that we can find the solutions by going
around the circle twice!
30c
2 sin 2x - 1 = 0
2 sin 2x = 1
:3
1
2
1
sin 30c =
2
sin 2x =
60c
Sin is positive in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.

First time around the circle, 1st quadrant is i and the 2nd quadrant is 180c - i.
Second time around the circle, we add 360c to the angles.
So 1st quadrant answer is 360c + i and the 2nd quadrant answer is
360c + ] 180c - i g or 540c - i.
So 2x = 30c , 180c - 30c, 360c + 30c , 540c - 30c
= 30c , 150c , 390c , 510c
` x = 15c , 75c , 195c , 255c
The trigonometric graphs can also help solve some trigonometric equations.
EXAMPLE
Solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
cos 90c = 0
However, looking at the graph of y = cos x shows that there is another
solution in the domain 0c # x # 360c.
y
90c
-1
For cos x = 0
x = 90c, 270c
180c
270c 360c
Notice that these solutions lie

inside the original domain of
0c # x # 360c.
340
Investigation
Here are the 3 trigonometric graphs that you explored earlier in the chapter.
y = sin x
y = cos x
y = tan x
Use the values in the sin, cos and tan graphs to find values for the inverse
trigonometric functions in the tables below and then sketch the inverse
trigonometric functions.
For example sin 270 = -1
1
So cosec 270c =
-1
= -1
Some values will be undefined, so you will need to find values near them
in order to see where the graph goes.
y = cosec x
x
sin x
cosec x
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
y = sec x
x
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
0c
90c
180c
270c
360c
cos x
sec x
y = cot x
x
tan x
cot x
Here are the graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions.

y = cosec x
y = sec x
y = cot x
y = cotx
1
0
-1
90c
180c 270c
360c
x
360c
341
342
6.8 Exercises
1.
Solve for 0c # i # 360c.

(a) sin i = 0.35
1
(b) cos i = 2
(c) tan i = - 1
3
(d) sin i =
2
1
(e) tan i = 3
(f) 2 cos i = 3
(g) tan 2i =
(h) 2 sin 3i = - 1
(i) 2 cos 2i - 1 = 0
(j) tan 2 3i = 1
2.
Solve for -180c # i # 180c.

(a) cos i = 0.187
1
(b) sin i =
2
(c) tan i = 1
3
(d) sin i = 2
1
(e) tan i = 3
(f) 3 tan 2 i = 1
(g) tan 2i = 1
(h) 2 sin 2 3i = 1
(i) tan i + 1 = 0
(j) tan 2 2i = 3
3.
Sketch y = cos x for

0c # x # 360c .
4.
Evaluate sin 270c .
5.
Sketch y = tan x for

0c # x # 360c .
6.
Solve tan x = 0 for

0c # x # 360c .
7.
Evaluate cos 180c .
8.
Find the value of sin 90c .
9.
Solve cos x = 1 for

0c # x # 360c .
10. Sketch y = sin x for

-180c # x # 180c .
11. Evaluate cos 270c.
12. Solve sin x + 1 = 0 for
0c # x # 360c .
13. Solve cos 2 x = 1 for
0c # x # 360c .
14. Solve sin x = 0 for
0c # x # 360c .
15. Solve sin x = 1 for
- 360c # x # 360c .
16. Sketch y = sec x for
0c # x # 360c .
17. Sketch y = cot x for
0c # x # 360c .
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are statements about the relationships of
trigonometric ratios. You have already met some of thesethe reciprocal
ratios, complementary angles and the rules for the angle of any magnitude.
Reciprocal ratios
1
sin i
1
sec i =
cos i
1
cot i =
tan i
cosec i =
Complementary angles
sin i = cos ] 90c - i g

cosec i = sec ] 90c - i g
tan i = cot ] 90c - i g
Angles of any magnitude
sin ] 180c - i g = sin i

cos ] 180c - i g = - cos i
tan ] 180c - i g = - tan i
sin (180c + i) = - sin i
cos (180c + i) = - cos i
tan (180c + i) = tan i
sin (360c - i) = - sin i
cos (360c - i) = cos i
tan (360c - i) = - tan i
sin (- i) = - sin i
cos (- i) = cos i
tan (- i) = - tan i
In this section you will learn some other identities, based on the unit circle.
In the work on angles of any magnitude, we defined
sin i as the y-coordinate of P and cos i as the x-coordinate of P.
343
344
y
tan i = x
sin i
=
cos i
tan i =
sin i
cos i
cot i =
cos i
sin i
1
tan i
cos i
=
sin i
cot i =
Pythagorean identities
The circle has equation x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Substituting x = cos i and y = sin i into x 2 + y 2 = 1 gives
Remeber that cos 2 i
means (cos i) 2.
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
This is an equation so can be rearranged to give

sin 2 i = 1 - cos 2 i
cos 2 i = 1 - sin 2 i
There are two other identities that can be derived from this identity.
1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i
345
Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i
1
+
=
cos 2 i cos 2 i
cos 2 i
1 + tan 2 i = sec 2 i
This identity can be rearranged to give
tan 2 i = sec 2 i - 1
1 = sec 2 i - tan 2 i
cot 2 i + 1 = cosec 2 i
Proof
cos 2 i + sin 2 i = 1
cos 2 i sin 2 i
1
+
=
2
2
sin i sin i
sin 2 i
2
cot i + 1 = cosec 2 i
This identity can be rearranged to give
These are called Pythagorean

identities since the equation
of the circle comes from
Pythagoras rule (see Chapter 5).
cot 2 i = cosec 2 i - 1
1 = cosec 2 i - cot 2 i
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify sin i cot i.
Solution
sin i cot i = sin i #
= cos i
cos i
sin i
2. Simplify sin ^ 90c - b h sec b where b is an acute angle.
Solution
sin ^ 90c - b h sec b = cos b #
=1
1
cos b
CONTINUED
346
3. Simplify
sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i .
Solution
sin 4 i + sin 2 i cos 2 i = sin 2 i ^ sin 2 i + cos 2 i h
= sin 2 i ] 1 g
= sin 2 i
= sin i
4. Prove cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x.
Solution
LHS = cot x + tan x
cos x sin x
=
+
sin x cos x
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
sin x cos x
1
=
sin x cos x
1
1
=
# cos x
sin x
= cosec x sec x
= RHS
=
` cot x + tan x = cosec x sec x

5. Prove that
1 - cos x
1
=
.
1 + cos x
sin 2 x
Solution
1 - cos x
sin 2 x
1 - cos x
=
1 - cos 2 x
1 - cos x
=
] 1 + cos x g ] 1 - cos x g
1
=
1 + cos x
= RHS
LHS =
1 - cos x
1
=
2
1
cos x
+
sin x
6.9 Exercises
1.
2.
Simplify
(a) sin ] 90c - i g
(b) tan ] 360c - i g
(c) cos ] - i g
(d) cot ] 90c - i g
(e) sec ] 180c + a g
= cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
(e) ] sin x - cos x g3
= sin x - cos x - 2 sin 2 x cos x
+2 sin x cos 2 x
(f) cot i + 2 sec i
1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i
sin i cos i
(g) cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i
Simplify
(a) tan i cos i
(b) tan i cosec i
(c) sec x cot x
(d) 1 - sin 2 x
1 - cos a
cot 2 x + 1
1 + tan 2 x
sec 2 i - 1
5 cot 2 i + 5
1
(j)
cosec 2 x
(k) sin 2 a cosec 2 a
(l) cot i - cot i cos 2 i
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
3.
(d) sec 2 x - tan 2 x
= sin i cos i
(h) (cosec x + cot x) (cosec x - cot x) = 1
Prove that
(a) cos 2 x - 1 = - sin 2 x
1 + sin i
(b) sec i + tan i =
cos i
3
2
(c) 3 + 3 tan a =
1 - sin 2 a
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
cos 2 i
2
= tan i + cos 2 i
1 + cot b
(j)
- cos b
cosec b
sec b
=
tan b + cot b
(i)
4.
If x = 2 cos i and y = 2 sin i,

show that x 2 + y 2 = 4.
5.
Show that x 2 + y 2 = 81 if
x = 9 cos i and y = 9 sin i.
Non-right-angled Triangle Results

A non-right-angled triangle is named so that its angles and opposite sides have
the same pronumeral. There are two rules in trigonometry that refer to nonright-angled triangles. These are the sine rule and the cosine rule.
347
348
Sine rule
sin A
sin B
sin C
a = b = c
Use this rule for finding an angle.
Use this rule for finding a

side.
a
c
b
=
=
sin A
sin B
sin C
or
Proof
In TABC, draw perpendicular AD and call it h.

From TABD,
h
sin B = c
`
h = c sin B
(1)
From TACD,
h
b
h = b sin C
sin C =
`
From (1) and (2),

c sin B = b sin C
sin B
sin C
= c
b
Similarly, drawing a perpendicular from C it can be proven that
sin A
sin B
a = b .
(2)
EXAMPLES
349
The sine rule uses 2 sides

and 2 angles, with 1
unknown.
1. Find the value of x, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
Name the sides a and b, and angles A and B.
a
b
=
sin A
sin B
10.7
x
=
sin 43c 21l
sin 79c 12l
10.7
x
sin 43c 21l #
= sin 43c 21l #
sin 43c 21l
sin 79c 12l
10.7 sin 43c 21l
x=
sin 79c 12l
Z 7.5 cm
2. Find the value of y, to the nearest whole number.
You can rename the
triangle ABC or just make
sure you put sides with
their opposite angles
together.
Solution
+Y = 180c - (53c + 24c )
= 103c
You need to find +Y first, as it

is opposite y.
a
b
=
sin A
sin B
y
8
=
sin 103c
sin 53c
y
8
= sin 103c #
sin 103c #
sin 103c
sin 53c
8 sin 103c
y=
sin 53c
Z 10
CONTINUED
350
3. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
sin A
sin B
a = b
sin i
sin 86c 11l
=
6.7
8.3
sin i
sin 86c 11l
= 6.7 #
6.7 #
6 .7
8.3
6.7 sin 86c 11l
sin i =
8 .3
- 1 6.7 sin 86c 11l
i = sin c
m
8 .3
Z 53c39l
Since sin x is positive in the first 2 quadrants, both acute angles (between 0c
and 90c) and obtuse angles (between 90c and 180c) give positive sin ratios.
e.g. sin 50c = 0.766
and sin 130c = 0.766
This affects the sine rule, since there is no way of distinguishing between an
acute angle and an obtuse angle. When doing a question involving an obtuse
angle, we need to use the 2nd quadrant angle of 180c - i rather than relying
on the calculator to give the correct answer.
EXAMPLE
Angle i is obtuse. Find the value of i, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
sin A
sin B
a = b
sin i
sin 15c 49l
=
5.4
11.9
sin i
sin 15c 49l
= 11.9 #
11.9 #
5.4
11.9
11.9 sin 15c 49l
sin i =
5.4
- 1 11.9 sin 15c 49l
m
i = sin c
5.4
= 36c 55l
^ acute angle h
But i is obtuse
`
i = 180c - 36c 55l
= 143c 05l
6.10
1.
Exercises
Evaluate all pronumerals, correct

to 1 decimal place.
(c)
(a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
351
352
2.
BC = 4.6 cm and
+ACB = 33c 47l.

in degrees and minutes.
(a)
4.
Triangle EFG has +FEG = 48c ,

+EGF = 32c and FG = 18.9 mm.
Find the length of
(a) the shortest side
(b) the longest side..
5.
Triangle XYZ has +XYZ = 51c ,

+YXZ = 86c and XZ = 2.1 m.
Find the length of
(a) the shortest side
(b) the longest side.
6.
Triangle XYZ has XY = 5.4 cm,

+ZXY = 48c and +XZY = 63c.
Find the length of XZ.
7.
Triangle ABC has BC = 12.7 m,

+ABC = 47c and +ACB = 53c as
shown. Find the lengths of
(a) AB
(b) AC.
The shortest side is opposite

the smallest angle and the
longest side is opposite the
largest angle.
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (i is obtuse)
9.
Triangle ABC is isosceles with

AB = AC. BC is produced to
D as shown. If AB = 8.3 cm,
+BAC = 52c and +ADC = 32c
find the length of
Triangle ABC has an obtuse angle

at A. Evaluate this angle to the
nearest minute if AB = 3.2 cm,
53c
Triangle PQR has sides

PQ = 15 mm, QR = 14.7 mm
and +PRQ = 62c 29l. Find to the
nearest minute
(a) +QPR
(b) +PQR.
3.7
3.
12.7 m
8.
4.9
21c31l
47c
(a) AD
(b) BD.
A
52c
8.3 cm
32c
10. Triangle ABC is equilateral with

side 63 mm. A line is drawn from
A to BC where it meets BC at D
and +DAB = 26c 15l. Find the
length of
(a) AD
(b) DC.
D
Cosine rule
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
Similarly
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 - 2bc cos A
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos B
Proof
A
a-x
In triangle ABC, draw perpendicular CD with length p and let CD = x.

Since BC = a, BD = a - x
From triangle ACD
b2 = x2 + p2
x
cos C =
b
` b cos C = x
(1)
(2)
From triangle DAB

c2 = p2 + ] a - x g 2
= p 2 + a 2 - 2ax + x 2
= p 2 + x 2 + a 2 - 2ax
(3)
353
354
Substitute (1) into (3):

c 2 = b 2 + a 2 - 2ax
(4)
Substituting (2) into (4):

c 2 = b 2 + a 2 - 2a ] b cos C g
= b 2 + a 2 - 2ab cos C
DID YOU KNOW?

Pythagoras theorem is a special case of the cosine rule when the triangle is right angled.
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
When C = 90c
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos 90c
= a 2 + b 2 - 2ab ] 0 g
= a2 + b2
EXAMPLE
Find the value of x, correct to the nearest whole number.
The cosine rule uses 3 sides
and 1 angle, with 1 unknown.
Solution
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
x 2 = 5.6 2 + 6.4 2 - 2 (5.6) (6.4) cos 112c 32l
Z 99.79
x = 99.79
Z 10
Press 5.6 x 2 + 6.4 x 2 - 2 # 5.6 # 6.4
# cos 112 % , ,, 32 % , ,, =
355
When finding an unknown angle, it is easier to change the subject of

this formula to cos C.
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C + 2ab cos C
c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2
c 2 - c 2 + 2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - c 2
2ab cos C = a 2 + b 2 - c 2
2ab cos C
a2 + b2 - c2
=
2ab
2ab
cos C =
a2 + b2 - c2
2ab
Similarly
cos A =
b2 + c2 - a2
2bc
cos B =
a +c -b
2ac
2
Subtract the square of

the side opposite the
unknown angle.
EXAMPLES
1. Find i, in degrees and minutes.
Solution
a2 + b2 - c2
2ab
52 + 62 - 32
cos i =
2 ]5 g]6 g
52
=
60
52
m
i = cos - 1 c
60
Z 29c 56l
cos C =
2. Evaluate +BAC in degrees and minutes.

A
6.1 cm
4.5 cm
B
8.4 cm
CONTINUED
356
Solution
a2 + b2 - c2
2ab
4.5 2 + 6.1 2 - 8.4 2
cos +BAC =
2 ] 4. 5 g ] 6 .1 g
= - 0.2386
cos C =
Notice that the negative sign

tells us that the angle will be
obtuse.
+BAC = cos- 1 ] - 0.2386 g

= 103c 48l
6.11
1.
Exercises

(e)
(a)
2.
Evaluate all pronumerals correct

to the nearest minute
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
YZ = 5.9 cm. Find the value of all

angles, to the nearest minute.
(d)
7.
Isosceles trapezium MNOP

has MP = NO = 12 mm,
MN = 8.9 mm, OP = 15.6 mm
and +NMP = 119c 15l.
(a) Find the length of diagonal NP.
(b) Find +NOP.
8.
Given the figure below, find the

length of
(a) AC
(b) AD.
(e)
3.
Kite ABCD has AB = 12.9 mm,

CD = 23.8 mm and
+ABC = 125c as shown. Find the
length of diagonal AC.
42 c8 l
8.4 cm
B
12.9 mm
125 c
101 c38 l
3.7 cm
23.8 mm
9.9 cm
4.
5.
6.
Parallelogram ABCD has sides

11 cm and 5 cm, and one interior
angle 79c 25l. Find the length of
the diagonals.
Quadrilateral ABCD has sides
AB = 12 cm, BC = 10.4 cm,
CD = 8.4 cm and AD = 9.7 cm
with +ABC = 63c 57l.
(a) Find the length of diagonal AC
(b) Find +DAC
(c) Find +ADC.
Triangle XYZ is isosceles with
XY = XZ = 7.3 cm and
9.
In a regular pentagon ABCDE

with sides 8 cm, find the length
of diagonal AD.
10. A regular hexagon ABCDEF has

sides 5.5 cm.
(a) Find the length of AD.
(b) Find +ADF.
357
358
Applications
The sine and cosine rules can be used in solving problems.
Use the sine rule to find:

1. a side, given one side and two angles
2. an angle, given two sides and one angle
Use the cosine rule to find:
1. a side, given two sides and one angle
2. an angle, given three sides
EXAMPLES
1. The angle of elevation of a tower from point A is 72c. From point B,
50 m further away from the tower than A, the angle of elevation is 47c.
(a) Find the exact length of AT.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the height h of the tower to 1 decimal place.
Solution
Use TBTA to find AT.
(a) +BAT = 180c - 72c

= 108c
+BTA = 180c - ] 47c + 108c g
= 25c
a
b
=
sin A
sin B
50
AT
=
sin 47c
sin 25c
50 sin 47c
AT =
`
sin 25c
^ straight angle h
(angle sum of T)
h
AT
h = AT sin 72c
50 sin 47c
=
# sin 72c
sin 25c
Z 82.3 m
359
(b) sin 72c =

`
Use right-angled TATO

to find h. Do not use the
sine rule.
2. A ship sails from Sydney for 200 km on a bearing of 040c , then sails
on a bearing of 157c for 345 km.
(a) How far from Sydney is the ship, to the nearest km?
(b) What is the bearing of the ship from Sydney, to the nearest degree?
Solution
(a) +SAN = 180c - 40c

= 140c
^ cointerior angles h
` +SAB = 360c - (140c + 157c)

= 63c
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
x 2 = 200 2 + 345 2 - 2 (200) (345) cos 63c
Z 96374.3
x = 96374.3
Z 310
So the ship is 310 km from Sydney.
sin A
sin B
a = b
sin i
sin 63c
=
345
310
345 sin 63c
` sin i =
310
Z 0.99
i Z 82c
( b)
The bearing from Sydney = 40c + 82c

= 122c
To find the bearing,

measure +TSB.
360
6.12
Exercises
1.
Find the lengths of the diagonals

of a parallelogram with adjacent
sides 5 cm and 8 cm and one of
its angles 32c 42l.
2.
A car is broken down to the north

of 2 towns. The car is 39 km from
town A and 52 km from town B.
If A is due west of B and the 2
towns are 68 km apart, what is the
bearing of the car from (a) town A
(b) town B, to the nearest degree?
3.
7.
A boat is sinking 1.3 km out to

sea from a marina. Its bearing is
041c from the marina and 324c
from a rescue boat. The rescue
boat is due east of the marina.
(a) How far, correct to 2 decimal
places, is the rescue boat from the
sinking boat?
(b) How long will it take the
rescue boat, to the nearest
minute, to reach the other boat if
it travels at 80 km/h?
8.
The angle of elevation of the

top of a flagpole from a point a
certain distance away from its
base is 20c. After walking 80 m
towards the flagpole, the angle of
elevation is 75c. Find the height
of the flagpole, to the nearest
metre.
9.
A triangular field ABC has sides

AB = 85 m and AC = 50 m. If B is
on a bearing of 065c from A and
C is on a bearing of 166c from A,
find the length of BC, correct to
the nearest metre.
The angle of elevation to the top

of a tower is 54c 37l from a point
12.8 m out from its base. The
tower is leaning at an angle of
85c 58l as shown. Find the height
of the tower.
54 c37 l
4.
from one post and 11 m from

the other, find the angle within
which the ball must be kicked
to score a goal, to the nearest
degree.
12.8 m
85c58 l
A triangular park has sides 145.6 m,

210.3 m and 122.5 m. Find the
size of the largest interior angle of
the park.
5.
A 1.5 m high fence leans

outwards from a house at an
angle of 102c. A boy sits on top
of the fence and the angle of
depression from him down to the
house is 32c 44l . How far from
the fence is the house?
6.
Football posts are 3.5 m apart.

If a footballer is standing 8 m
10. (a) Find the exact value of AC in

the diagram.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the
angle i, correct to the nearest
minute.
11. Find the value of h, correct to

1 decimal place.
16. Rhombus ABCD with side 8 cm

has diagonal BD 11.3 cm long.
Find +DAB.
17. Zeke leaves school and runs for
8.7 km on a bearing of 338c,
then turns and runs on a bearing
of 061c until he is due north of
school. How far north of school
is he?
12. A motorbike and a car leave a

service station at the same time.
The motorbike travels on a
bearing of 080c and the car travels
for 15.7 km on a bearing of 108c
until the bearing of the motorbike
from the car is 310c. How far,
correct to 1 decimal place, has the
motorbike travelled?
13. A submarine is being followed
by two ships, A and B, 3.8 km
apart, with A due east of B. If A
is on a bearing of 165c from the
submarine and B is on a bearing
of 205c from the submarine, find
the distance from the submarine
to both ships.
14. A plane flies from Dubbo on a
bearing of 139c for 852 km, then
turns and flies on a bearing of
285cuntil it is due west of Dubbo.
How far from Dubbo is the plane,
to the nearest km?
15. A triangular roof is 16.8 m up
to its peak, then 23.4 m on the
other side with a 125c angle
at the peak as shown. Find the
length of the roof.
125 c
16.8 m
23.4 m
18. A car drives due east for 83.7 km

then turns and travels for 105.6 km
on a bearing of 029c. How far is
the car from its starting point?
19. The figure below shows the
diagram that a surveyor makes
to measure a triangular piece of
land. Find its perimeter.
13.9 m
58 c1l
11.4 m
14.3 m
132 c31l
20. A light plane leaves Sydney and

flies for 1280 km on a bearing of
050c. It then turns and flies for
3215 km on a bearing of 149c.
How far is the plane from Sydney,
to the nearest km?
21. Trapezium ABCD has AD ; BC,
with AB = 4.6 cm, BC = 11.3 cm,
CD = 6.4 cm, +DAC = 23c 30l
and +ABC = 78c .
(a) Find the length of AC.
(b) Find +ADC to the nearest
minute.
22. A plane leaves Adelaide and
flies for 875 km on a bearing of
056c. It then turns and flies on a
bearing of i for 630 km until it is
due east of Adelaide. Evaluate i
to the nearest degree.
361
362
23. Quadrilateral ABCD has

AB = AD = 7.2 cm, BC = 8.9 cm
and CD = 10.4 cm, with
+DAB = 107c
(a) Find the length of diagonal BD.
(b) Find +BCD.
24. Stig leaves home and travels on a
bearing of 248c for 109.8 km.
He then turns and travels for
271.8 km on a bearing of 143c.
Stig then turns and travels home
on a bearing of a.
(a) How far does he travel on the
final part of his journey?
(b) Evaluate a.
25. A wall leans inwards and makes

an angle of 88c with the floor.
(a) A 4 m long ladder leans against
the wall with its base 2.3 m out
from the wall. Find the angle that
the top of the ladder makes with
the wall.
(b) A longer ladder is placed the
same distance out from the wall
and its top makes an angle of 31c
with the wall.
(i) How long is this
ladder?
(ii) How much further
does it reach up the wall
than the first ladder?
Area
To find the area of a triangle, you need to know its perpendicular height.
Trigonometry allows us to find this height in terms of one of the angles in the
triangle.
A=
Similarly,
1
ac sin B
2
1
A = bc sin A
2
A=
Proof
From D BCD,
h
sin C = a
` h = a sin C
1
bh
2
1
= ba sin C
2
A=
1
ab sin C
2
363
EXAMPLE
Find the area of D ABC correct to 2 decimal places.
To find the area, use

2 sides and their
included angle.
Solution
1
ab sin C
2
1
= (4.3) (5.8) sin 112c 34l
2
Z 11.52 units 2
A=
6.13
1.
Exercises
Find the area of each triangle

(a)
(c)
(d)
(b)
(e)
364
2.
3.
Calculate the exact area of D ABC.
Find the area of DOAB correct to

1 decimal place (O is the centre of
the circle).
7.
Find the area of a regular

hexagon with sides 4 cm, to the
nearest cm 2 .
8.
Calculate the area of a regular

pentagon with sides 12 mm.
9.
The figure below is made from a

rectangle and isosceles triangle
with AE = AB as shown.
A
84c
4.
5.
Find the area of a parallelogram

with sides 3.5 cm and 4.8 cm,
and one of its internal angles
67c 13l, correct to 1 decimal
place.
14.3 cm
Find the area of kite ABCD,

10.5 cm
(a) Find the length of AE.

(b) Find the area of the figure.
10. Given the following figure,
A
58c
6.
Find the area of the sail, correct

to 1 decimal place.
44c
9.4 cm
36c
6.7 cm
(a) Find the length of AC

(b) Find the area of triangle ACD
(c) Find the area of triangle ABC.
365
Trigonometry in Three Dimensions

EXAMPLES
1. From point X, 25 m due south of the base of a tower, the angle of
elevation is 47c. Point Y is 15 m due east of the tower. Find:
(a) the height, h, of the tower, correct to 1 decimal place
(b) the angle of elevation, i, of the tower from point Y.
Solution
(a) From D XTO
h
25
25 tan 47c = h
26.8 = h
tan 47c =
So the tower is 26.8 m high.

(b) From DYTO
26.8
tan i =
15
`
26.8
m
15
= 60c 46l
i = tan - 1 c
So the angle of elevation from Y is 60c 46l.

2. A cone has a base diameter of 18 cm and a slant height of 15 cm. Find
the vertical angle at the top of the cone.
Solution
The radius of the base is 9 cm.
9
sin i =
15
9
` i = sin - 1 c
m
15
= 36c 52l
Vertical angle = 2i
= 73c 44l
Use the full value of

26.80921775 for a more
accurate answer to (b).
366
6.14
1.
2.
3.
Exercises
A gymnastics bar is supported by

wires as shown below.
(a) If one wire is inclined at an
angle of 55c to the horizontal
and is 1.4 m out from the base
of the bar, find the height of the
bar, to the nearest metre.
(b) The second wire is inclined at
an angle of 68c to the horizontal.
How long is the wire (to
1 decimal place)?
(c) The third wire is 2.2 m long.
What is its angle of elevation?
A pole has two supporting ropes,

2.5 m and 3.1 m long.
(a) If the 3.1 m rope makes an
angle of elevation of 38c , find the
length of the pole, correct to
1 decimal place.
(b) What angle of elevation does
the other rope make?
A 25 cm #11 cm # 8 cm cardboard
box contains an insert (the
shaded area) made of foam.
(a) Find the area of foam in the
insert, to the nearest cm 2 .
(b) Find the angle, i, the insert
makes at the corner of the box.
4.
A cone has radius 7 cm and a

slant height of 13 cm. Find the
vertical angle at the top of the
cone, in degrees and minutes.
5.
From a point 15 m due north of

a tower, the angle of elevation of
the tower is 32c
(a) Find the height of the tower,
to the nearest metre.
(b) Find the angle of elevation
of the tower at a point 20 m due
east of the tower.
6.
A pole is seen from two points

A and B. The angle of elevation
from A is 58c . If +CAB = 52c
and +ABC = 34c , and A and B
are 100 m apart, find:
(a) how far A is from the foot of
the pole, to the nearest metre.
(b) the height of the pole, to
1 decimal place.
7.
Two straight paths up to the top

of a cliff are inclined at angles of
25c and 22c to the horizontal.
(a) If path 1 is 114 m long, find

the height of the cliff, to the
nearest metre.
(b) Find the length of path 2, to
1 decimal place.
(c) If the paths meet at 47c at
the base of the cliff, find their
distance apart at the top of the
cliff, correct to 1 decimal place.
8.
9.
A cylinder with radius 4 cm and

perpendicular height 15 cm is
tilted so that it will just fit inside
a 12 cm high box. At what angle
must it be tilted?
10. A hot air balloon flying at

950 m/h at a constant altitude
of 3000 m is observed to have an
angle of elevation of 78c . After
20 minutes, the angle of elevation
is 73c . Calculate the angle
through which the observer has
turned during those 20 minutes.
David walks along a straight road.

At one point he notices a tower on
a bearing of 053c with an angle
of elevation of 21c. After walking
230 m, the tower is on a bearing of
342c , with an angle of elevation
of 26c . Find the height of the
tower correct to the nearest metre.
Sums and Differences of Angles

Sums and differences
Angles can be expressed as sums or differences of other angles. This enables
us to simplify or evaluate some angles that normally would be too hard to
simplify.
cos ^ x - y h = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
367
368
Proof
Remember:
cos i = x -coordinate and
sin i = y -coordinate.
By the distance formula:

d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
AB 2 = ^ cos x - cos y h2 + ^ sin x - sin y h2
= cos 2 x - 2 cos x cos y + cos 2 y + sin 2 x - 2 sin x sin y + sin 2 y
= (cos 2 x + sin 2 x) + (cos 2 y + sin 2 y) - 2 cos x cos y - 2 sin x sin y
= 2 - 2 (cos x cos y + sin x sin y)
(1)
By the cosine rule:

c 2 = a 2 + b 2 - 2ab cos C
AB 2 = 1 2 + 1 2 - 2 (1) (1) cos (x - y)
= 2 - 2 cos (x - y)
From (1) and (2):
2 - 2 cos ^ x - y h = 2 - 2 ^ cos x cos y + sin x sin y h
`
cos ^ x - y h = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
cos ^ x + y h = cos x cos y - sin x sin y
Proof
Substitute - y for y.
cos (x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
cos (x - (- y )) = cos x cos (- y ) + sin x sin (- y )
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y + sin x (- sin y )
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y - sin x sin y
sin ^ x + y h = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
(2)
369
Proof
Substitute 90c - x for x.
cos (x - y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
cos (90c - x - y) = cos (90c - x) cos y + sin (90c- x) sin y
cos (90c - (x + y)) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin ^ x - y h = sin x cos y - cos x sin y
Proof
Substitute - y for y.
sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin (x + (- y)) = sin x cos (- y) + cos x sin (- y)
sin (x - y) = sin x cos y + cos x (- sin y)
sin (x - y) = sin x cos y - cos x sin y
tan ^ x + y h =
tan x + tan y
1 - tan x tan y
Proof
tan (x + y) =
sin ^ x + y h
cos ^ x + y h
sin x cos y + cos x sin y
=
cos x cos y - sin x sin y
sin x cos y + cos x sin y
cos x cos y
=
cos x cos y - sin x sin y
cos x cos y
tan x + tan y
tan (x + y) =
1 - tan x tan y
tan ^ x - y h =
tan x - tan y
1 + tan x tan y
Divide top and bottom by

cos x cos y.
370
Proof
Substitute -y for y.
tan (x + y) =
tan (x + (- y)) =
tan (x - y) =
tan x + tan y
1 - tan x tan y
tan x + tan ^ - y h
1 - tan x tan ^ - y h
tan x - tan y
1 - tan x ^ - tan y h
tan x - tan y
tan (x - y) =
1 + tan x tan y
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify sin 2i cos i - cos 2i sin i.
Solution
sin 2i cos i - cos 2i sin i = sin (2i - i)
= sin i
2. Find the exact value of cos 75c .
Solution
cos 75c = cos (30c+ 45c)
= cos 30c cos 45c - sin 30c sin 45c
=
=
3
1
1
1
#
- #
2
2
2
2
3-1
2 2
3-1
#
2 2
6- 2
=
4
2
2
3. Simplify cos ] i + 60c g + sin ] i + 60c g .
Solution
cos (i + 60c) + sin (i + 60c)
= cos i cos 60c - sin i sin 60c + sin i cos 60c + cos i sin 60c
3
3
1
1
- sin i #
+ sin i # + cos i #
2
2
2
2
3
3
1
1
n + sin i d = cos i d +
+ n
2
2
2
2
1+ 3n
1- 3n
= cos i d
+ sin i d
2
2
= cos i #
371
Ratios of double angles

By using the sum of angles, we can find the trigonometric ratios for double
angles.
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
Proof
sin 2x = sin (x + x)
= sin x cos x + cos x sin x
= 2 sin x cos x
cos 2x = cos 2 x - sin 2 x

= 1 - 2 sin 2 x
= 2 cos 2 x - 1
Proof
cos 2x = cos (x + x)
= cos x cos x - sin x sin x
= cos 2 x - sin 2 x
= (1 - sin 2 x) - sin 2 x
= 1 - 2 sin 2 x
= 1 - 2 (1 - cos 2 x)
= 2 cos 2 x - 1
tan 2x =
Proof
tan 2x = tan (x + x)
tan x + tan x
=
1 - tan x tan x
2 tan x
tan 2x =
1 - tan 2 x
Remember:
sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1.
2 tan x
1 - tan 2 x
372
EXAMPLES
1. Simplify cos 2 2i - sin 2 2i.
Solution
cos 2 2i - sin 2 2i = cos 2 (2i)
= cos 4i
2. If sin x =
4
, find the exact value of sin 2x.
7
Solution
AC 2 = 7 2 - 4 2
= 33
` AC = 33
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
4
#
7
8 33
=
49
=2#
33
7
PROBLEM
1 ]
3 sin i - sin 3i g to
4
draw up a table of sine ratios. Can you prove this relation?
Ulug Beg (13931449) used the relation sin 3 i =
6.15
1.
Exercises
Expand
(a) sin ] a - b g
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
cos ^ p + q h
tan ^ a + b h
sin (x + 20c)
tan ] 48c + x g
cos ] 2i - a g
cos ( x + 75c)
tan ^ 5x - 7y h
sin ^ 4a - b h
tan ^ a - 3b h
2.
Simplify
(a) sin a cos b + cos a sin b
tan 36c + tan 29c
(b)
1 - tan 36c tan 29c
(c) cos 28c cos 27c - sin 28c sin 27c
(d) sin 2x cos 3y + cos 2x sin 3y
tan 3i - tan i
(e)
1 + tan 3i tan i
(f) sin 74c cos 42c - cos 74c sin 42c
(g) sin ] a + b g + sin ] a - b g
(h) sin ^ x + y h - sin ^ x - y h
(i) cos ^ x - y h - cos ^ x + y h
(j) cos ] m + n g + cos ] m - n g
3.
4.

(a) sin 75c
(b) cos 15c
(c) tan 75c
(d) tan 105c
(e) cos 105c
(f) sin 15c
(g) sin 105c
(h) tan 285c
(i) sin (x + 30c) + cos (x + 30c)
(j) cos ^ 45c - y h + cos ^ 45c + y h
Simplify
tan ^ x + y h + tan ^ x - y h
1 - tan ^ x + y h tan ^ x - y h
3
2
and cos y = , find
4
3
the exact value of
(a) sin ^ x + y h
(b) cos ^ x - y h
(c) tan ^ x + y h
5.
If sin x =
6.
By taking 2i = i + i, find an
expression for
(a) sin 2i
(b) cos 2i
(c) tan 2i
7.
By writing 3i as 2i + i, find an
expression in terms of i for
(a) sin 3i
(b) cos 3i
(c) tan 3i
tan 7i - tan 3i
.
1 + tan 7i tan 3i
(b) Find an expression for sin 4i
in terms of 7i and 3i.
3
5
and cos y =
, find
5
13
the value of
(a) cos x
(b) sin y
(c) sin ^ x - y h
(d) tan y
(e) tan ^ x + y h
11. If sin x =
12. (a) Write an expression for

cos ^ x + y h + cos ^ x - y h .
(b) Hence write an expression for
cos 50c cos 65c.
13. Find an expression for
(a) sin ^ x + y h + sin ^ x - y h
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
cos ^ x + y h - cos ^ x - y h
sin ^ x + y h - sin ^ x - y h
cos ^ x + y h + sin ^ x - y h
tan ^ x + y h + tan ^ x - y h
tan ^ x + y h - tan ^ x - y h
14. Expand
(a) sin 2b
(b) tan 2i
(c) cos 2i
(d) sin (x + 2y)
(e) cos (2a + b )
(f) tan (x + 2y)
(g) sin (2i - d )
(h) cos (i - 2c)
(i) tan (x - 2z)
(j) sin (2x - 2y)
15. Simplify
(a) 2 cos 3x sin 3x
(b) cos 2 7y - sin 2 7y
2 tan 5i
(c)
1
- tan 2 5i
9. Find an expression for cos 9x in
(d) 1 - 2 sin 2 y
terms of 2x and 7x.
(e) sin 6i cos 6i
(f) ] sin x + cos x g2
(a) cos 23c cos 22c - sin 23c sin 22c
(g) 2 cos 2 3a - 1
tan 85c - tan 25c
(b)
(h) 1 - 2 sin 2 40c
1 + tan 85c tan 25c
2 tan b
(c) sin 180c cos 60c
(i)
1 - tan 2 b
+ cos 180c sin 60c
(j) ] sin 3x - cos 3x g2
(d) cos 290c cos 80c
8.
(a) Simplify
+ sin 290c sin 80c

tan 11c + tan 19c
(e)
1 - tan 11c tan 19c
373
374

(a) cos 22.5c sin 22.5c
(b) cos 2 30c - sin 2 30c
2 tan 15c
(c)
1 - tan 2 15c
(d) 2 sin 75c cos 75c
2 tan 120c
(e)
1 - tan 2 120c
(f) 1 - 2 sin 2 165c
(g) 2 cos 2 22.5c - 1
2 tan i
(h)
where i = 112.5c
1 - tan 2 i
(i) sin 67.5c cos 67.5c
(j) 2 cos 105c sin 105c
5
, find the exact value
8
of cos 2x and sin 2x.
17. If cos x =
3
12
and tan b =
, find
5
5
the exact values of
(a) sin ^ a + b h
(b) cos 2a
(c) sin 2b
(d) tan ^ a - b h
18. If sin a =
19. Express sin 4i in terms of i.

20. (a) Simplify
sin 2x
.
1 + cos 2x
(b) Hence, find the exact value of

tan 15c.
1
21. Find the exact value of tan 22 c
2
by using the expression for
tan 2x.
22. Prove
(a) sin 2 i =
(b) tan
1
sin 2i tan i
2
i
1 - cos i
=
2
sin i
23. Show that

sin 2 7i - sin 2 4i = sin 11i sin 3i.
24. Prove that
cos 3i = 4 cos 3 i - 3 cos i.
25. Find an expression for sin 3x in
terms of sin x.
Further Trigonometric Equations

Some trigonometric equations are difficult to solve. However, there are some
expressions that can be used to solve them.
Ratios in terms of tan
If tan
i
2
i
2t
= t, then tan i =
2
1 - t2
Proof
2 tan A
1 - tan 2 A
i
2 tan
2
` tan i =
where i = 2A
i
1 - tan 2
2
2t
=
1 - t2
tan 2A =
If tan
375
i
2t
= t, then sin i =
2
1 + t2
Proof
tan
i
t
=t=
2
1
The hypotenuse is
1 + t 2 by Pythagoras
theorem.
sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

i
i
` sin i = 2 sin cos
where i = 2A
2
2
t
1
= 2e
oe
o
2
1+t
1 + t2
2t
=
1 + t2
If tan
These ratios for sin

and cos
i
2
i
come from the
2
triangle above.
i
1 - t2
= t, then cos i =
2
1 + t2
Proof
cos 2A = cos 2 A - sin 2 A
i
i
where i = 2A
` cos i = cos 2 - sin 2
2
2
2
2
t
1
=e
-e
o
o
1 + t2
1 + t2
2
t
1
=
2
1+t
1 + t2
1 - t2
=
1 + t2
i
The ratios for cos and
2
i
sin come from the
2
previous triangle.
376
EXAMPLES
Solution
sin i =
So
2t
1 + t2
2 tan 15c
.
1 + tan 2 15c
where t = tan
i
2
2 tan 15c
= sin 30c
1 + tan 2 15c
1
=
2
2. Prove that cot
i
i
- 2 cot i = tan .
2
2
Solution
i
- 2 cot i
2
1
2
=
i tan i
tan
2
i
1
2
where t = tan
= t
2t
2
1 - t2
2
1 2^1 - t h
= t
2t
1 1 - t2
= t
t
1 - 1 + t2
=
t
t2
=
t
=t
LHS = cot
i
2
= RHS
= tan
` cot
i
i
- 2 cot i = tan
2
2
There is also another expression that will help solve some further
trigonometric equations.
a sin i + b cos i = r sin ] i + a g where

b
r = a 2 + b 2 and tan a = a
377
Proof
If tan a =
b
, then the
a
hypotenuse is a 2 + b 2 by
Pythagoras theorem.
RHS = r sin (i + a )
=
a 2 + b 2 (sin i cos a + cos i sin a )

a
= a 2 + b 2 e sin i #
+ cos i #
2
a + b2
= a sin i + b cos i
= LHS
` a sin i + b cos i = r sin ] i + a g
b
a + b2
2
b
a 2 + b 2 and tan a = a
where r =
EXAMPLES
1. Write
3 sin x + cos x in the form r sin ] x + a g.
Solution
a sin i + b cos i = r sin ] i + a g where r =
b
For 3 sin x + cos x:

a = 3, b = 1
r=
a2 + b2
2
3 + 12
=
= 3+1
= 4
=2
b
tan a = a
1
=
3
a = tan - 1 e
1
o
3
= 30c
So
3 sin x + cos x = 2 sin(x + 30c)
CONTINUED
378
2. Write 3 sin i + 2 cos i in the form r sin ] i + a g.
Solution
a sin i + b cos i = r sin (i + a ) where r =
b
For 3 sin i + 2 cos i:

a = 3, b = 2
r=
=
=
=
a2 + b2
32 + 22
9+4
13
b
tan a = a
2
=
3
2
a = tan - 1 c m
3
= 33 41l
So 3 sin i + 2 cos i =
13 sin (i + 33c 41l)
Class Investigation
Can you find similar results for these?
a sin i - b cos i
a cos i + b cos i
a cos i - b sin i
6.16
1.
Exercises
Simplify
2t
(a)
1 - t2
(e)
1 - t2
(b)
1 + t2
2 tan 10c
(c)
1 - tan 2 10c
1 - tan 25c
1 + tan 2 25c
2
(d)
2 tan i
1 + tan 2 i
i
2
(f)
i
1 + tan 2
2
1 - tan 2
2.

2 tan 30c
(a)
1 + tan 2 30c
3.
(b)
1 - tan 2 22.5c
1 + tan 2 22.5c
(c)
1 - tan 2 30c
1 + tan 2 30c
(d)
2 tan 90c
1 - tan 2 90c
Write each expression in terms of

i
t where t = tan .
2
(a) cosec i
(b) sec i
(c) cot i
(d) sin i + cos i
(e) 1 + tan i
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
7.
Write each expression in the form

r sin ] i - a g.
(a) sin i - cos i
(b) sin i - 2 cos i
(c) sin i - 3 cos i
(d) 3 sin i - cos i
(e) 5 sin i - 2 cos i
8.
Write the expression

3 cos i + sin i in the form
r cos ] i - a g.
9.
Write the expression

cos i - 3 sin i in the form
r cos ] i + a g.
i
2
(g) 3 cos i + 4 sin i
(f) 1 + tan i tan
(h)
1 + sin i + cos i
1 + sin i - cos i
(i) tan i + sec i

(j) sin 2i
1 + sin i - cos i
= t.
1 + sin i + cos i
4.
Prove
5.
Find an expression for

sin 2i - cos 2i in terms of t.
6.
Write each expression in the form

r sin ] i + a g.
2 sin i + cos i
sin i + 3 cos i
sin i + cos i
5 sin i + 2 cos i
4 sin i + cos i
3 sin i + cos i
2 sin i + 3 cos i
4 sin i + 7 cos i
5 sin i + 4 cos i
3 sin i + 5 cos i
10. Write the expression

9 sin i + 2 cos i in the form.
(a) r sin ] i + a g
(b) r cos ] i - a g
We can use these results to help solve some trigonometric equations.
EXAMPLES
1. Solve 2 sin i = cos i for 0c # i # 360c .
Solution
2 sin i = cos i
Dividing both sides by cos i:
(check cos i = 0 does not give a solution)
2 sin i
cos i
=
cos i
cos i
2 tan i = 1
tan i = 0.5
CONTINUED
379
380
Since tan i is positive in the first and third quadrants:

i = 26c 34l, 180c+ 26c 34l
= 26c 34l, 206c 34l
2. Solve cos 2i = cos i for 0c # i # 360c.
Solution
cos 2i = cos i
2 cos i - 1 = cos i
2 cos i - cos i - 1 = 0
] 2 cos i + 1 g ] cos i - 1 g = 0
2
` 2 cos i + 1 = 0 or cos i - 1 = 0
2 cos i = -1
cos i = 1
1
i = 0c, 360c
cos i = 2
i = 120c, 240c
` solutions are i = 0c, 120c, 240c, 360c
3 sin x + cos x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c.
3. Solve
Solution (Method 1)
Use the result for a sin x + b cos x.
For 3 sin x + cos x, a = 3 and b = 1
r=
a2 + b2
= ^ 3 h + 12
=2
b
tan a = a
1
=
3
` a = 30c
2
3 sin x + cos x = 2 sin ] x + 30c g
Solving:
Sine is positive in the first and

second quadrants.
3 sin x + cos x = 1
2 sin ] x + 30c g = 1
1
sin ] x + 30c g =
2
`
for 0c # x # 360c
for 30c # x + 30c # 390c
x + 30c = 30c , 180c - 30c , 360c + 30c

= 30c , 150c , 390c
x = 0c , 120c , 360c
Solution (Method 2)
Use the results for t = tan
i
.
2
3 sin x + cos x = 1
2t
1 - t2
3d
+
=1
n
1 + t2
1 + t2
2 3 t + 1 - t2
=1
1 + t2
2 3 t + 1 - t2 = 1 + t2
0 = 2t 2 - 2 3 t
= 2t ^ t - 3 h
` 2t = 0
or t - 3
t=0
t
x
x
tan = 0
tan
2
2
x
x
= 0c, 180c
2
2
` x = 0c, 120c, 360c
=0
= 3
=
3 for 0c #
x
# 180c
2
= 60c
Test x = 180c separately:

3 sin 180c + cos 180c = 0 + (- 1)
= -1
!1
` x = 180c is not a solution
Solutions are x = 0c , 120c , 360c .
General solutions of trigonometric equations

Often the solutions of trigonometric equations are restricted, for example, to
0c # i # 360c . If the solutions are not restricted, then they can be described
by a general formula.
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for sin i =
3
.
2
Solution
CONTINUED
381
382
Sin is positive in the 1st

and 2nd quadrants.
sin i = sin 60c

i = 60c, 180c - 60c, 360c + 60c, 360c + 180c - 60c,
360c + 360c + 60cg
= 60c, 180c - 60c, 360c + 60c, 540c - 60c, 720c + 60c, g
If i can also be negative,
i = - (180c + 60c), - (360c - 60c), - [360c - (180c - 60c)], g
= - 180c - 60c, - 360c + 60c, - 540c - 60c, g
So the general solution for sin i = sin 60c is
i = 180c # n + ] - 1 g n 60c where n is an integer.
In general, the solution for sin i = sin a

is given by i = 180n + (-1) n a where n is
an integer.
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for cos i =
Solution
Cos is positive in the 1st

and 4th quadrants.
1
.
2
cos i = cos 45c

i = 45c, 360c - 45c, 360c + 45c, 360c + 360c - 45c,
360c + 360c + 45c, f
= 45c, 360c - 45c, 360c + 45c, 720c - 45c, 720c + 45c, f
If i can also be negative,
i = - 45c, - (360c - 45c), - (360c + 45c), - [360c + (360c - 45c)], f
= - 45c, - 360c + 45c, - 360c - 45c, - 720c + 45c, f
So the general solution for cos i = cos 45c is
i = 360c # n ! 45c where n is an integer.
In general, the solution for cos i = cos a

is given by i = 360n ! a where n is an
integer.
383
EXAMPLE
Find all solutions for tan i = 1.
Solution
tan i = tan 45c

i = 45c, 180c + 45c, 360c + 45c,
360c + 180c + 45c, 360c + 360c + 45c, f
Tan is positive in the 1st

and 3rd quadrants.
= 45c, 180c + 45c, 360c + 45c, 540c + 45c, 720c + 45c, f

If i can also be negative, then
i = - (180c - 45c), - (360c - 45c), - [360c + (180c - 45c)], f
= -180c + 45c, - 360c + 45c, - 540c + 45c, f
The general solution for tan i = tan 45c is
i = 180c # n + 45c where n is an integer.
In general, the solution for tan i = tan a

is given by i = 180n + a where n is an
integer.
6.17
1.
Exercises
Solve for 0c # x # 360c .
2.
Solve for 0c # i # 360c.
(a) sin x = cos x
(a) 3 sin i + 4 cos i = 0
(b) cos x =
(b) 5 cos i - 12 sin i = -3
3 sin x
(c) sin 2x = sin x
(c) sin i - 3 cos i = 0
(d) tan x - tan x = 0
(d) sin i + cos i = -1
(e) 2 sin x - sin x - 1 = 0
(e) 4 sin i - cos i + 3 = 0
(f) 2 sin 2 x + 3 cos x - 3 = 0
(f) sin i - cos i = 1
(g) sin x cot x - sin x = 0
(g)
(h) cos x - 1 = 0
(i) 2 sin x tan x - tan x
+ 2 sin x - 1 = 0
(j) 3 cos 2 x - 7 cos x + 4 = 0
(h) 2 sin i - cos i =
2 cos i + sin i = 1
5
2
(i) 3 cos i - 5 sin i + 2 = 0

(j)
2 cos i + sin i + 1 = 0
384
3.
Find the general solution for

1
(a) sin i =
2
(b) tan a = 3
3
2
(d) 2 sin x = -1
7.
Find the general solutions of

(a) sin i = 0
(b) cos x = 1
(c) tan x = 0
(d) sin i = -1
(e) cos a = 0
8.
For each question

(i) solve for 0c # x # 360cand
(ii) find the general solutions
(a) 2 sin x - 1 = 0
(b) 4 cos x - 3 = 0
(c) sin x = 3 cos x
(d) 3 sin x + cos x = 0
(e) sin x + cos x = 2
9.

2 sin 2 x + sin x 1 = 0.
(c) cos i =
(e) tan i + 1 = 0
(f) 2 cos 2 b = 1
(g) 4 sin 2 c = 3
1
(h) tan i =
3
(i) cos i = 0.245
(j) sin a = 0.399
4.
Solve sin ] 2x - 45c g =
3
for
2
-180c # x # 180c .
5.

sin 2x = cos x.
6.
Solve sin 2 x = sin x for

-180c # x # 180c .
10. (a) Solve cos 2x = cos x for

0c # x # 360c.
(b) Find the general solutions of
cos 2x = cos x.
Test Yourself 6
1.
Find the exact value of cos i and sin i if

3
tan i = .
5
2.
Simplify
11. Find the length of AB as a surd.
(a) sin x cot x

cos 40c + sin 50c
(b)
cos 40c
12. Evaluate x, correct to 2 significant
figures.
(a)
1 + cot 2 A
i
1 - t2
(d)
where t = tan
2
2
1+t
(e) 1 - 2 sin 2 10i
(c)
3.
4.
Evaluate to 2 decimal places.

(a) sin 39c 54l
(b) tan 61c 30l
(c) cos 19c 2l
Find i to the nearest minute if
(a) sin i = 0.72
(b) cos i = 0.286
5
(c) tan i =
7
2 cos i
= 2 + 2 sin i.
1 - sin i
2
5.
Prove that
6.
Find the value of b if

sin b = cos ] 2b - 30 g c .
7.

(a) cos 315c
(b) sin ] - 60c g
(c) tan 120c
(d) 2 sin 105c cos 105c
(e) sin ^ x - y h when sin x =
cos y =
(b)
13. Evaluate i to the nearest minute.

(a)
(b)
8
and
17
5
13
8.
Solve 2 cos x = -1 for 0c # x # 360c.
9.
Sketch the graph of y = cos x, and hence

solve cos x = 0 for 0c # x # 360c .
10. A ship sails on a bearing of 215c from

port until it is 100 km due south of port.
How far does it sail, to the nearest km?
(c)
385
386
14. Find the area of triangle MNO.
15. Solve for -180c # x # 180c .

3
(a) sin 2 x =
4
1
(b) tan 2x =
3
(c) 3 tan 2 x = tan x
5
16. If sec i = - and tan i 2 0, find sin i
4
and cot i.
17. Jacquie walks south from home for
3.2 km, then turns and walks west for
1.8 km. What is the bearing, to the
nearest degree, of
(a) Jacquie from her home?
(b) her home from where Jacquie is now?
18. Find the general solution of
6 sin i - 8 cos i = 5.
(a) Find an expression for the length of AD.

(b) Find the height of the pole, to
1 decimal place.
20. A plane flies from Orange for 1800 km
on a bearing of 300c . It then turns and
flies for 2500 km on a bearing of 205c .
How far is the plane from Orange, to the
nearest km?
(a) sin 75c
(b) cos 105c
(c) sin 22c 30l cos 22c 30l.
22. Find the general solutions of
(a) 2 cos x 1 = 0
(b) tan x = 1
3
(c) sin x =
.
2
23. Solve 3 sin i + cos i = 1 for
0c # i # 360c .
24. Evaluate a in the figure below.
a
19. The angle of elevation from point B to

the top of a pole is 39c , and the angle of
elevation from D, on the other side of
the pole, is 42c. B and D are 20 m apart.
10 mm
4 mm
12 mm
25. (a) Simplify cos x cos y sin x sin y.

(b) Show that cos 2x = 1 sin2 x.
1.
2.
3.
Two cars leave an intersection at the

same time, one travelling at 70 km/h
along one road and the other car
travelling at 80 km/h along the other
road. After 2 hours they are 218 km
apart. At what angle, to the nearest
minute, do the roads meet at the
intersection?
A ship sails from port on a bearing of
055c , then turns and sails on a bearing of
153c for 29.1 km, when it is due east of
port. How far, to 1 decimal place, is the
ship from its starting point?
Evaluate x correct to 3 significant figures.
6.
Simplify sin ] 360c - x g $ tan ] 90c- x g .
7.
Find the exact area of D ABC.
8.
Find the exact value of cos (-315c) .
9.
Solve tan 2x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c .
10. Find i to the nearest minute.
4.
(a) Find an exact expression for the

length of AC.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, find the value of
h correct to 1 decimal place.
11. The angle of depression from the top of
a 4.5 m mast of a boat down to a fish
is 56c 28l . How far down, to 1 decimal
place, does a pelican sitting at the top of
the mast need to fly to catch the fish?
12. Solve 2 cos (i + 10c ) = - 1 for
0c # i # 360c.
5.
A man walks 3.8 km on a bearing of 134c

from a house. He then walks 2.9 km on a
bearing of 029c . How far is he from the
house, to 1 decimal place?
13. Two roads meet at an angle of 74c . Find

the distance, correct to 3 significant
figures, between two cars, one 6.3 km
from the intersection along one road
and the other 3.9 km along the other
road.
387
388
14. Find the exact value of cos i, given

5
sin i = and cos i 1 0.
9
15. From the top of a vertical pole the angle
of depression to a man standing at the
foot of the pole is 43c . On the other side
of the pole is another man, and the angle
of depression from the top of the pole to
this man is 52c . The men are standing
58 m apart. Find the height of the pole,
to the nearest metre.
16. Show that
cos i ] sin i + cos i g
= 1 + tan i.
] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g
17. If x = 3 sin i and y = 3 cos i - 2,
eliminate i to find an equation relating
x and y.
18. From point A, 93 m due south of the
base of a tower, the angle of elevation
is 35c . Point B is 124 m due east of the
tower. Find
(a) the height of the tower, to the
nearest metre
(b) the angle of elevation of the tower
from point B.
20. A cone has a base diameter of 14 cm and

a perpendicular height of 26 cm. Find
the vertical angle at the top of the cone.
21. Show that
cos 6i cos 4i - sin 6i sin 4i = 2 cos 2 5i - 1.
22. A cable car 100 m above the ground is
seen to have an angle of elevation of 65c
when it is on a bearing of 345c . After a
minute, it has an angle of elevation of
69c and is on a bearing of 025c . Find
how far it travels in that minute, and its
speed in ms - 1 .
23. Solve cos 2i - sin i = 0 for
0c # i # 360c .
19. ABCD is a triangular pyramid with

24. Find the general solutions of sin i = -1.
BC = 7 m, CD = 10 m, BD = 8 m, AB = AC
and +ACB = 67c . Calculate
25. Simplify cosec i ] cos i - 1 g by expressing
(a) +BCD
i
it in terms of t c tan m .
(b) length AB, to the nearest metre.
2
7
Linear Functions
TERMINOLOGY
Collinear points: Two or more points that lie on the same
straight line
Interval: A section of a straight line including the end

points
Concurrent lines: Two or more lines that intersect at a

single point
Midpoint: A point lying exactly halfway between two

points
Gradient: The slope of a line measured by comparing

the vertical rise over the horizontal run. The symbol for
gradient is m
Perpendicular distance: The shortest distance between a

point and a line. The distance will be at right angles to
the line
Chapter 7 Linear Functions
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 5, YOU STUDIED functions and their graphs. This chapter
looks at the linear function, or straight-line graph, in more detail.
Here you will study the gradient and equation of a straight line, the
intersection of two or more lines, parallel and perpendicular lines,
the midpoint, distance and the perpendicular distance from a point
to a line.
DID YOU KNOW?

Pierre de Fermat (160165) was a lawyer who dabbled in mathematics. He was a contemporary of
Descartes, and showed the relationship between an equation in the form Dx = By, where D and
B are constants, and a straight-line graph. Both de Fermat and Descartes only used positive values
of x, but de Fermat used the x-axis and y-axis as perpendicular lines as we do today.
De Fermats notes Introduction to Loci, Method of Finding Maxima and Minima and Varia
opera mathematica were only published after his death. This means that in his lifetime de Fermat
was not considered a great mathematician. However, now he is said to have contributed as
much as Descartes towards the discovery of coordinate geometry. De Fermat also made a great
contribution in his discovery of differential calculus.
Class Assignment
Find as many examples as you can of straight-line graphs in newspapers
and magazines.
Distance
The distance between two points (or the length of the interval between two
points) is easy to find when the points form a vertical or horizontal line.
391
392
EXAMPLES
Find the distance between
1. ^ -1, 4 h and ^ -1, -2 h
Solution
Counting along the y-axis, the distance is 6 units.

2. ^ 3, 2 h and ^ -4, 2 h
Solution
Counting along the x-axis, the distance is 7 units.
When the two points are not lined up horizontally or vertically, we use
Pythagoras theorem to find the distance.
393
EXAMPLE
Find the distance between points ^ 3, -1 h and ^ -2, 5 h.
Solution
BC = 5 and AC = 6
By Pythagoras theorem,
You studied Pythagoras

theorem in Chapter 4.
c =a +b
AB 2 = 5 2 + 6 2
= 25 + 36
= 61
2
` AB = 61
Z 7.81
DID YOU KNOW?

Pythagoras made many discoveries about music as well as about mathematics. He found
that changing the length of a vibrating string causes the tone of the music to change. For
example, when a string is halved, the tone is one octave higher.
The distance between two points _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by

d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
394
Proof
If points A and B were changed

around, the formula would be
d =
(x 1 - x 2 ) + (y 1 - y 2 ) ,
2
which would give the same

answer.
Let A = _ x 1, y 1 i and B = _ x 2, y 2 i
Length AC = x 2 - x 1 and length BC = y 2 - y 1
By Pythagoras theorem
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
`d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
EXAMPLES
1. Find the distance between the points ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -3, 0 h.
Solution
Let ^ 1, 3 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -3, 0 h be _ x 2, y 2 i
d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
= ] -3 - 1 g2 + ] 0 - 3 g2
= ] -4 g2 + ] -3 g2
= 16 + 9
= 25
=5
So the distance is 5 units.
2. Find the exact length of AB given that A = ^ -2, -4 h and B = ^ -1, 5 h .
Solution
Let ^ -2, -4 h be _ x 1, y 1 i and ^ -1, 5 h be _ x 2, y 2 i
d=
You would still get 82 if you

used (- 2, - 4) as (x 2 , y 2 ) and
(-1, 5) as (x 1 , y 1 ).
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
6 -1 - ^ -2 h @ 2 + 6 5 - ^ -4 h @ 2
=
=
=
12 + 92
1 + 81
82
7.1 Exercises
1.
Find the distance between points

(a) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 3, 6 h
(b) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h
(c) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -3, 7 h
2.
Find the exact length of the

interval between points
(a) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -1, 1 h
(b) ^ -5, 1 h and ^ 3, 0 h
(c) ^ - 2, -3 h and ^ - 4, 6 h
(d) ^ -1, 3 h and ^ -7, 7 h
3.
Find the distance, correct to

2 decimal places, between points
(a) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h
(b) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h
(c) ^ 8, -1 h and ^ -7, 6 h
4.
Find the perimeter of D ABC with

vertices A ^ 3, 1 h, B ^ -1, 1 h and
C ^ -1, -2 h .
5.
Prove that the triangle with

vertices ^ 3, 4 h, ^ -2, 7 h and ^ 6, -1 h
is isosceles.
6.
Show that AB = BC, where

A = ^ -2, 5 h, B = ^ 4, -2 h and
C = ^ -3, -8 h .
7.
Show that points ^ 3, -4 h and ^ 8,1 h

are equidistant from point ^ 7, -3 h .
8.
A circle with centre at the origin

O passes through the point
_ 2 , 7 i . Find the radius of the
circle, and hence its equation.
9.
Prove that the points

X _ 2 , -3 i, Y _ -1, 10 i and
Z _ - 6 , 5 i all lie on a circle
with centre at the origin. Find its
equation.
10. If the distance between ^ a, -1 h

and ^ 3, 4 h is 5, find the value of a.
11. If the distance between ^ 3, -2 h
and ^ 4, a h is 7 , find the exact
value of a.
12. Prove that A ^ 1, 4 h, B ^ 1, 2 h and

C _ 1 + 3 , 3 i are the vertices of
an equilateral triangle.
13. If the distance between ^ a, 3 h
and ^ 4, 2 h is 37 , find the values
of a.
14. The points M ^ -1, -2 h, N (3, 0),
P ^ 4, 6 h and Q ^ 0, 4 h form
a quadrilateral. Prove that
MQ = NP and QP = MN. What
type of quadrilateral is MNPQ?
15. Show that the diagonals
of a square with vertices
A ^ -2, 4 h, B ^ 5, 4 h, C ^ 5, -3 h and
D ^ -2, -3 h are equal.
16. (a) Show that the triangle with
vertices A ^ 0, 6 h, B ^ 2, 0 h and
C ^ -2, 0 h is isosceles.
(b) Show that perpendicular OA,
where O is the origin, bisects BC.
17. Find the exact length of the
diameter of a circle with centre
^ -3, 4 h if the circle passes
through the point ^ 7, 5 h .
radius of the circle with centre
(1, 3) if the circle passes through
the point ^ -5, -2 h .
19. Show that the triangle
with vertices A ^ -2, 1 h, B ^ 3, 3 h
and C ^ 7, -7 h is right angled.
20. Show that the points
X ^ 3, -3 h, Y ^ 7, 4 h and Z ^ - 4, 1 h
form the vertices of an isosceles
right-angled triangle.
395
396
Midpoint
The midpoint is the point halfway between two other points.
The midpoint of two points _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by

M=e
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
o
,
2
2
Proof
Can you see why

these triangles
are similar?
Find the midpoint of points A _ x 1, y 1 i and B _ x 2, y 2 i.

Let M = ^ x, y h
Then D APQ <; D ABR
AQ
AP
=
AR
AB
x - x1
1
` x -x =
2
2
1
2 _ x - x1 i = x2 - x1
2x - 2x 1 = x 2 - x 1
2x = x 1 + x 2
x1 + x2
`
x=
2
y1 + y2
Similarly, y =
2
`
EXAMPLES
1. Find the midpoint of ^ -1, 4 h and ^ 5, 2 h.
Solution
x=
x1 + x2
2
-1 + 5
2
4
=
2
=2
y1 + y2
y=
2
4+2
=
2
6
=
2
=3
So M = (2, 3) .
=
2. Find the values of a and b if ^ 2, -3 h is the midpoint between ^ -7, -8 h

and ^ a, b h.
Solution
x=
x1 + x2
2
-7 + a
2=
2
4 = -7 + a
11 = a
y1 + y2
y=
2
-8 + b
-3 =
2
-6 = -8 + b
2=b
So a = 11 and b = 2.
Note that the x-coordinate of the midpoint is the average of x 1 and x 2 .

The same applies to the y-coordinate.
PROBLEM
A timekeeper worked out the average time for 8 finalists in a race. The
average was 30.55, but the timekeeper lost one of the finalists times.
The other 7 times were 30.3, 31.1, 30.9, 30.7, 29.9, 31.0 and 30.3.
Can you find out the missing time?
397
398
7.2 Exercises
1.
2.
Find the values of a and b if

(a) ^ 4, 1 h is the midpoint of ^ a, b h
and ^ -1, 5 h
(b) ^ -1, 0 h is the midpoint of
^ a, b h and ^ 3, -6 h
(c) ^ a, 2 h is the midpoint of (3, b h
and ^ -5, 6 h
(d) ^ -2, 1 h is the midpoint of
^ a, 4 h and ^ -3, b h
(e) ^ 3, b h is the midpoint of ^ a, 2 h
and ^ 0, 0 h
3.
Prove that the origin is the

midpoint of ^ 3, -4 h and ^ -3, 4 h .
4.
Show that P = Q where P is the

midpoint of ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 6, -5 h
and Q is the midpoint of ^ -7, -5 h
and ^ 11, 3 h .
5.
The locus is the path
that P (x, y) follows.
Find the midpoint of

(a) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 4, 6 h
(b) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h
(c) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -6, 7 h
(d) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -8, 1 h
(e) ^ -5, 2 h and ^ 3, 0 h
(f) ^ -2, -2 h and ^ -4, 6 h
(g) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h
(h) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h
(i) ^ 8, -1 h and ^ -7, 6 h
(j) ^ 3, 7 h and ^ -3, 4 h
6.
Find the point that divides the

interval between ^ 3, -2 h and
^ 5, 8 h in the ratio of 1:1.
Show that the line x = 3 is the
perpendicular bisector of the
interval between the points
^ -1, 2 h and ^ 7, 2 h .
7.
The points A ^ -1, 2 h, B ^ 1, 5 h,

C ^ 6, 5 h and D ^ 4, 2 h form a
parallelogram. Find the midpoints
of the diagonals AC and BD. What
property of a parallelogram does
this show?
8.
The points A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h,
C ^ 5, -6 h and D ^ -1, 2 h form a
quadrilateral. Prove that the
diagonals are equal and bisect
one another. What type of
quadrilateral is ABCD?
9.
A circle with centre ^ -2, 5 h has

one end of a diameter at ^ 4, -3 h .
Find the coordinates of the other
end of the diameter.
10. A triangle has vertices at

A ^ -1, 3 h, B ^ 0, 4 h and C ^ 2, -2 h .
(a) Find the midpoints X, Y
and Z of sides AB, AC and BC
respectively.
1
(b) Show that XY = BC,
2
1
1
XZ = AC and YZ = AB.
2
2
11. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that
the midpoint between P and
the origin is always a point on
the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1. Find the
equation of the locus of P.
12. Find the equation of the locus
of the point P ^ x, y h that is the
midpoint between all points on
the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 and the
origin.
Gradient
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. The gradient compares the
vertical rise with the horizontal run.
399
rise
Gradient = run
On the number plane, this is a measure of the rate of change of y with

respect to x.
The rate of change of y with respect to x is a very important measure

of their relationship. In later chapters you will use the gradient for many
purposes, including sketching curves, finding the velocity and acceleration
of objects, and finding maximum and minimum values of formulae.
EXAMPLES
Find the gradient of each interval.
1.
You will study the
gradient at different
points on a curve in
the next chapter.
Solution
rise
Gradient = run
2
=
3
CONTINUED
400
2.
Solution
In this case, x is - 3 (the run is measured towards the left).
rise
Gradient = run
2
=
-3
2
=3
Positive gradient leans to the right.
Negative gradient leans to the left.
Gradient given 2 points

The gradient of the line between _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i is given by
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
Proof
401
BC = y 2 - y 1 and AC = x 2 - x 1
rise
Gradient = run
y2 - y1
= x -x
2
1
This formula could also be

y1 - y2
written m =
x1 - x2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line between points ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -3, 4 h .
Solution
y2 - y1
Gradient: m = x - x
2
1
4-3
=
-3 - 2
1
=
-5
1
=5
2. Prove that points ^ 2, 3 h, ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h are collinear.
Solution
To prove points are collinear, we show that they have the same gradient
(slope).
CONTINUED
Collinear points lie on the

same line, so they have
the same gradients.
402
Gradient of the interval between ^ -2, -5 h and ^ 0, -1 h :

y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
-1 - ] -5 g
=
0 - ] -2 g
-1 + 5
=
2
4
=
2
=2
Gradient of the interval between ^ 0, -1 h and ^ 2, 3 h :
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
3 - ] -1 g
=
2-0
3+1
=
2
4
=
2
=2
Since the gradient of both intervals is the same, the points are collinear.
Gradient given the angle at the x-axis

The gradient of a straight line is given by
m = tan i
where i is the angle the line makes with the x-axis in the positive direction
Proof
rise
m = run
opposite
=
adjacent
= tan i
For an acute angle tan i 2 0.
403
For an obtuse angle tan i 1 0.
Class Discussion
1. Which angles give a positive gradient?
2. Which angles give a negative gradient? Why?
3. What is the gradient of a horizontal line? What angle does it make
with the x-axis?
4. What angle does a vertical line make with the x-axis? Can you find
its gradient?
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the line that makes an angle of 135c with the
x-axis in the positive direction.
Solution
m = tan i
= tan 135c
= -1
2. Find the angle, in degrees and minutes, that a straight line makes
with the x-axis in the positive direction if its gradient is 0.5.
Solution
m = tan i
` tan i = 0.5
i = 26c34l
Can you see why the

gradient is negative?
404
7.3 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
Find the gradient of the line

between
(a) ^ 3, 2 h and ^ 1, -2 h
(b) ^ 0, 2 h and ^ 3, 6 h
(c) ^ -2, 3 h and ^ 4, -5 h
(d) ^ 2, -5 h and ^ -3, 7 h
(e) ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -1, 1 h
(f) ^ - 5, 1 h and ^ 3, 0 h
(g) ^ -2, -3 h and ^ -4, 6 h
(h) ^ -1, 3 h and ^ -7, 7 h
(i) ^ 1, -4 h and ^ 5, 5 h
(j) ^ 0, 4 h and ^ 3, -2 h
If the gradient of _ 8, y 1 i and
^ -1, 3 h is 2, find the value of y 1 .
The gradient of ^ 2, -1 h and ^ x, 0 h
is 5. Find the value of x.
4.
The gradient of a line is 1 and

the line passes through the points
^ 4, 2 h and ^ x, -3 h . Find the value
of x.
5. (a) Show that the gradient of
the line through ^ -2, 1 h and
^ 3, 4 h is equal to the gradient
of the line between the points
^ 2, -1 h and ^ 7,2 h .
(b) Draw the two lines on the
number plane. What can you say
about the lines?
6.
7.
8.
Show that the points

A ^ -1, 2 h, B ^ 1, 5 h, C ^ 6, 5 h and
D ^ 4, 2 h form a parallelogram.
Find the gradients of all sides.
The points
A ^ 3, 5 h, B ^ 9, -3 h, C ^ 5, -6 h and
D ^ -1, 2 h form a rectangle. Find
the gradients of all the sides and
the diagonals.
Find the gradients of the
diagonals of the square with
vertices A ^ -2, 1 h, B ^ 3, 1 h,
C ^ 3, 6 h and D ^ -2, 6 h .
9.
A triangle has vertices

A ^ 3, 1 h, B ^ -1, -4 h and C ^ -11, 4 h .
(a) By finding the lengths of all
sides, prove that it is a rightangled triangle.
(b) Find the gradients of sides
AB and BC.
10. (a) Find the midpoints F and

G of sides AB and AC where
ABC is a triangle with vertices
A ^ 0, 3 h, B ^ 2, -7 h and C ^ 8, -2 h .
(b) Find the gradients of FG
and BC.
11. The gradient of the line between
a moving point P ^ x, y h and the
point A ^ 5, 3 h is equal to the
gradient of line PB where B has
coordinates ^ 2, -1 h . Find the
12. Prove that the points ^ 3, -1 h, ^ 5, 5 h
and ^ 2, -4 h are collinear.
13. Find the gradient of the straight
line that makes an angle of 45c
with the x-axis in the positive
direction.
14. Find the gradient, to 2 significant
figures, of the straight line that
makes an angle of 42c51l with
the x-axis.
15. Find the gradient of the line that
makes an angle of 87c14l with
the x-axis, to 2 significant figures.
16. Find the angle, in degrees and
minutes, that a line with gradient
1.2 makes with the x-axis.
17. What angle, in degrees and
minutes does the line with
gradient 3 make with the x-axis
in the positive direction?
18. Find the exact gradient of the

line that makes an angle with the
x-axis in the positive direction of
(a) 60c
(b) 30c
(c) 120c.
19. Show that the line passing
through ^ 4, -2 h and ^ 7, -5 h
makes an angle of 135c with

the x-axis in the positive
direction.
20. Find the exact value of x with
rational denominator if the line
passing through ^ x, 3 h and ^ 2, 1 h
makes an angle of 60c with the
x-axis.
Gradient given an equation

In Chapter 5 you explored and graphed linear functions. You may have
noticed a relationship between the graph and the gradient and y-intercept of a
straight line.
Investigation
1. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.
(ii) By selecting two points on the line, find its gradient.
(a) y = x
(b) y = 2x
(c) y = 3x
(d) y = - x
(e) y = - 2x
Can you find a pattern for the gradient of each line? Can you predict
what the gradient of y = 5x and y = - 9x would be?
2. (i) Draw the graph of each linear function.
(ii) Find the y-intercept.
(a) y = x
(b) y = x + 1
(c) y = x + 2
(d) y = x - 2
(e) y = x - 3
Can you find a pattern for the y-intercept of each line? Can you predict
what the y-intercept of y = x + 11 and y = x - 6 would be?
y = mx + b has
m = gradient
b = y-intercept
405
406
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient and y-intercept of the linear function y = 7x - 5.
Solution
The equation is in the form y = mx + b where m = 7 and b = - 5.
Gradient = 7
y-intercept = - 5
2. Find the gradient of the straight line with equation 2x + 3y - 6 = 0.
Solution
First, we change the equation into the form y = mx + b.
2x + 3y - 6 = 0
2x + 3y - 6 + 6 = 0 + 6
2x + 3y = 6
2x - 2x + 3y = 6 - 2x
3y = 6 - 2x
= - 2x + 6
3y
- 2x + 6
=
3
3
- 2x 6
y=
+
3
3
2
= - x +2
3
2
m=3
2
So the gradient is - .
3
There is a general formula for nding the gradient of a straight line.
The gradient of the line ax + by + c = 0 is given by

m=-
Proof
ax + by + c = 0
by = - ax - c
ax c
y=b
b
a
`
m=b
a
b
EXAMPLE
Find the gradient of 3x - y = 2.
Solution
3x - y = 2
3x - y - 2 = 0
a = 3, b = - 1
a
m=b
3
=-1
=3
` gradient is 3
7.4 Exercises
1.
Find
(i) the gradient and
(ii) the y-intercept of each linear
function.
(a) y = 3x + 5
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 1
(c) y = 6x - 7
(d) y = - x
(e) y = - 4x + 3
(f) y = x - 2
(g) f ] x g = 6 - 2x
(h) y = 1 - x
(i) y = 9x
(j) y = 5x - 2
2.
Find
(i) the gradient and
(ii) the y-intercept of each linear
function.
(a) 2x + y - 3 = 0
(b) 5x + y + 6 = 0
(c) 6x - y - 1 = 0
(d) x - y + 4 = 0
(e) 4x + 2y - 1 = 0
(f) 6x - 2y + 3 = 0
(g) x + 3y + 6 = 0
(h) 4x + 5y - 10 = 0
(i) 7x - 2y - 1 = 0
(j) 5x - 3y + 2 = 0
3.
Find the gradient of the straight

line.
(a) y = 4x
(b) y = - 2x - 1
(c) y = 2
(d) 2x + y - 5 = 0
(e) x + y + 1 = 0
(f) 3x + y = 8
(g) 2x - y + 5 = 0
(h) x + 4y - 12 = 0
(i) 3x - 2y + 4 = 0
(j) 5x - 4y = 15
2
(k) y = x + 3
3
x
(l) y =
2
x
(m) y = - 1
5
2x
(n) y =
+5
7
3x
-2
(o) y = 5
x 1
(p) 2y = - +
7 3
y
(q) 3x - = 8
5
x y
(r)
+ =1
2 3
2x
(s)
- 4y - 3 = 0
3
x 2y
+
+7=0
(t)
4
3
407
408
Equation of a Straight Line

There are several different ways to write the equation of a straight line.
General form
ax + by + c = 0
Gradient form
y = mx + b
where m = gradient and b = y-intercept
Intercept form
x y
a+b =1
where a and b are the x-intercept and y-intercept respectively
Proof
b
m = - a, b = b
`
b
y = -ax + b
y
b
y
x
= -a + 1
x
a+b =1
Point-gradient formula
There are two formulae for finding the equation of a straight line. One of these
uses a point and the gradient of the line.
The equation of a straight line is given by

y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
This is a very useful
formula as it is used in
many topics in this course.
where _ x 1, y 1 i lies on the line with gradient m
409
Proof
Given point _ x 1, y 1 i on the line with gradient m
Let P = ^ x, y h
Then line AP has gradient
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
y - y1
`
m= x-x
1
m _ x - x1 i = y - y1
Two-point formula
The equation of a straight line is given by
y - y1
y2 - y1
=
x - x1
x2 - x1
This formula is
optional as you can
use the pointgradient
formula for any
question.
where _ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i are points on the line
Proof
The gradient is the

same anywhere along
a straight line.
Let P = ^ x, y h
D APQ <; D ABR
PQ
BR
So
=
AR
AQ
y - y1
y2 - y1
i.e. x - x = x - x
1
2
1
The two-point formula is not essential. The right-hand side of it is the gradient
of the line. Replacing this by m gives the pointgradient formula.
410
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the straight line with gradient -4 and passing
through the point ^ -2, 3 h .
Solution
m = -4, x 1 = -2 and y 1 = 3
Equation: y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - 3 = - 4 [x - (-2)]
= - 4 (x + 2)
= - 4x - 8
`
y = - 4x - 5
or 4x + y + 5 = 0
(gradient form)
(general form)
2. Find the equation of the straight line that passes through the points
^ 2, -3 h and ^ -4, -7 h .
Solution
By two-point formula:
y - y1
y2 - y1
=
x - x1
x2 - x1
y - ] -7 g
-3 - ] -7 g
=
x - ] -4 g
2 - ] -4 g
y+7
-3 + 7
=
x+4
2+4
y+7
2
=
x+4
3
3 ^ y + 7 h = 2 ]x + 4 g
3y + 21 = 2x + 8
-2x + 3y + 13 = 0
or 2x - 3y - 13 = 0
By point-gradient method:
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
-3 - ] -7 g
=
2 - ] -4 g
-3 + 7
=
2+4
2
=
3
Use one of the points, say ^ -4, -7 h .
2
m = , x 1 = -4 and y 1 = -7
3
Equation:
y - y 1 = m ( x - x 1)
y - (-7) =
2
6 x - ( - 4) @
3
2
( x + 4)
3
= 2 ]x + 4 g
= 2x + 8
=0
=0
y+7=
3^ y + 7h
3y + 21
` -2x + 3y + 13
or 2x - 3y - 13
3. Find the equation of the line with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 2.
Solution
x y
Intercept form is a + = 1, where a and b are the x-intercept and
b
y-intercept respectively.
x y
`
+ =1
3 2
2x + 3y = 6
` 2x + 3y - 6 = 0
Again, the point-gradient formula can be used. The x-intercept and
y-intercept are the points ^ 3, 0 h and ^ 0, 2 h .
7.5 Exercises
1.
Find the equation of the straight

line
(a) with gradient 4 and
y-intercept -1
(b) with gradient -3 and passing
through ^ 0, 4 h
(c) passing through the origin
with gradient 5
(d) with gradient 4 and
x-intercept -5
(e) with x-intercept 1 and
y-intercept 3
(f) with x-intercept 3,
y-intercept -4
(g) with y-intercept -1 and
making an angle of 45c with the
x-axis in the positive direction
(h) with y-intercept 5 and making
an angle of 45c with the x-axis in
the positive direction.
2.

line that makes an angle of
135c with the x-axis and passes
through the point ^ 2, 6 h .
3.

line passing through
(a) ^ 2, 5 h and ^ -1, 1 h
(b) ^ 0, 1 h and ^ -4, -2 h
(c) ^ - 2, 1 h and ^ 3, 5 h
(d) ^ 3, 4 h and ^ -1, 7 h
(e) ^ -4, -1 h and ^ - 2, 0 h .
4.
What is the equation of the line

with x-intercept 2 and passing
through ^ 3, -4 h ?
5.
Find the equation of the line

(a) parallel to the x-axis and
passing through ^ 2, 3 h
(b) parallel to the y-axis and
passing through ^ -1, 2 h .
411
412
6.
A straight line passing through

the origin has a gradient of - 2.
Find its equation.
7.
A straight line has x-intercept 4

and passes through ^ 0, -3 h . Find
its equation.
8.

line with gradient -2 that passes
through the midpoint of ^ 5, -2 h
and ^ -3, 4 h .
9.
What is the equation of the

straight line through the point
^ -4, 5 h and the midpoint of ^ 1, 2 h
and ^ -9, 4 h ?
10. What is the equation of the

straight line through the
midpoint of ^ 0, 1 h and ^ -6, 5 h
and the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and
^ 8, -3 h ?
Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines
Class Investigation
Sketch the following straight lines on the same number plane.
1. y = 2x
2. y = 2x + 1
3. y = 2x - 3
4. y = 2x + 5
What do you notice about these lines?
If two lines are parallel, then they have the same gradient. That is,
m1 = m2
Two lines that are parallel have equations

ax + by + c 1 = 0 and ax + by + c 2 = 0
413
Proof
a
b
a
ax + by + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = b
Since m 1 = m 2, the two lines are parallel.
ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
EXAMPLES
1. Prove that the straight lines 5x - 2y - 1 = 0 and 5x - 2y + 7 = 0 are
parallel.
Solution
5x - 2y - 1 = 0
5x - 1 = 2y
5
1
x- =y
2
2
5
`
m1 =
2
5x - 2y + 7 = 0
5x + 7 = 2 y
5
7
x+ =y
2
2
5
`
m2 =
2
5
m1 = m2 =
2
` the lines are parallel.
2. Find the equation of a straight line parallel to the line 2x - y - 3 = 0
and passing through ^ 1, -5 h .
Solution
2x - y - 3 = 0
2x - 3 = y
`
m1 = 2
For parallel lines m 1 = m 2
` m2 = 2
Equation:
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - (-5) = 2 (x - 1)
y + 5 = 2x - 2
0 = 2x - y - 7
Notice that the equations

are both in the form
5x - 2y + k = 0.
414
DID YOU KNOW?

Parallel lines are usually thought of as lines that never meet. However, there is a whole branch
of geometry based on the theory that parallel lines meet at infinity. This is called affine
geometry. In this geometry there are no perpendicular lines.
Perpendicular lines
Class Investigation
Sketch the following pairs of straight lines on the same number plane.
1. (a) 3x - 4y + 12 = 0
2. (a) 2x + y + 4 = 0
(b) 4x + 3y - 8 = 0
(b) x - 2y + 2 = 0
What do you notice about these pairs of lines?
Gradients of perpendicular lines

are negative reciprocals of each
other.
If two lines with gradients m 1 and m 2 respectively are perpendicular, then

m 1 m 2 = -1
1
i.e. m 2 = - m
1
Proof
Let line AB have gradient m 1 = tan a .

Let line CD have gradient m 2 = tan b.
EB
EC
+CBE = 180c - a
EC
tan ] 180c - a g =
EB
EB
` cot ] 180c - a g =
EC
tan b =
^ straight angle h
So
or
tan b = cot ] 180c - a g

= - cot a
1
=tan a
1
m2 = - m
1
m 1 m 2 = -1
Perpendicular lines have equations in the form

ax + by + c 1 = 0 and bx - ay + c 2 = 0
Proof
a
b
b
bx - ay + c 2 = 0 has gradient m 2 = - - a
b
=a
a
b
m1 m2 = - # a
b
= -1
ax + by + c 1 = 0 has gradient m 1 = -
Since m 1 m 2 = -1, the two lines are perpendicular.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the lines 3x + y - 11 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0 are
perpendicular.
Solution
3x + y - 11 = 0
y = -3x + 11
m 1 = -3
`
x - 3y + 1 = 0
x + 1 = 3y
1
1
x+ =y
3
3
1
`
m2 =
3
1
m 1 m 2 = - 3#
3
= -1
Notice that the equations

are in the form
3x + y + c 1 = 0 and
x - 3y + c 2 = 0.
` the lines are perpendicular.
CONTINUED
415
416
2. Find the equation of the straight line through ^ 2, 3 h perpendicular to

the line that passes through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h .
Solution
Line through ^ -1, 7 h and ^ 3, 3 h:
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
7-3
m1 =
-1 - 3
4
=
-4
= -1
For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = - 1
i.e.
-1m 2 = - 1
m2 = 1
Equation through ^ 2, 3 h:
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y - 3 = 1 (x - 2 )
=x-2
0=x-y+1
7.6 Exercises
1.
Find the gradient of the straight

line
(a) parallel to the line
3x + y - 4 = 0
(b) perpendicular to the line
3x + y - 4 = 0
(c) parallel to the line joining
^ 3, 5 h and ^ -1, 2 h
(d) perpendicular to the line with
x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 2
(e) perpendicular to the line
(f) perpendicular to the line
6x - 5y - 4 = 0
(g) parallel to the line making an
angle of 30c with the x-axis
(h) parallel to the line
x - 3y - 7 = 0
(i) perpendicular to the line

(j) perpendicular to the line
passing through ^ 4, -2 h and ^ 3, 3 h .
2.
Find the equation of each straight

line
(a) passing through ^ 2, 3 h and
parallel to the line y = x + 6
(b) through ^ -1, 5 h and parallel
to the line x - 3y - 7 = 0
(c) with x-intercept 5 and parallel
to the line y = 4 - x
(d) through ^ 3, -4 h and
perpendicular to the line y = 2x
(e) through ^ -2, 1 h and
perpendicular to the line
2x + y + 3 = 0
(f) through ^ 7, -2 h and

3x - y - 5 = 0
(g) through ^ -3, -1 h and
4x - 3y + 2 = 0 .
3.
Show that the straight lines

y = 3x - 2 and 6x - 2y - 9 = 0
are parallel.
4.
Show that lines x + 5y = 0 and

y = 5x + 3 are perpendicular.
5.
Show that lines 6x - 5y + 1 = 0

and 6x - 5y - 3 = 0 are parallel.
6.
Show that lines 7x + 3y + 2 = 0

and 3x - 7y = 0 are
perpendicular.
7.
If the lines 3x - 2y + 5 = 0 and

y = kx - 1 are perpendicular, find
the value of k.
8.
Show that the line joining ^ 3, -1 h

and ^ 2, -5 h is parallel to the line
8x - 2y - 3 = 0.
9.
Show that the points A ^ -3, -2 h,

B ^ -1, 4 h, C ^ 7, -1 h, and
D ^ 5, -7 h are the vertices of a
parallelogram.
10. The points A ^ -2, 0 h, B ^ 1, 4 h,

C ^ 6, 4 h and D ^ 3, 0 h form
a rhombus. Show that the
diagonals are perpendicular.
417
11. Find the equation of the straight

line
(a) passing through the
origin and parallel to the line
x+y+3=0
(b) through ^ 3, 7 h and parallel to
the line 5x - y - 2 = 0
(c) through ^ 0, - 2 h and
x - 2y = 9
(d) perpendicular to the line
3x + 2y - 1 = 0 and passing
through the point ^ -2, 4 h .
line passing through ^ 6, -3 h
that is perpendicular to the line
joining ^ 2, -1 h and ^ -5, -7 h .
13. Find the equation of the line
through ^ 2, 1 h that is parallel
to the line that makes an angle
of 135c with the x-axis in the
positive direction.
14. Find the equation of the
perpendicular bisector of the
line passing through ^ 6, -3 h and
^ -2, 1 h .
straight line parallel to the line
2x - 3y - 1 = 0 and through the
midpoint of ^ 1, 3 h and ^ -1, 9 h .
Intersection of Lines
Two straight lines intersect at a single point ^ x, y h . The point satisfies the
equations of both lines. We find this point by solving simultaneous equations.
You may need to revise

simultaneous equations
from Chapter 3.
418
Concurrent lines meet at a single point. To show that lines are

concurrent, solve two simultaneous equations to find the point of intersection.
Then substitute this point of intersection into the third and subsequent lines
to show that these lines also pass through the point.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the point of intersection between lines 2x - 3y - 3 = 0 and
5x - 2y - 13 = 0.
Solution
Solve simultaneous equations:
2x - 3y - 3 = 0
5x - 2y - 13 = 0
4x - 6y - 6 = 0
^ 1 h # 2:
15x - 6y - 39 = 0
^ 2 h # 3:
+ 33 = 0
^ 3 h - ^ 4 h: -11x
33 = 11x
3=x
^1h
^2h
^3h
^4h
Substitute x = 3 into ^ 1 h:
You could use a
computer spreadsheet to
solve these simultaneous
equations.
2 ^ 3 h - 3y - 3 = 0
- 3y + 3 = 0
3 = 3y
1=y
So the point of intersection is ^ 3, 1 h .
2. Show that the lines 3x - y + 1 = 0, x + 2y + 12 = 0 and
4x - 3y - 7 = 0 are concurrent.
Solution
Solve any two simultaneous equations:
3x - y + 1 = 0
x + 2y + 12 = 0
4x - 3y - 7 = 0
6x - 2y + 2 = 0
^ 1 h # 2:
2
+
4
:
7
x
+ 14 = 0
^ h ^ h
^1h
^2h
^3h
^4h
7x = -14
x = -2
Substitute x = -2 into ^ 1 h:
3 ^ -2 h - y + 1 = 0
-y - 5 = 0
-5 = y
So the point of intersection of (1) and (2) is ^ -2, -5 h .
Substitute ^ -2, -5 h into (3): 4x - 3y - 7 = 0
LHS = 4 ^ -2 h - 3 ^ - 5 h - 7
= -8 + 15 - 7
=0
= RHS
So the point lies on line (3)
` all three lines are concurrent.
Equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines

To find the equation of a line through the intersection of 2 other lines, find
the point of intersection, then use it with the other information to find the
equation.
Another method uses a formula to find the equation.
If a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0 and a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0 are 2 given lines then the

equation of a line through their intersection is given by the formula
(a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0 where k is a constant
Proof
Let l 1 have equation a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1 = 0.
Let l 2 have equation a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2 = 0.
Let the point of intersection of l 1 and l 2 be P ^ x 1, y 1 h .
Then P satisfies l 1
i.e. a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1 = 0
P also satisfies l2
i.e. a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2 = 0
Substitute P into (a 1 x + b 1 y + c 1) + k (a 2 x + b 2 y + c 2) = 0
(a 1 x 1 + b 1 y 1 + c 1) + k (a 2 x 1 + b 2 y 1 + c 2) = 0
0 + k ^0h = 0
0=0
` if point P satisfies both equations l 1 and l 2 then it satisfies l 1 + kl 2 = 0.
419
420
EXAMPLE
Find the equation of the line through ^ -1, 2 h that passes through the
intersection of lines 2x + y - 5 = 0 and x - 3y + 1 = 0.
Solution
Using the formula:
a 1 = 2, b 1 = 1, c 1 = -5
a 2 = 1, b 2 = -3, c 2 = 1
^ a1 x + b1 y + c1 h + k ^ a2 x + b2 y + c2 h = 0
^ 2x + y - 5 h + k ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0
Since this line passes through ^ -1, 2 h, substitute the point into the
equation:
^ -2 + 2 - 5 h + k ^ -1 - 6 + 1 h = 0
-5 - 6k = 0
-5 = 6k
5
- =k
6
So the equation becomes:
5
^ 2x + y - 5 h - ^ x - 3y + 1 h = 0
6
6 ^ 2x + y - 5 h - 5 ^ x - 3 y + 1 h = 0
12x + 6y - 30 - 5x + 15y - 5 = 0
7x + 21y - 35 = 0
x + 3y - 5 = 0
Another way to do this example is to find the point of intersection, then
use both points to find the equation.
Substitute the value

of k back into the
equation.
7.7 Exercises
1.
Find the point of intersection of

straight lines
(a) 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 and
2x - 3y - 16 = 0
(b) 5x + 2y + 11 = 0 and
3x + y + 6 = 0
(c) 7x - 3y = 16 and
5x - 2y = 12
(d) 2x - 3y = 6 and 4x - 5y = 10
(e) x - 3y - 8 = 0 and
4x + 7y - 13 = 0
(f) y = 5x + 6 and y = - 4x - 3
(g) y = 2x + 1 and
5x - 3y + 6 = 0
(h) 3x + 7y = 12 and
4x - y - 1 6 = 0
(i) 3x - 5y = - 7 and
2x - 3y = 4
(j) 8x - 7y - 3 = 0 and
5x - 2y - 1 = 0
2.
Show that the lines

x - 2y - 11 = 0 and
2x - y - 10 = 0 intersect at the
point ^ 3, -4 h .
3.
A triangle is formed by 3
straight lines with equations
2x - y + 1 = 0, 2x + y - 9 = 0
and 2x - 5y - 3 = 0. Find the

coordinates of its vertices.
4.
Show that the lines

x - 5y - 17 = 0,
3x - 2y - 12 = 0 and
5x + y - 7 = 0 are concurrent.
5.
Show that the lines

x + 4y + 5 = 0, 3x - 7y + 15 = 0,
2x - y + 10 = 0 and
6x + 5y + 30 = 0 are concurrent.
6.

line through the origin that
passes through the intersection of
the lines 5x - 2y + 14 = 0 and
3x + 4y - 7 = 0 .
7.

line through ^ 3, 2 h that passes
through the intersection of
the lines 5x + 2y + 1 = 0 and
3x - y + 16 = 0.
8.

line through ^ -4, -1 h that
passes through the intersection
of the lines 2x + y - 1 = 0 and
3x + 5y + 16 = 0.
9.

line through ^ -3, 4 h that passes
the lines 2x + y - 3 = 0 and
3x - 2y - 8 = 0 .

line through ^ 2, -2 h that passes
the lines 2x + 3y - 6 = 0 and
3x + 5y - 10 = 0.
the lines x - y + 1 = 0 and
4x - y - 2 = 0 .

of the lines 2x + y - 6 = 0 and
3 x + 7 y - 9 = 0.
the lines x + 2y + 10 = 0 and
2x - y + 5 = 0.
line through ^ -2, 0 h that passes
3 x - 2 y - 1 = 0.
line through ^ 3, -2 h that passes
x - 3y + 11 = 0.
of the lines x + y + 1 = 0 and
3x + 2y = 0 .
the lines 3x - y + 4 = 0 and
2x - y + 12 = 0.
line with gradient 3 that passes
the lines 2x + y - 1 = 0 and
3x + 5y + 16 = 0.
line with gradient 2 that passes
the lines 5x - 2y - 3 = 0 and
7x - 3y - 4 = 0 .
421
422

straight line parallel to the
line 3x - y - 7 = 0 that passes
the lines 3x - 2y - 10 = 0 and
4x + y - 17 = 0.

straight line perpendicular to
the line x + 5y - 1 = 0 that
of lines 3x - 5y - 3 = 0 and
2x + 3y + 17 = 0.
Perpendicular Distance
The distance formula d = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2 is used to find the distance
between two points.
Perpendicular distance is used to find the distance between a point and
a line. If we look at the distance between a point and a line, there could be
many distances.
So we choose the shortest distance, which is the perpendicular distance.
The perpendicular distance from _ x 1, y 1 i to the line ax + by + c = 0 is

A distance is always
positive, so take the
absolute value.
given by d =
Proof
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
a2 + b2
Let d be the perpendicular distance of _ x 1, y 1 i from the line ax + by + c = 0.

- ax 1 - c
c
c
o
C = c 0, - m
R = e x 1,
A = b- a , 0 l
b
b
c2
c2
+
a2
b2
In D ACO, AC =
c2 b2 + c2 a2
a2 b2
=
=
PR = y 1 - e
=
c a2 + b2
ab
- ax 1 - c
b
ax 1 + by 1 + c
b
Why?
D ACO is similar to D PRQ

`
To find A and C, substitute

y = 0 and x = 0 into
ax + by + c = 0.
PQ
PR
=
AO
AC
AO . PR
PQ =
AC
ax 1 + by 1 + c
c a2 + b2
c
d=a#
'
b
ab
c _ ax 1 + by 1 + c i
ab
=
#
ab
c a2 + b2
ax 1 + by 1 + c
=
a2 + b2
All points on one side of the line ax + by + c = 0 make the numerator of

this formula positive. Points on the other side make the numerator negative.
Usually we take the absolute value of d. However, if we want to know if
points are on the same side of a line or not, we look at the sign of d.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the perpendicular distance of ^ 4, - 3 h from the line 3x - 4y - 1 = 0.
Solution
x 1 = 4, y 1 = - 3, a = 3, b = - 4, c = - 1
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2
| 3 ] 4 g + ] - 4 g ] -3 g + ] -1 g |
=
3 2 + ] -4 g2
CONTINUED
423
424
| 12 + 12 - 1 |
25
23
=
5
= 4 .6
So the perpendicular distance is 4.6 units.
2. Prove that the line 6x + 8y + 20 = 0 is a tangent to the circle
x 2 + y 2 = 4.
Solution
There are three possibilities for the intersection of a circle and a straight line.
The centre of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4 is ^ 0, 0 h and its radius is 2 units.

A tangent is perpendicular to the centre of the circle. So we prove that the
perpendicular distance from the line to the point ^ 0, 0 h is 2 units (the radius).
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
d=
a2 + b2
| 6 (0) + 8 (0) + 20 |
=
62 + 82
| 20 |
=
100
20
=
10
=2
` the line is a tangent to the circle.
3. Show that the points ^ -1, 3 h and ^ 2, 7 h lie on the same side of the line
2 x - 3 y + 4 = 0.
Solution
To show that points lie on the same side of a line, their perpendicular
distance must have the same sign. We use the formula without the
absolute value sign.
d=
ax 1 + by 1 + c
a2 + b2
^ - 1, 3 h :
2 ]-1 g - 3 ]3 g + 4
d=
22 + ] - 3 g 2
-2 - 9 + 4
=
4+9
-7
=
13
^ 2, 7 h :
2 ]2 g - 3 ]7 g + 4
d=
2 2 + ] -3 g 2
4 - 21 + 4
=
4+9
- 13
=
13
Since the perpendicular distance for both points has the same sign, the
points lie on the same side of the line.
7.8 Exercises
1.
Find the perpendicular distance

between
(a) ^ 1, 2 h and 3x + 4y + 2 = 0
(b) ^ - 3, 2 h and 5x + 12y + 7 = 0
(c) ^ 0, 4 h and 8x - 6y - 1 = 0
(d) ^ - 3, - 2 h and 4x - 3y - 6 = 0
(e) the origin and
12x - 5y + 8 = 0.
2.
Find, correct to 3 significant

figures, the perpendicular
distance between
(a) ^ 1, 3 h and x + 3y + 1 = 0
(b) ^ -1, 1 h and 2x + 5y + 4 = 0
(c) ^ 3, 0 h and 5x - 6y - 12 = 0
(d) ^ 5, - 3 h and 4x - y - 2 = 0
(e) ^ - 6, - 3 h and 2x - 3y + 9 = 0.
3.
Find as a surd with rational

denominator the perpendicular
distance between
(a) the origin and the line
3x - 2y + 7 = 0
(b) ^ -1, 4 h and 2x + y + 3 = 0
(c) ^ 3, -1 h and 3x + 14y + 1 = 0
(d) ^ 2, - 6 h and 5x - y - 6 = 0
(e) ^ - 4, - 1 h and
3 x - 2 y - 4 = 0.
4.
Show that the origin

is equidistant from the
lines 7x + 24y + 25 = 0,
4x + 3y - 5 = 0 and
12x + 5y - 13 = 0.
425
426
Equidistant means that

two or more objects are
the same distance away
from another object.
14. Find the perpendicular distance

between ^ 0, 5 h and the line
through ^ - 3, 8 h parallel to
4x - 3y - 1 = 0.
5.
Show that points A ^ 3, - 5 h and

B ^ -1, 4 h lie on opposite sides of
2x - y + 3 = 0.
6.
Show that the points ^ 2, - 3 h and

^ 9, 2 h lie on the same side of the
line x - 3y + 2 = 0.
7.
Show that ^ - 3, 2 h and ^ 4, 1 h lie

on opposite sides of the line
4 x - 3 y - 2 = 0.
8.
Show that ^ 0, - 2 h is equidistant

from the lines 3x + 4y - 2 = 0
and 12x - 5y + 16 = 0.
16. The perpendicular distance

between the point ^ 3, b h and the
line 5x - 12y - 2 = 0 is 2 units.
Find the values of b.
9.
Show that the points ^ 8, - 3 h and

^ 1, 1 h lie on the same side of the
line 6x - y + 4 = 0.
17. Find m if the perpendicular

distance between ^ m, 7 h and the
line 9x + 12y + 6 = 0 is 5 units.
15. The perpendicular distance

between the point ^ x, -1 h and
the line 3x - 4y + 7 = 0 is
8 units. Find two possible values
of x.
10. Show that ^ - 3, 2 h and ^ 4, 1 h lie

on opposite sides of the line
2x + y - 2 = 0.
18. Prove that the line

3x - 4y + 25 = 0 is a tangent to
the circle with centre the origin
and radius 5 units.
11. Show that the point ^ 3, - 2 h

is the same distance from the
line 6x - 8y + 6 = 0 as the
point ^ - 4, -1 h is from the line
5x + 12y - 20 = 0.
19. Show that the line

3x - 4y + 12 = 0 does not cut
the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.
20. The sides of a triangle are formed
by the lines with equations
2x - y - 7 = 0, 3x + 5y - 4 = 0
and x + 3y - 4 = 0.
(a) Find the vertices of the
triangle.
(b) Find the exact length of all
the altitudes of the triangle.
12. Find the exact perpendicular

distance with rational
denominator from the point
^ 4, 5 h to the line with
x-intercept 2 and y-intercept -1.
13. Find the perpendicular distance
from ^ - 2, 2 h to the line passing
through ^ 3, 7 h and ^ -1, 4 h .
Angle Between Two Lines

The acute angle i between two straight lines is given by
tan i =
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
where m 1 and m 2 are the gradients of the lines
Proof
Let line l 1 have gradient m 1 and line l 2 have gradient m 2 .

Then m 1 = tan b and m 2 = tan a
b = a + i ^ exterior angle of DABC h
` i=b-a
tan i = tan (b - a )
tan b - tan a
=
1 + tan b tan a
m1 - m2
=
1 + m1 m2
When tan i is positive, i is acute.
When tan i is negative, i is obtuse.
` for the acute angle between lines l 1 and l 2,
tan i =
Note: the denominator

cannot be zero, so
m 1 m 2 ! -1. So this
formula doesnt work for
perpendicular lines.
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the acute angle between the lines 3x - 2y + 1 = 0 and
x - 3 y = 0.
Solution
3x - 2y + 1 = 0
3x + 1 = 2y
3
1
x+ =y
2
2
3
m1 =
So
2
x - 3y = 0
x = 3y
1
x=y
3
1
m2 =
So
3
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
CONTINUED
427
428
3 1
2 3
=
3
1
1+ #
2
3
7
=
9
7
i = tan -1 c m
9
= 37c 52l
2. Find the obtuse angle between the lines 5x - 2y + 6 = 0 and
2x + y - 4 = 0.
Solution
9
Notice that tan -1 d - n
8
gives - 48c 22l so we need
to find the obtuse angle by
subtracting the acute angle
from 180c.
5x - 2y + 6 = 0
5x + 6 = 2y
5
x+3=y
2
5
So m 1 =
2
2x + y - 4 = 0
y = - 2x + 4
So m 2 = - 2
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
5 ]
- -2g
2
=
5
1 + # ]-2 g
2
9
= 8
9
=
8
9
i = tan - 1 c m
8
= 48 22l
This gives the acute angle.
Obtuse angle = 180c - 48c 22l
= 131c 38l
3. If the angle between the lines 2x - y - 7 = 0 and y = mx + 3 is 25c,
find two possible values of m, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
2x - y - 7 = 0
2x - 7 = y
`
m1 = 2
( 1)
y = mx + 3
`
m2 = m
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
2-m
tan 25 =
1 + 2m
(2 )
There are two possibilities:

(1)
(2)
2-m
1 + 2m
tan 25c (1 + 2m) = 2 - m
tan 25c + 2m tan 25c = 2 - m
2m tan 25c + m = 2 - tan 25c
m (2 tan 25c + 1) = 2 - tan 25c
2 - tan 25c
m=
2 tan 25c + 1
Z 0.8
tan 25c =
2-m
1 + 2m
- tan 25c (1 + 2m) = 2 - m
- tan 25c - 2m tan 25c = 2 - m
- 2m tan 25c + m = 2 + tan 25c
m (- 2 tan 25c + 1) = 2 + tan 25c
2 + tan 25c
m=
- 2 tan 25c + 1
Z 36.6
- tan 25c =
7.9 Exercises
1.
Find the acute angle between the

lines
(a) 2x + y + 1 = 0 and
x+y+4=0
(b) 3x - y - 7 = 0 and
5x + y + 3 = 0
(c) x + 2y = 0 and
3x - 2y + 1 = 0
(d) x + 3y + 2 = 0 and
4x + 4y - 1 = 0
(e) 2x - 5y - 3 = 0 and
x - 5y = 0
(f) 3x + y + 1 = 0 and
4x + 7y + 2 = 0
(g) 2x - 7y - 1 = 0 and
3x + 2y - 4 = 0
(h) 2x + 2y + 1 = 0 and
x + 2y = 4
(i) 3x + 4y + 1 = 0 and
5x - 2y - 2 = 0
(j) x - 2y - 3 = 0 and
6 x - 3 y + 4 = 0.
2.
Find the obtuse angle between

the lines
(a) 4x + y + 2 = 0 and
x+y-1=0
(b) 2x - 3y - 9 = 0 and
x + 2y + 4 = 0
429
430
(c) x + 6y = 2 and
2x - 4y + 3 = 0
(d) 5x + 2y + 1 = 0 and
4x + y - 7 = 0
(e) 4x - 2y - 7 = 0 and
x - 3 y = 0.
3.

line 2x - 5y + 1 = 0 and the line
joining ^ -1, 2 h and ^ 5, 3 h .
4.

line joining ^ 3, 2 h and ^ -1, 4 h
and the line joining ^ 0, 5 h and
^ 2, - 7 h .
5.
A ^ 2, -1 h, B ^ - 3, 4 h and C ^ 1, - 5 h
form the vertices of a triangle.
Find the interior angles of the
triangle.
6.
Find two possible values of m

if the lines 2x + y - 5 = 0 and
y = mx + 1 intersect at an angle
of 45c.
7.
Lines y = mx + 2 and y = 5x - 9
intersect at an acute angle whose
2
tangent is . Find the possible
5
values of m.
8.
Find the values of k if

the angle between the
lines 6x - 3y - 4 = 0 and
kx - y + 5 = 0 is 58c.
9.
A ^ 0, 0 h, B ^ 1, 2 h, C ^ 5, 2 h and
D ^ 4, 0 h form the vertices of a
parallelogram.
(a) By finding all the interior
angles, show that opposite angles
are equal.
(b) Find the obtuse angle
between the diagonals of the
parallelogram.
10. By calculating the interior angles,

show that D ABC with vertices
A ^ 7, 1 h, B ^ -1, -1 h and C ^ 5, -7 h
is an isosceles triangle.
Ratios
You have a formula for the midpoint which divides an interval in half.
Sometimes we may want to divide an interval into a ratio that is not a half.
Here is a formula that we can use to divide an interval into any internal or
external ratio.
The coordinates of a point P that divides the interval between points

_ x 1, y 1 i and _ x 2, y 2 i in the ratio m: n respectively are given by
mx 2 + nx 1
my 2 + ny 1
x=
and y =
m+n
m+n
Proof
431
Let P ^ x, y h be the point dividing the interval AB into the ratio m:n.
Then
m
AP
= n
PB
Draw ADC parallel to the x-axis.

Then AD = x - x 1 and DC = x 2 - x.
PD < BC
AP
AD
`
=
^ intercepts have equal ratios h
PB
DC
x - x1
m
`
n = x2 - x
m _ x2 - x i = n _ x - x1 i
mx 2 - mx = nx - nx 1
mx 2 + nx 1 = mx + nx
= x ]m + n g
mx 2 + nx 1
=x
m+n
Similarly, by drawing AEF perpendicular to the x-axis, we can show that
my 2 + ny 1
y=
.
m+n
If P divides the interval internally in the ratio m: n, then the ratio is
positive and P lies on AB.
A ratio of 1:1 gives the

midpoint
x =
x1 + x2
2
,y =
y1 + y2
2
If P divides the interval externally in the ratio m:n, then the ratio is
negative and P lies outside AB.
m and n are measured in
opposite directions so they
have opposite signs.
EXAMPLES
1. Divide AB into the ratio 3:4 where A is ^ 6, - 2 h and B is ^ - 7, 5 h .
Solution
CONTINUED
432
mx 2 + nx 1
m+n
]
3 -7 g + 4 ] 6 g
=
3+4
3
=
7
my 2 + ny 1
y=
m+n
3 ] 5 g + 4 ] -2 g
=
3+4
7
=
7
=1
x=
3
` P = c ,1m
7
2. If A is ^ - 2, -1 h and B is ^ 1, 5 h, find the coordinates of the point P that
divides AB externally in the ratio 2:5.
Solution
You could use - 2: 5 instead

and would still get the same
answer for P.
Let the ratio be 2: -5.

mx 2 + nx 1
x=
m+n
2 (1) + [- 5 (- 2)]
=
2 + ( - 5)
12
=
-3
= -4
my 2 + ny 1
y=
m+n
2 (5) + [- 5 (-1)]
=
2 + ( - 5)
15
=
-3
= -5
` P = ^ - 4, - 5 h
7.10
1.
2.
3.
Exercises
Divide these intervals internally.

(a) ^ -1, 5 h and ^ 0, - 4 h in the
ratio 2:3
(b) ^ 3, - 2 h and ^ 2, 5 h in the
ratio 4:1
(c) ^ - 3, 3 h and ^ - 2, 1 h in the
ratio 5:4
(d) ^ 3, -1 h and ^ 7, - 2 h in the
ratio 2:5
(e) ^ - 2, 1 h and ^ 5, - 4 h in the
ratio 7:3
(f) ^ - 2, 0 h and ^ - 6, 3 h in the
ratio 3:1
(g) ^ 4, 9 h and ^ - 4, 1 h in the
ratio 1:6
(h) ^ - 3, 0 h and ^ - 5, - 6 h in the
ratio 2:9
(i) ^ 2, 5 h and ^ - 3, -1 h in the
ratio 4:3
(j) ^ 1, 1 h and ^ 3, - 7 h in the
ratio 1:2.
Divide these intervals externally.
(a) ^ - 2, 3 h and ^ 6, 1 h in the
ratio 1:5
(b) ^ 4, 0 h and ^ - 3, - 5 h in the
ratio 2:7
(c) ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ 4, 7 h in the
ratio 4:3
(d) ^ 0, - 2 h and ^ 8, 3 h in the
ratio 3:1
(e) ^ - 5, 2 h and ^ 4, 4 h in the
ratio 5:4
(f) ^ 7, -1 h and ^ 0, 1 h in the
ratio 2:9
(g) ^ - 2, 2 h and ^ 6, 7 h in the
ratio 1:3
(h) ^ 1, 3 h and ^ 7, 2 h in the ratio 4:1
(i) ^ - 4, 0 h and ^ 5, - 5 h in the
ratio 6:7
(j) ^ 2, - 3 h and ^ 7, 7 h in the
ratio 8:3.
A ^ 0, 0 h, B ^ 1, 3 h and C ^ 3, 0 h are
the vertices of a triangle.
(a) Find the coordinates of point E,

which divides AB internally in the
ratio 2:1.
(b) Find the coordinates of point F,
which divides CB internally in
the ratio 2:1.
(c) Hence prove that AC = 3EF.
4.
Divide the interval AB where

A = ^ 3, 2 h and B = ^ - 1, 6 h into
three equal parts.
5.
A has coordinates ^ - 2, 5 h and

B has coordinates ^ 4, -3 h . Find
the length of PQ if P divides AB
internally in the ratio 3:2 and
Q divides AB externally in the
ratio 3:2.
6.
An interval AB is divided
internally at P in the ratio 5:4. If
A is ^ - 1, 2 h and P is ^ 5, - 6 h, find
the coordinates of B.
7.
The point ^ 5, 5 h divides the

interval between ^ - 1, p h and
^ q, 6 h in the ratio 2:5. Find the
value of p and q.
8.
A triangle is formed with vertices

A ^ 5, 6 h, B ^ 0, - 4 h and C ^ - 3, 3 h .
(a) Find the point of intersection
of its medians.
(b) If D, E and F are the
midpoints of AB, AC and BC,
divide the intervals CD, BE and
AF in the ratio 2:1. What property
of medians does this show?
9.
If ^ 0, 0 h divides the interval AB

where A = ^ a, b h and B = ^ 4, 9 h in
the external ratio of 2:1, find the
value of a and b.
10. P divides the interval between the

point ^ 2, 3 h and the intersection
of lines 2x - 3y + 19 = 0 and
5x + 2y = 0 in the ratio of 4:5.
Find the coordinates of P.
433
434
Test Yourself 7
1.
Find the distance between points ^ - 1, 2 h

and ^ 3, 7 h .
2.
What is the midpoint of the origin and

the point ^ 5, - 4 h ?
3.
Find the gradient of the straight line

(a) passing through ^ 3, -1 h and ^ - 2, 5 h
(b) with equation 2x - y + 1 = 0
(c) making an angle of 30c with the
(d) perpendicular to the line
5 x + 3 y - 8 = 0.
4.
5.
6.
Find the equation of the linear function

(a) passing through ^ 2, 3 h and with
gradient 7
(b) parallel to the line 5x + y - 3 = 0
and passing through ^ 1, 1 h
(c) through the origin, and
perpendicular to the line 2x - 3y + 6 = 0
(d) through ^ 3, 1 h and ^ - 2, 4 h
(e) with x-intercept 3 and y-intercept 1.
Find the perpendicular distance between
^ 2, 5 h and the line 2x - y + 7 = 0 in surd
form with rational denominator.
Prove that the line between ^ -1, 4 h
and ^ 3, 3 h is perpendicular to the line
4x - y - 6 = 0.
7.

2x - 5y - 10 = 0.
8.
(a) Find the equation of the straight

line l that is perpendicular to the line
1
y = x - 3 and passes through ^ 1, -1 h .
2
(b) Find the x-intercept of l.
(c) Find the exact distance from ^ 1, -1 h
to the x-intercept of l.
9.
Prove that lines y = 5x - 7 and

10x - 2y + 1 = 0 are parallel.

line passing through the origin and
parallel to the line with equation
3x - 4y + 5 = 0.
11. Find the point of intersection between
lines y = 2x + 3 and x - 5y + 6 = 0.
12. The midpoint of ^ a, 3 h and ^ - 4, b h is
^ 1, 2 h . Find the values of a and b.
13. Find the acute angle between the lines
2x - 5y + 1 = 0 and x + y - 7 = 0 to the
nearest minute.
14. Show that the lines x - y - 4 = 0,
2x + y + 1 = 0, 5x - 3y - 14 = 0 and
3x - 2y - 9 = 0 are concurrent.
15. Divide the interval between points
^ 3, - 4 h and ^ 2, 2 h in the ratio 4:5.
16. A straight line makes an angle of 153c 29l
with the x-axis in the positive direction.
What is its gradient, to 3 signicant
gures?
17. The perpendicular distance from ^ 3, - 2 h
to the line 5x - 12y + c = 0 is 2. Find
2 possible values of c.
18. Find the equation of the straight line
through ^ 1, 3 h that passes through the
intersection of the lines 2x - y + 5 = 0
and x + 2y - 5 = 0.
19. Divide the interval between ^ 0, 5 h and
^ - 2, 4 h in the external ratio of 2:3.
20. The gradient of the line through ^ 3, - 4 h
and ^ x, 2 h is 5. Evaluate x.
21. Find the obtuse angle between the lines
3x - y + 3 = 0 and 2x + 5y - 1 = 0.
22. Show that the points ^ - 2, 1 h and

^ 6, 3 h are on opposite sides of the line
2 x - 3 y - 1 = 0.
24. Find the equation of the line with

x-intercept 4 that makes an angle of 45c
with the x-axis.

y = 3x - 4 and y = 5 - x.
25. Find the equation of the line with

y-intercept - 2 and perpendicular to the
line passing through ^ 3, -2 h and ^ 0, 5 h .
1.
If points ^ - 3k, 1 h, ^ k - 1, k - 3 h and

^ k - 4, k - 5 h are collinear, find the
value of k.
2.
Find the equation, in exact form, of the

line passing through _ 3 , -2 i that makes
an angle of 30c with the positive x-axis.
3.
Find the equation of the circle whose

centre is at the origin and with tangent
x - 3y + 9 = 0.
4.
ABCD is a rhombus where

A = ^ - 3, 0 h, B = ^ 0, 4 h, C = ^ 5, 4 h and
D = ^ 2, 0 h . Prove that the diagonals are
perpendicular bisectors of one another.
and the point of intersection of lines

3x - 7y = 15 and 4x - y = - 5.
9.
Find the magnitude of the angle, in

degrees and minutes, that the line
joining ^ -1, 3 h and ^ 2, - 4 h makes with
the x-axis in the positive direction.
10. Find the equation of the line that passes

through the point of intersection of lines
2x + 5y + 19 = 0 and 4x - 3y - 1 = 0
that is perpendicular to the line
3x - 2y + 1 = 0.
11. Prove A ^ 2, 5 h, B ^ - 4, 5 h and C ^ -1, 2 h are
the vertices of a right-angled isosceles
triangle.
5.
Prove that the points _ -1, 2 2 i,

_ 3 , - 6 i and _ - 5 , 2 i all lie on a
circle with centre the origin. What are
the radius and equation of the circle?
12. Find the coordinates of the centre of

a circle that passes through points
^ 7, 2 h, ^ 2, 3 h and ^ -4, -1 h .
6.
Find the exact distance between the

parallel lines 3x + 2y - 5 = 0 and
3x + 2y = 1.
13. If ax - y - 2 = 0 and bx - 5y + 11 = 0
intersect at the point ^ 3, 4 h, find the
values of a and b.
7.
A straight line has x-intercept A ^ a, 0 h

and y-intercept B ^ 0, b h, where a and b are
positive integers. The gradient of line AB
is -1. Find +OBA where O is the origin
and hence prove that a = b.

through ^ 3, -4 h that is perpendicular to
the line with x-intercept and y-intercept
2 and 5 respectively.
8.
Find the exact perpendicular distance

between the line 2x + 3y + 1 = 0
15. Find the acute angle between the straight

lines with equations 3x - y = 5 and
2x - 4y + 1 = 0.
435
436
16. Find the exact equation of the straight

line through the midpoint of ^ 0, - 5 h,
and ^ 4, -1 h that is perpendicular to the
line that makes an angle of 30c with the
x-axis.
17. Point P ^ x, y h moves so that it is
equidistant from points A ^ 1, 4 h and
B ^ - 2, 7 h . By nding the distances AP and
BP, nd the equation of the locus of P.
18. Find the value of b if the lines
2x - y + 1 = 0 and bx - 7y + 5 = 0 make
an angle of 45c at their intersection.
19. Find the coordinates of trisection of the
interval between ^ 3, -1 h and ^ 1, - 5 h .
20. Prove that if two lines with gradients
m 1 and m 2 meet at an angle of
45c, then m 1 m 2 = m 1 - m 2 - 1 or
m 1 m 2 = m 2 - m 1 - 1.
21. A and B have coordinates ^ 1, 3 h and
^ - 4, 7 h respectively. If P divides AB in the
external ratio of p:1, nd the coordinates
of P in terms of p.
22. (a) Show that the point ^ - 7, 7 h lies on

the line joining A ^ - 2, 0 h and B ^ 3, - 7 h .
(b) Find the ratio in which the point
divides AB.
23. The interval AB where A = ^ - 5, 3 h and
B = ^ x, y h is divided by point P in the
ratio of 3:2. If the point P has coordinates
^ 8, - 9 h, nd values for x and y.
24. The angle between straight lines
2x - 3y = 0 and mx + 4y = 9 is 32c 51l.
Find the value of m correct to
2 signicant gures.
25. Given points A ^ 1, 0 h, B ^ 2, 5 h and C ^ 9, 0 h
are the vertices of a triangle,
(a) nd the coordinates of P that divide
AB in the ratio 2:1
(b) nd the coordinates of Q that divide
CB in the ratio 2:1
(c) prove PQ < AC
(d) nd the coordinates of R that divide
AC in the ratio 2:1
(e) prove PR < BC.
8
Introduction to
Calculus
TERMINOLOGY
Composite function: A function of a function. One
function, f (x), is a composite of one function to another
function, for example g(x)
Continuity: Describing a line or curve that is unbroken
over its domain
Continuous function: A function is continuous over an
interval if it has no break in its graph. For every x value
on the graph the limit exists and equals the function
value
Differentiation: The process of nding the gradient of a

tangent to a curve which is called the derivative
Differentiation from rst principles: The process of nding
the gradient of a tangent to a curve by nding the
gradient of the secant between two points and nding
the limit as the secant becomes a tangent
Gradient of a secant: The gradient (slope) of the line
between two points that lies close together on a function
Derivative at a point: This is the gradient of a curve at a

particular point
Gradient of a tangent: The gradient (slope) of a line that

is a tangent to the curve at a point on a function. It is the
derivative of the function
Derivative function: The gradient function of a curve

obtained through differentiation
Rate of change: The rate at which the dependent variable

changes as the independent variable changes
Differentiable function: A function which is continuous

and where the gradient exists at all points on the
function
Chapter 8 Introduction to Calculus
439
INTRODUCTION
CALCULUS IS A VERY IMPORTANT part of mathematics and involves the
Thousand Barrels per Day
measurement of change. It can be applied to many areas such as science,

economics, engineering, astronomy,
Crude Oil Production (Mbbl/d)
sociology and medicine. We also see articles
Iran
7,000
in newspapers every day that involve change:
the spread of infectious diseases, population
6,000
growth, ination, unemployment, lling of
5,000
our water reservoirs.
For example, this graph shows the
4,000
change in crude oil production in Iran over
3,000
the years. Notice that while the graph shows
that production is increasing over recent
2,000
years, the rate at which it is being produced
1,000
seems to be slowing down. Calculus is used
to look at these trends and predict what will
0
73 75 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 91 93 95 97 99 01 03 05 07
happen in the future.
74 76 78 80 82 84 86 88 90 92 94 96 98 00 02 04 06
There are two main branches of
January 1973May 2007
calculus. Differentiation is used to calculate
the rate at which two variables change in relation to one another.
You will learn about
Anti-differentiation, or integration, is the inverse of differentiation and
integration in the
uses information about rates of change to go back and examine the original
HSC Course.
variables. Integration can also be used to nd areas of curved objects.
DID YOU KNOW?

Calculus comes from the Latin meaning pebble or small stone. In ancient civilisations, stones
were used for counting. However, the mathematics practised by these early people was quite
sophisticated. For example, the ancient Greeks used sums of rectangles to estimate areas of curved
figures.
However, it wasnt until the 17th century that there was a breakthrough in calculus when
scientists were searching for ways of measuring motion of objects such as planets, pendulums and
projectiles.
Isaac Newton, an Englishman, discovered the main principles of calculus when he was 23
years old. At this time an epidemic of bubonic plague closed Cambridge University where he was
studying, so many of his discoveries were made at home.
He first wrote about his calculus methods, which he called fluxions, in 1671, but his Method
of fluxions was not published until 1704.
Gottfried Leibniz (16461716), in Germany, was also studying the same methods and there
was intense rivalry between the two countries over who was first!
Search the Internet for further details on these two famous mathematicians. You can find
out about the history of calculus and why it was necessary for mathematicians all those years ago
to invent it.
Isaac Newton
440
In this chapter you will learn about differentiation, which measures the rate of
change of one variable with respect to another.
Gradient
Gradient of a straight line
The gradient of a straight line measures its slope. You studied gradient in the
last chapter.
rise
m = run
Class Discussion
Remember that an increasing line has a positive gradient and a
decreasing line has a negative gradient.
positive
negative
Notice also that a horizontal line has zero gradient.

Can you see why?
Can you nd the gradient of a vertical line? Why?
Gradient plays an important part, not just in mathematics, but in many areas
including science, business, medicine and engineering. It is used everywhere
we want to nd rates.
On a graph, the gradient measures the rate of change of the dependent
variable with respect to the change in the independent variable.
EXAMPLES
1. The graph shows the average distance travelled by a car over time.
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.
d
km
400
5
Hours
Solution
The line is increasing so it will have a positive gradient.
rise
m = run
400
=
5
80
=
1
= 80
This means that the car is travelling at the rate of 80 km/hour.
2. The graph shows the number of cases of flu reported in a town over
several weeks.
N
Number of
cases (100s)
15
Weeks
10
Find the gradient and describe it as a rate.

CONTINUED
441
Solution
The line is decreasing so it will have a negative gradient.
rise
m = run
1500
=10
150
=1
= - 150
This means that the rate is -150 cases/week, or the number of cases
reported is decreasing by 150 cases/week.
When nding the gradient of a straight line in the number plane, we think of
a change in y values as x changes. The gradients in the examples above show
rates of change.
However, in most examples in real life, the rate of change will vary. For
example, a car would speed up and slow down depending on where it is in
relation to other cars, trafc light signals and changing speed limits.
Gradient of a curve
Class Discussion
The two graphs show the distance that a bicycle travels over time. One is
a straight line and the other is a curve.
d
20
20
15
15
km
km
442
10
5
10
5
3
Hours
3
Hours
Is the average speed of the bicycle the same in both cases? What is
different about the speed in the two graphs?
How could you measure the speed in the second graph at any one
time? Does it change? If so, how does it change?
Here is a more general curve. What could you say about its gradient?
How does it change along the curve?
y
Copy the graph and mark on it where the gradient is positive, negative
and zero.
Using what we know about the gradient of a straight line, we can see where
the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero by drawing tangents to the
curve in different places around the curve.
y
+
x
Notice that when the curve increases it has a positive gradient, when it
decreases it has a negative gradient and when it turns around the gradient is zero.
Investigation
There are some excellent computer programs that will draw tangents to
a curve and then sketch the gradient curve. One of these is Geometer
Sketchpad.
Explore how to sketch gradient functions using this or a similar
program as you look at the examples below.
443
444
EXAMPLES
Describe the gradient of each curve.
1.
Solution
Where the curve increases, the gradient is positive. Where it decreases, it
is negative. Where it turns around, it has a zero gradient.
2.
Solution
445
Since we have a formula for finding the gradient of a straight line, we find the
gradient of a curve by measuring the gradient of a tangent to the curve.
EXAMPLE
(a) Make an accurate sketch of y = x 2 on graph paper.
(b) Draw tangents to this curve at the points where
x = - 3, x = - 2, x = - 1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
(c) Find the gradient of each of these tangents.
(d) Draw the graph of the gradients (the gradient function) on a
number plane.
Solution
(a) and (b)
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
-3 -2
There are computer

programs that will
draw these tangents.
(c) At x = - 3, m = - 6
At x = - 2, m = - 4
At x = - 1, m = - 2
At x = 0, m = 0
At x = 1, m = 2
At x = 2, m = 4
At x = 3, m = 6
(d)
Use the m values as

the y values on this
graph.
446
Drawing tangents to a curve is difcult. We can do a rough sketch of

the gradient function of a curve without knowing the actual values of the
gradients of the tangents.
To do this, notice in the example above that where m is positive, the
gradient function is above the x-axis, where m = 0, the gradient function is on
the x-axis and where m is negative, the gradient function is below the x-axis.
EXAMPLES
Sketch the gradient function of each curve.
1.
Solution
First we mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
Now on the gradient graph, place the points where m = 0 on the x-axis.
These are at x 1, x 2 and x 3 .
To the left of x 1, the gradient is negative, so this part of the graph will
be below the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is positive, so the
graph will be above the x-axis. Between x 2 and x 3, the gradient is negative,
so the graph will be below the x-axis. To the right of x 3, the gradient is
positive, so this part of the graph will be above the x-axis.
2.
Solution
First mark in where the gradient is positive, negative and zero.
CONTINUED
447
448
The gradient is zero at x 1 and x 2 . These points will be on the x-axis. To the
left of x 1, the gradient is positive, so this part of the graph will be above
the x-axis. Between x 1 and x 2, the gradient is negative, so the graph will
be below the x-axis. To the right of x 2, the gradient is positive, so this part
of the graph will be above the x-axis.
8.1 Exercises
Sketch the gradient function for each graph.
1.
4.
2.
5.
3.
6.
9.
7.
8.
10.
Differentiation from First Principles

Seeing where the gradient of a curve is positive, negative or zero is a good first step,
but there are methods to find a formula for the gradient of a tangent to a curve.
The process of finding the gradient of a tangent is called differentiation.
The resulting function is called the derivative.
Differentiability
A function is called a differentiable function if the gradient of the tangent
can be found.
There are some graphs that are not differentiable in places.
Most functions are continuous, which means that they have a smooth
unbroken line or curve. However, some have a gap, or discontinuity, in the
graph (e.g. hyperbola). This can be shown by an asymptote or a hole in the
graph. We cannot find the gradient of a tangent to the curve at a point that
doesnt exist! So the function is not differentiable at the point of discontinuity.
y
This function is not

differentiable at a since the curve is
discontinuous at this point.
449
450
This function is not

differentiable at b as the curve is
discontinuous at this point.
A function may be continuous but not smooth. It may have a sharp

corner. Can you see why curves are not differentiable at the point where there
is a corner?
y
The curve is not differentiable at

point c since it is not smooth at that
point.
A function y = f (x) is differentiable at the point x = a if the derivative

exists at that point. This can only happen if the function is continuous
and smooth at x = a.
EXAMPLES
1. Find all points where the function below is not differentiable.
y
x
C
Solution
The function is not differentiable at points A and B since there are sharp
corners and the curve is not smooth at these points.
It is not differentiable at point C since the function is discontinuous
at this point.
2. Is the function f (x) = )
x2
3x - 2
for x $ 1
differentiable at all points?
for x 1 1
Solution
The functions f (x) = x 2 and f (x) = 3x - 2 are both differentiable at all
points.
However, we need to look at where one nishes and the other starts, at f (1).
For f (x) = x 2
f ] 1 g = 12
=1
For f (x) = 3x - 2
f ]1 g = 3 ]1 g - 2
=1
This means that both pieces of this function join up (the function is
continuous). However, to be differentiable, the curve must be smooth at
this point.
CONTINUED
451
452
Sketching this function shows that it is not smooth (it has a sharp
corner) so it is not differentiable at x = 1.
y
y = x2
1
1
-2
y = 3x - 2
8.2 Exercises
For each function, state whether it has any points at which it is not
differentiable.
1.
4.
x1
x1
2.
3.
5.
453
10.
5
4
3
2
x1
x2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
6.
4
f (x) = x
7.
y=-
8.
9.
-4
-5
1
x+3
11. y = tan x for 0c # x # 360c
x3
if x 2 2
f (x) = )
x + 1 if x # 2
Z 2x
for x 2 3
]
f (x) = [3
for - 2 # x # 3
]
2
\1 - x for x 1 - 2
x
12. f (x) = x
13. f (i) = -3 cos 2i
14. g (z) = sin 2 z
15. y =
x-3
x2 - 9
Limits
To differentiate from first principles, we need to look more closely at the
concept of a limit.
A limit is used when we want to move as close as we can to something.
Often this is to find out where a function is near a gap or discontinuous point.
You saw this in Chapter 5 when looking at discontinuous graphs. In this topic,
it is used when we want to move from a gradient of a line between two points
to a gradient of a tangent.
EXAMPLES
1. Find lim
x "2
x2 - x - 2
.
x-2
Solution
(x + 1) (x - 2)
x2 - x - 2
= lim
x "2
x "2
x-2
(x - 2 )
= lim (x + 1)
You did this in

Chapter 5.
lim
x "2
=2+1
=3
CONTINUED
454
2. Find an expression in terms of x for lim

h "0
2xh - h 2 - 3h
.
h
Solution
h (2 x - h - 3)
2xh - h 2 - 3h
= lim
h "0
h "0
h
h
= lim (2x - h - 3)
lim
h "0
= 2x - 3
3. Find an expression in terms of x for lim
dx " 0
3x 2 dx + dx 2 - 5dx
.
dx
Solution
d x ( 3x 2 + d x - 5 )
3x 2 d x + d x 2 - 5 d x
= lim
dx " 0
dx " 0
dx
dx
2
= lim (3x + dx - 5)
lim
dx " 0
2
= 3x - 5
8.3 Exercises
1.
Evaluate
2.
x + 3x
x
x "0
5x 3 - 2x 2 - 7x
lim
x
x "0
x 2 - 3x
lim
x "3 x - 3
t 2 - 16
lim
t "4
t-4
g2 - 1
lim
g "1 g - 1
x2 + x - 2
lim
x " -2
x+2
h 5 + 2h
lim
h "0
h
2
x - 7x + 12
lim
x "3
x-3
n 2 - 25
lim
n "5 n - 5
x 2 + 4x + 3
lim
x " -1
x2 - 1
Find as an expression in terms of x
x 2 h - 2xh - 4h
h "0
h
2x 3 h + xh - h
lim
h "0
h
3x 2 h 2 - 7xh + 4h 2 - h
lim
h "0
h
4x 4 h - x 2 h - 4xh 2
lim
h "0
h
x 2 h 2 + 3xh 2 - 4xh + 3h
lim
h "0
h
2x 2 h + 5xh 2 + 6h
lim
h "0
h
x 2 dx 2 - 2xdx
lim
dx " 0
dx
4 x 2 dx - 2 dx 2
lim
dx " 0
dx
x 3 dx 2 + 3xdx - dx
lim
dx " 0
dx
x 2 dx - 2xdx + 9dx
lim
dx " 0
dx
(a) lim
(a) lim
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Differentiation as a limit
y2 - y1
The formula m = x - x is used to nd the gradient of a straight line when we
2
1
know two points on the line. However, when the line is a tangent to a curve,
we only know one point on the linethe point of contact with the curve.
To differentiate from rst principles, we rst use the point of contact
and another point close to it on the curve (this line is called a secant) and then
we move the second point closer and closer to the point of contact until they
overlap and the line is at single point (the tangent). To do this, we use a limit.
If you look at a close up of a graph, you can get some idea of this concept.
When the curve is magnied, two points appear to be joined by a straight line.
We say the curve is locally straight.
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer program to sketch a curve and
then zoom in on a section of the curve to see that it is locally straight.
For example, here is a parabola.
10
f 1(x) = x2
2
-20
x
20
-10
Notice how it looks straight when we zoom in on a point on the

parabola?
7.99 y
2.99
f 1(x) = x2
Use technology to sketch other curves and zoom in to show that they are
locally straight.
455
456
Before using limits to nd different formulae for differentiating from rst

principles, here are some examples of how we can calculate an approximate
value for the gradient of the tangent to a curve. By taking two points close
together, as in the example below, we nd the gradient of the secant and then
estimate the gradient of the tangent.
y
(3.01, f (3.01))
(3, f (3))
x
EXAMPLES
1. For the function f ] x g = x 3, nd the gradient of the secant PQ where P
is the point on the function where x = 2 and Q is another point on the
curve close to P. Choose different values for Q and use these results to
estimate the gradient of the curve at P.
y
Q
P
(2.1, f(2.1))
(2, f(2))
457
Solution
P = ^ 2, f (2) h
Take different values of x for point Q, for example x = 2.1
Using different values of x for point Q gives the results in the table.
Point Q
_ 2 .1 , f ] 2 .1 g i
_ 2.01, f ] 2.01 g i
_ 2.001, f ] 2.001 g i
_ 1 .9 , f ] 1 .9 g i
_ 1.99, f ] 1.99 g i
_ 1.999, f ] 1.999 g i
Gradient of secant PQ
y2 - y1
to nd
x2 - x1
the gradient of the secant.
Use m =
f ( 2 . 1 ) - f (2 )
m=
2 .1 - 2
2 .1 3 - 2 3
=
2 .1 - 2
= 12.61
f (2.01) - f (2)
2.01 - 2
2.01 3 - 2 3
=
2.01 - 2
= 12.0601
m=
f (2.001) - f (2)
2.001 - 2
2.001 3 - 2 3
=
2.001 - 2
= 12.006001
m=
f ( 1 . 9 ) - f (2 )
1 .9 - 2
1 .9 3 - 2 3
=
1 .9 - 2
= 11.41
m=
f (1.99) - f (2)
1.99 - 2
1.99 3 - 2 3
=
1.99 - 2
= 11.9401
m=
f (1.999) - f (2)
1.999 - 2
1.999 3 - 2 3
=
1.999 - 2
= 11.994001
m=
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at P is 12.

We can say that as x approaches 2, the gradient approaches 12.
f (x) - f (2)
We can write lim
= 12.
x "2
x-2
CONTINUED
458
2. For the curve y = x 2, nd the gradient of the secant AB where A is the

point on the curve where x = 5 and point B is close to A. Find an estimate
of the gradient of the curve at A by using three different values for B.
Solution
A = ^ 5, f (5) h
Take three different values of x for point B, for example x = 4.9, x = 5.1
and x = 5.01.
(a) B = ^ 4.9, f (4.9) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f ( 4 . 9 ) - f (5 )
=
4 .9 - 5
4 .9 2 - 5 2
=
4 .9 - 5
= 9 .9
(b) B = ^ 5.1, f (5.1) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f ( 5 . 1 ) - f (5 )
=
5 .1 - 5
5 .1 2 - 5 2
=
5 .1 - 5
= 10.1
(c) B = ^ 5.01, f (5.01) h
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f (5.01) - f (5)
=
5.01 - 5
5.01 2 - 5 2
=
5.01 - 5
= 10.01
From these results, a good estimate for the gradient at A is 10.
We can say that as x approaches 5, the gradient approaches 10.
We can write lim
x "5
f (x) - f (5)
= 10.
x-5
We can nd a general formula for differentiating from rst principles by

using c rather than any particular number. We use general points P ^ c, f (c) h and
Q ^ x, f (x) h where x is close to c.
The gradient of the secant PQ is given by
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f (x) - f (c)
=
x-c
459
The gradient of the tangent at P is found when x approaches c. We call

this fl(c).
f l(c) = lim
x "c
f (x) - f (c)
x-c
There are other versions of this formula.

We can call the points P ^ x, f (x) h and Q ^ x + h, f (x + h) h where h is small.
y
Q
(x + h, f(x + h))
(x , f(x))
x
Secant PQ has gradient

y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
f (x + h) - f (x)
=
x+h-x
f (x + h) - f (x)
=
h
To nd the gradient of the secant, we make h smaller as shown, so that
Q becomes closer and closer to P.
y
Q
(x + h, f(x + h))
Q
Q
P
(x, f (x))
x
Search the Internet using

keywords differentiation from
rst principles, gradient of
secant and tangent to nd
mathematical websites that
show this working.
460
As h approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim

h "0
We call this fl(x).
fl(x) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
h "0
The symbol d is a
Greek letter called
delta.
f (x + h) - f (x)
If we use P ^ x, y h and Q ^ x + dx, y + dy h close to P where dx and dy are

small:
Gradient of secant PQ
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
y + dy - y
=
x + dx - x
dy
=
dx
dy
. We
As dx approaches 0, the gradient of the tangent becomes lim
dx " 0 d x
dy
call this
.
dx
dy
dx
= lim
dx " 0
dy
dx
All of these different notations stand for the derivative, or the gradient of
the tangent:
dy
d
d
,
(y),
^ f (x) h, f l(x), yl
dx dx
dx
These occur because Newton, Leibniz and other mathematicians over the
years have used different notation.
Investigation
Leibniz used
dy
dx
where d stood for difference. Can you see why he would
have used this?

Use the Internet to explore the different notations used in calculus and
where they came from.
461
The three formulae for differentiating from rst principles all work in a
similar way.
EXAMPLE
Differentiate from rst principles to nd the gradient of the tangent to
the curve y = x 2 + 3 at the point where x = 1.
Remember that y = x 2 - 3
is the same as f (x) = x 2 - 3.
Solution
Method 1:
f (x) - f (c)
x-c
2
f ]x g = x + 3
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f (x) - f (c)
f l(c) = lim
x "c
x-c
f (x) - f (1)
f l(1) = lim
x "1
x-1
(x 2 + 3) - 4
= lim
x "1
x-1
x2 - 1
= lim
x "1 x - 1
(x + 1) (x - 1)
= lim
x "1
x-1
= lim (x + 1)
f l(c) = lim
x "c
x "1
=1+1
=2
Method 2:
f l(x) = lim
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
h "0
f ] x g = x2 + 3
f ] 1 g = 12 + 3
=4
f ] x + h g = ] x + h g2 + 3
When x = 1
f ] 1 + h g = ] 1 + h g2 + 3
= 1 + 2h + h 2 + 3
= 2h + h 2 + 4
CONTINUED
462
f l(x) = lim
h "0
f l(1) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
f (1 + h) - f (1)
h
(2h + h 2 + 4) - 4
= lim
h "0
h
2h + h 2
= lim
h "0
h
h (2 + h)
= lim
h "0
h
= lim (2 + h)
h "0
h "0
=2+0
=2
Method 3:
dy
= lim
dy
dx
dx
y = x2 + 3
dx " 0
When x = 1
y = 12 + 3
=4
So point ^ 1, 4 h lies on the curve.
Substitute point (1 + dx, 4 + dy):
4 + dy = (1 + dx) 2 + 3
= 1 + 2d x + d x 2 + 3
= 2d x + d x 2 + 4
d y = 2d x + d x 2
dy
2d x + d x 2
=
dx
dx
dx(2 + dx)
=
dx
= 2 + dx
dy
dy
= lim
d
x
"
0
dx
dx
= lim (2 + dx)
dx " 0
=2+0
=2
We can also use these formulae to find the derivative function generally.
463
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f ] x g = 2x 2 + 7x - 3 from rst principles.
Solution
Try this example using the

other two formulae.
f ] x g = 2x + 7x - 3
f ] x + h g = 2 ] x + h g2 + 7 ] x + h g - 3
2
= 2 ^ x 2 + 2xh + h 2 h + 7x + 7h - 3
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3
f ] x + h g - f ] x g = ^ 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 h - ^ 2x 2 + 7x - 3 h
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 + 7x + 7h - 3 - 2x 2 - 7x + 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
f l(x) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
4xh + 2h 2 + 7h
= lim
h "0
h
h ( 4 x + 2h + 7 )
= lim
h "0
h
= lim (4x + 2h + 7)
h "0
h "0
= 4x + 0 + 7
= 4x + 7
8.4 Exercises
1.
2.
(a) Find the gradient of the secant

between the point ^ 1, 2 h and the
point where x = 1.01, on the
curve y = x 4 + 1.
(b) Find the gradient of the
secant between ^ 1, 2 h and the
point where x = 0.999 on the
curve.
(c) Use these results to nd the
gradient of the tangent to the
curve y = x 4 + 1 at the point
^ 1, 2 h .
A function f ] x g = x 3 + x has a
tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h .
f (x) - f (2)
(a) Find the value of
x-2
when x = 2.1.
(b) Find the value of
f (x) - f (2)
x-2
when x = 2.01.
f (x) - f (2)
(c) Evaluate
when
x-2
x = 1.99.
(d) Hence nd the gradient of the
tangent at the point ^ 2, 10 h .
3.
For the function f ] x g = x 2 - 4,

nd the derivative at point P
where x = 3 by selecting points
near P and nding the gradient of
the secant.
4.
If f (x) = x 2,
(a) nd f (x + h)
(b) show that
f (x + h) - f (x) = 2xh + h 2
464
(c) show that

f (x + h) - f (x)
h
5.
6.
= 2x + h
(d) show that fl(x) = 2x .
(b) show that
A function is given by
f (x) = 2x 2 - 7x + 3.
(a) Show that f (x + h) =
2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3.
(b) Show that
f (x + h) - f (x) = 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h.
(c) Show that
f (x + h) - f (x)
= 4x + 2h - 7 .
h
(d) Find fl(x) .
(c) nd
A function is given by
f (x) = x 2 + x + 5.
(a) Find f ] 2 g.
(b) Find f ] 2 + h g.
(c) Find f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g.
(d) Show that
f (2 + h) - f ( 2)
= 5 + h.
h
(e) Find fl(2).
7.
Given the curve f (x) = 4x 3 - 3

(a) nd f ] -1 g
(b) nd f ] -1 + h g - f ] -1 g
(c) nd the gradient of the
tangent to the curve at the point
where x = -1.
8.
For the parabola y = x - 1

(a) nd f ] 3 g
(b) nd f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g
(c) nd fl(3).
9.
Remember that
1
-1
=
x
by substituting the point

^ x + dx, y + dy h
For the function

f (x) = 4 - 3x - 5x 2
(a) nd f l(1)
(b) similarly, nd the gradient
of the tangent at the point
^ -2, -10 h .
10. For the parabola y = x 2 + 2x

(a) show that
dy = 2xdx + dx 2 + 2dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 2x + dx + 2
11. Differentiate from rst principles

to nd the gradient of the
tangent to the curve
(a) f ] x g = x 2 at the point where
x=1
(b) y = x 2 + x at the point ^ 2, 6 h
(c) f ] x g = 2x 2 - 5 at the point
where x = -3
(d) y = 3x 2 + 3x + 1 at the point
where x = 2
(e) f ] x g = x 2 - 7x - 4 at the
point ^ -1, 6 h .
12. Find the derivative function for
each curve by differentiating
from rst principles
(a) f ] x g = x 2
(b) y = x 2 + 5x
(c) f ] x g = 4x 2 - 4x - 3
(d) y = 5x 2 - x - 1
(e) y = x 3
(f) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 5x
(g) y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x - 1
(h) f (x) = -2x 3.
13. The curve y = x has a tangent
drawn at the point ^ 4, 2 h .
(a) Evaluate
f (x) - f (4)
when
x-4
x = 3 .9 .
f (x) - f (4)
(b) Evaluate
when
x-4
x = 3.999.
f (x) - f (4)
when
(c) Evaluate
x-4
x = 4.01.
14. For the function f (x) = x - 1,
f (x) - f (5)
(a) evaluate
when
x-5
x = 4.99.
f (x) - f (5)
(b) evaluate
when
x-5
x = 5.01.
(c) Use these results to find the
derivative of the function at the
point where x = 5.
15. Find the gradient of the tangent

4
to the curve y = 2 at point
x
P ^ 2, 1 h by finding the gradient of
the secant between P and a point
close to P.
Short Methods of Differentiation

The basic rule
Remember that the gradient of a straight line y = mx + b is m. The tangent to
the line is the line itself, so the gradient of the tangent is m everywhere along
the line.
y
y = mx + b
So if y = mx,
dy
dx
=m
d ] g
kx = k
dx
For a horizontal line in the form y = k, the gradient is zero.

y
y=k
So if y = k,
dy
dx
=0
d ] g
k =0
dx
465
466
Investigation
Differentiate from rst principles:
y = x2
y = x3
y = x4
Can you nd a pattern? Could you predict what the result would be for xn?
Alternatively, you could nd an approximation to the derivative of a
f (x + 0.01) - f (x)
function at any point by drawing the graph of y =
.
0.01
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to sketch the
derivative for these functions and nd the equation of the derivative.
Mathematicians working with differentiation from rst principles discovered

this pattern that enabled them to shorten differentiation considerably!
For example:
When y = x 2, yl = 2x
When y = x 3, yl = 3x 2
When y = x 4, yl = 4x 3
d ^ nh
x = nx n - 1
dx
Proof
You do not need to know
this proof.
f (x) = x n
f (x + h) = (x + h) n
f (x + h) - f (x) = (x + h) n - x n
= ^ (x + h) - x h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3
+ . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
f l(x) = lim
f (x + h) - f (x)
h
h [(x + h) n - 1 + (x + h) n - 2 x + (x + h) n - 3 x 2 + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
= lim
h "0
h
n-1
n-2
n-3 2
= lim [(x + h)
+ (x + h )
x + (x + h)
x + (x + h) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x + h) x n - 2 + x n - 1]
h "0
h "0
= (x) n - 1 + (x) n - 2 x + (x) n - 3 x 2 + (x) n - 4 x 3 + . . . + (x) x n - 2 + x n - 1

= nx n - 1
467
EXAMPLE
Differentiate f (x) = x 7.
Solution
f l(x) = 7x 6
There are some more rules that give us short ways to differentiate functions.
The rst one says that if there is a constant in front of the x (we call this a
coefcient), then it is just multiplied with the derivative.
d ^ nh
kx = knx n - 1
dx
A more general way of writing this rule is:
d
^ kf (x) h = kf l(x)
dx
Proof
kf (x + h) - kf (x)
d
^ kf (x) h = lim
0
h
"
dx
h
k [f (x + h) - f (x)]
= lim
h "0
h
f (x + h) - f (x)
= k lim
h "0
h
= kf l(x)
EXAMPLE
Find the derivative of 3x8.
Solution
If y = 3x 8
dy
= 3 # 8x 7
dx
= 24x 7

this proof.
468
Also, if there are several terms in an expression, we differentiate each one

separately. We can write this as a rule:
d
^ f (x) + g (x) h = f l(x) + g (x)
dx
Proof
You do not need to
know this proof.
[f (x + h) + g (x + h)] - [f (x) + g (x)]

d
^ f (x) + g (x) h = lim
h "0
dx
h
f (x + h) + g (x + h) - f (x) - g (x)
= lim
h "0
h
f (x + h) - f (x) + g (x + h) - g (x)
= lim
h "0
h
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
g ( x + h ) - g ( x)
G
= lim =
+
h "0
h
h
f (x + h ) - f ( x )
g ( x + h ) - g ( x)
= lim
+ lim
0
h "0
h
"
h
h
= f l(x) + gl(x)
EXAMPLE
Differentiate x 3 + x 4.
Solution
d 3
(x + x 4) = 3x 2 + 4x 3
dx
Many functions use a combination of these rules.
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 7x
Solution
d ] g
7x = 7
dx
CONTINUED
2. f (x) = x 4 - x 3 + 5
Solution
f l(x) = 4x 3 - 3x 2 + 0
= 4x 3 - 3x 2
3. y = 4x 7
Solution
dy
dx
= 4 # 7x 6
= 28x 6
4. If f (x) = 2x 5 - 7x 3 + 5x - 4, evaluate f l(-1)
Solution
f l(x) = 10x 4 - 21x 2 + 5
f l(-1) = 10(-1) 4 - 21(-1) 2 + 5
= -6
5. Differentiate
3x 2 + 5x
2x
Solution
Divide by 2x before differentiating.
3x 2 + 5x
3x 2 5x
=
+
2x
2x
2x
3
5
= x+
2
2
dy
3
=
2
dx
1
=1
2
6. Differentiate S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh with respect to r.
Solution
We are differentiating with respect to r, so r is the variable and r and h
are constants.
dS
= 2r(2r) + 2rh
dr
= 4r r + 2r h
469
470
8.5 Exercises
1.
Expand brackets
before differentiating.
2.
3.
Simplify by dividing
Differentiate
(a) x + 2
(b) 5x - 9
(c) x 2 + 3x + 4
(d) 5x 2 - x - 8
(e) x 3 + 2x 2 - 7x - 3
(f) 2x 3 - 7x 2 + 7x - 1
(g) 3x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x
(h) x 6 - 5x 5 - 2x 4
(i) 2x 5 - 4x 3 + x 2 - 2x + 4
(j) 4x 10 - 7x 9
Find the derivative of
(a) x ] 2x + 1 g
(b) ] 2x - 3 g2
(c) ] x + 4 g ] x - 4 g
2
(d) ^ 2x 2 - 3 h
(e) ] 2x + 5 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h
Differentiate
(a)
x2
-x
6
(b)
x4 x3
+4
2
3
(c)
1 6 2
x ( x - 3)
3
(d)
2x 3 + 5x
x
(e)
x 2 + 2x
4x
(f)
2x 5 - 3x 4 + 6x 3 - 2x 2
3x 2
4.
5.
6.
Find f l(x) when

f (x) = 8x 2 -7x + 4.
dy
If y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 5, nd
when
dx
x = - 2.
dy
Find
if
dx
y = 6x 10 - 5x 8 + 7x 5 - 3x + 8.
ds
.
dt
7.
If s = 5t 2 - 20t , nd
8.
Find gl(x) given g (x) = 5x - 4.
dv
when v = 15t 2 - 9.
dt
dh
10. If h = 40t - 2t 2, nd
.
dt
9.
Find
11. Given V =
dV
4 3
rr , nd
.
3
dr
12. If f (x) = 2x 3 - 3x + 4,
evaluate f l(1).
13. Given f (x) = x 2 - x + 5, evaluate
(a) f l(3)
(b) f l(-2)
(c) x when f l(x) = 7
14. If y = x 3 - 7, evaluate
dy
(a)
when x = 2
dx
dy
(b) x when
= 12
dx
15. Evaluate gl(2) when
g (t) = 3t 3 - 4t 2 - 2t + 1.
471
Tangents and Normals
DID YOU KNOW?

The word tangent comes from the Latin tangens, meaning touching. A tangent to a circle
intersects it only once.
However, a tangent to a curve could intersect the curve more than once.
This line is a tangent to the

curve at point P.
A line may only intersect a curve once but not be a tangent.
So a tangent to a curve is best described as the limiting position of the secant PQ as Q

approaches P.
Remember from earlier in the chapter that the derivative is the gradient of the
tangent to a curve.
dy
dx
is the gradient of the tangent to a curve
472
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola y = x 2 + 1 at the
point ^ 1, 2 h .
Solution
dy
dx
At ^ 1, 2 h
dy
dx
= 2x + 0
= 2x
= 2 (1 )
=2
So the gradient of the tangent at ^ 1, 2 h is 2.

2. Find values of x for which the gradient of the tangent to the curve
y = 2x 3 - 6x 2 + 1 is equal to 18.
Solution
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 6x 2 - 12x
is the gradient of the tangent, so substitute
dy
dx
= 18.
18 = 6x 2 - 12x
0 = 6x 2 - 12x - 18
= x 2 - 2x - 3
= ]x - 3 g]x + 1 g
x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0
` x = 3,
x = -1
3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x 4 - 3x 3 + 7x - 2
at the point ^ 2, 4 h .
Solution
dy
At ^ 2, 4 h
dx
dy
dx
= 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 7
= 4 ] 2 g3 - 9 ] 2 g2 + 7
=3
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 4 = 3 ]x - 2 g
473
= 3x - 6
y = 3x - 2
or 0 = 3x - y - 2
The normal is a straight line perpendicular to the tangent at the same point of
contact with the curve.
y
Tangent
Normal
If lines with gradients m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then m 1 m 2 = -1
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the normal to the curve y = 2x 2 - 3x + 5 at the
point where x = 4.
Solution
dy
dx
is the gradient of the tangent.

dy
= 4x - 3
dx
When x = 4
dy
=4#4-3
dx
= 13
So m 1 = 13
The normal is perpendicular to the tangent.
So m 1 m 2 = -1
CONTINUED
You used this rule in the

previous chapter.
474
13m 2 = -1
1
m2 = 13
1
So the gradient of the normal is - .
13
2. Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 3 + 3x 2 - 2x - 1

at the point ^ -1, 3 h .
Solution
dy
dx
is the gradient of the tangent.

dy
= 3x 2 + 6x - 2
dx
When x = -1
dy
= 3 ] -1 g2 + 6 ] -1 g - 2
dx
= -5
So m 1 = - 5
So m 1 m 2 = -1
-5m 2 = -1
1
m2 =
5
1
So the gradient of the normal is .
5
Equation of the normal:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
1
y - 3 = ] x - ] -1 g g
5
5y - 15 = x + 1
0 = x - 5y + 16
8.6 Exercises
1.
Find the gradient of the tangent

to the curve
(a) y = x 3 - 3x at the point where
x=5
(b) f ] x g = x 2 + x - 4 at the point
^ -7, 38 h
(c) f ] x g = 5x 3 - 4x - 1 at the
point where x = -1
(d) y = 5x 2 + 2x + 3 at the point
^ -2, 19 h
(e) y = 2x 9 at the point where
x=1
(f) f ] x g = x 3 - 7 at the point

where x = 3
(g) v = 2t 2 + 3t - 5 at the point
where t = 2
(h) Q = 3r 3 - 2r 2 + 8r - 4 at the
point where r = 4
(i) h = t 4 - 4t where t = 0
(j) f ] t g = 3t 5 - 8t 3 + 5t at the
point where t = 2.
2.
3.
4.
Find the gradient of the normal

to the curve
(a) f ] x g = 2x 3 + 2x - 1 at the
point where x = -2
(b) y = 3x 2 + 5x - 2 at the
point ^ -5, 48 h
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 7 at the
point where x = - 9
(d) y = x 3 + x 2 + 3x - 2 at the
point ^ -4, - 62 h
(e) f ] x g = x 10 at the point where
x = -1
(f) y = x 2 + 7x - 5 at the
point ^ - 7, - 5 h
(g) A = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - x + 1 at the
point where x = 3
(h) f ] a g = 3a 2 - 2a - 6 at the
point where a = - 3
(i) V = h 3 - 4h + 9 at the
point ^ 2, 9 h
(j) g ] x g = x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x - 3 at
the point where x = -1.
Find the gradient of the
(i) tangent and (ii) normal to
the curve
(a) y = x 2 + 1 at the point ^ 3, 10 h
(b) f ] x g = 5 - x 2 at the point
where x = -4
(c) y = 2x 5 - 7x 2 + 4 at the point
where x = -1
(d) p ] x g = x 6 - 3x 4 - 2x + 8
where x = 1
(e) f ] x g = 4 - x - x 2 at the point
^ -6, 26 h .
Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve
(a) y = x 4 - 5x + 1 at the
point ^ 2, 7 h
(b) f (x) = 5x 3 - 3x 2 - 2x + 6 at
the point ^ 1, 6 h
(c) y = x 2 + 2x - 8 at the
point ^ -3, -5 h
(d) y = 3x 3 + 1 at the point
where x = 2
(e) v = 4t 4 - 7t 3 - 2 at the point
where t = 2
5.
Find the equation of the normal

to the curve
(a) f ] x g = x 3 - 3x + 5 at the
point ^ 3, 23 h
(b) y = x 2 - 4x - 5 at the point
^ -2, 7 h
(c) f ] x g = 7x - 2x 2 at the point
where x = 6
(d) y = 7x 2 - 3x - 2 at the point
^ -3, 70 h
(e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the
point where x = 1.
6.
Find the equation of the

(i) tangent and (ii) normal to the
curve
(a) f ] x g = 4x 2 - x + 8 at the
point ^ 1, 11 h
(b) y = x 3 + 2x 2 - 5x at the
point ^ -3, 6 h
(c) F ] x g = x 5 - 5x 3 at the point
where x = 1
(d) y = x 2 - 8x + 7 at the point
^ 3, - 8 h
(e) y = x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x + 1 at the
point where x = 1.
7.
For the curve y = x 3 - 27x - 5,

dy
nd values of x for which
= 0.
dx
8.
Find the coordinates of the point

at which the curve y = x 3 + 1 has
a tangent with a gradient of 3.
9.
A function f (x) = x 2 + 4x - 12
has a tangent with a gradient of
-6 at point P on the curve. Find
the coordinates of the point P.
10. The tangent at point P on the

curve y = 4x 2 + 1 is parallel to the
x-axis. Find the coordinates of P.
11. Find the coordinates of point Q
where the tangent to the curve
y = 5x 2 - 3x is parallel to the line
7x - y + 3 = 0 .
475
476
12. Find the coordinates of point S

where the tangent to the curve
y = x 2 + 4x - 1 is perpendicular
to the line 4x + 2y + 7 = 0.
13. The curve y = 3x - 4 has a
gradient of 6 at point A.
(a) Find the coordinates of A.
(b) Find the equation of the
tangent to the curve at A.
2
14. A function h = 3t 2 - 2t + 5 has a

tangent at the point where t = 2.
Find the equation of the tangent.
15. A function f ] x g = 2x 2 - 8x + 3
has a tangent parallel to the line
4x - 2y + 1 = 0 at point P. Find
the equation of the tangent at P.
Further Differentiation and Indices

The basic rule for differentiating xn works for any rational number n.
Investigation
1. (a) Show that
-h
1
1
- =
.
x+h x
x (x + h)
1
(b) Hence differentiate y = x from rst principles.
(c) Differentiate y = x - 1 using a short method. Do you get the same
answer as 1(b)?
2. (a) Show that ( x + h - x ) ( x + h + x ) = h.
(b) Hence differentiate y =
1
2
x from rst principles.
(c) Differentiate y = x and show that this gives the same answer as 2(b).
We sometimes need to change a function into index form before

differentiating.
EXAMPLES
1. Differentiate 7 3 x .
Solution
1
7 3 x = 7x 3
dy
1 1-1
= 7$ x 3
3
dx
2
7 -3
= x
3
7
1
= # 2
3
x3
=
=
7
1
#
3
3
x2
7
3 3 x2
4
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = 2 at the point
x
where x = 2.
Solution
4
x2
= 4x - 2
y=
dy
dx
= - 8x - 3
=-
8
x3
When x = 2
4
y= 2
2
=1
Gradient of the tangent at ^ 2, 1 h:
dy
8
=- 3
dx
2
= -1
Equation of the tangent:
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
y - 1 = -1 ] x - 2 g
= -x + 2
y = -x + 3
or x + y - 3 = 0
8.7 Exercises
1.
Differentiate
(a) x - 3
(b) x 1.4
(c) 6x 0.2
1
(d) x 2
1
(e) 2x 2 - 3x - 1
1
(f) 3x 3
3
(g) 8x 4
(h) - 2x
1
2
2.
Find the derivative function,

writing the answer without
negative or fractional indices.
1
(a) x
(b) 5 x
(c) 6 x
2
(d) 5
x
5
(e) - 3
x
1
(f)
x
477
478
Note that
1
2x 6
1
1
# .
2
x6
(g)
Use index laws to

simplify first.
10. Find the equation of the tangent

to f (x) = 6 x at the point where
x = 9.
1
2x 6
(h) x x
x
11. (a) Differentiate x .
2
(i)
3x
3
1
(j)
+
4x 2 x 4
3.
Expand brackets first.
This rule is also called the

function of a function rule
or chain rule.
(b) Hence find the gradient of the

x
tangent to the curve y = x at
the point where x = 4.

to the curve y = 3 x at the point
where x = 27.

4
to the curve y = x at the point
1
c 8, m.
2
dx
12
, find
when t = 2.
t
dt
4.
If x =
5.
A function is given by f (x) = 4 x .

Evaluate f l(16) .
6.

3
to the curve y =
at the point
2x 2
1
c 1, 1 m.
2
dy
14. The function f (x) = 3 x has

3
f l(x) = . Evaluate x.
4
2
15. The hyperbola y = x has two
2
tangents with gradient - . Find
25
the coordinates of the points of
contact of these tangents.
if y = ^ x + x h .
2
7.
Find
8.
A function f (x) =
9.

1
to the curve y = 3 at the point
x
1
c 2, m.
8
dx
13. If the gradient of the tangent to

1
y = x is at point A, find the
6
coordinates of A.
x
has a
2
tangent at ^ 4, 1 h . Find the
gradient of the tangent.
Composite Function Rule

A composite function is a function composed of two or more other functions.
5
For example, ^ 3x 2 - 4 h is made up of a function u5 where u = 3x 2 - 4.
To differentiate a composite function, we need to use the result..
dy
dx
dy
du
du
dx
Proof
Let dx, dy and du be small changes in x, y and u where dx " 0, dy " 0, du " 0.
dy
dy
du
=
#
Then
dx
du
dx
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy
dy
du
= lim
# lim
So lim
dx " 0 d x
du " 0 d u
dx " 0 d x
479
You do not need to

learn this proof.
Using the denition of the derivative from rst principles, this gives
dy
dx
dy
du
du
.
dx
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (5x + 4) 7
Solution
u = 5x + 4
du
Then
=5
dx
y = u7
dy
`
= 7u 6
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
= 7u 6 # 5
= 35 (5x + 4) 6
Let
Can you see a quick

way of doing this
question?
2. (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 9
Solution
u = 3x 2 + 2x - 1
du
Then
= 6x + 2
dx
y = u9
dy
`
= 9u 8
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
8
= 9u (6x + 2)
= 9(6x + 2) (3x 2 + 2x - 1) 8
Let
CONTINUED
480
3.
3-x
Solution
1
3 - x = (3 - x) 2
Let u = 3 - x
du
= -1
dx
1
y = u2
dy
1 -1
= u 2
2
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
1 - 12
= u (-1)
2
1
1
= - (3 - x) 2
2
1
=2 3-x
The derivative of a composite function is the product of two derivatives.

One is the derivative of the function inside the brackets. The other is the
derivative of the whole function.
d
[ f (x)] n = f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
dx

this proof.
Proof
u = f (x)
du
= f l(x)
Then
dx
y = un
dy
`
= nu n - 1
du
dy
dy
du
=
#
dx
du
dx
= nu n - 1 # f l(x)
= f l(x) n [ f (x)] n - 1
Let
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. (8x 3 - 1) 5
Solution
dy
dx
= f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 24x 2 $ 5 (8x 3 - 1) 4
= 120x 2 (8x 3 - 1) 4
2. (3x + 8) 11
Solution
yl = f l(x) . n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 3 # 11 (3x + 8) 10
= 33 (3x + 8) 10
3.
1
(6x + 1) 2
Solution
1
= (6x + 1) - 2
(6x + 1) 2
yl = f l(x) $ n [ f (x)] n - 1
= 6 # -2 (6x + 1) - 3
= -12 (6x + 1) - 3
12
=( 6 x + 1) 3
8.8 Exercises
1.
Differentiate
(a) (x + 3) 4
(b) (2x - 1) 3
(c) (5x 2 - 4) 7
(d) (8x + 3) 6
(e) (1 - x) 5
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3 (5x + 9) 9
2 (x - 4) 2
(2x 3 + 3x) 4
(x 2 + 5x - 1) 8
(x 6 - 2x 2 + 3) 6
1
(k) (3x - 1) 2
481
482
2.

to the curve y = ] 3x - 2 g3 at the
point ^ 1, 1 h .
(o) (x 3 - 7x 2 + x) 4
3.
If f (x) = 2 (x 2 - 3) 5, evaluate fl(2).
3x + 4
1
(q)
5x - 2
1
(r)
(x 2 + 1) 4
4.
The curve y =
5.
For what values of x does the

1
function f (x) =
have
4x - 1
4
f l(x) = ?
49
6.

to y = (2x + 1) 4 at the point
where x = - 1.
(l) (4 - x) - 2
(m) (x 2 - 9) - 3
1
(n) (5x + 4) 3
(p)
(s)
(t)
(u)
(v)
(w)
(x)
(y)
(7 - 3x) 2
5
4+x
1
2 3x - 1
3
4 (2x + 7) 9
1
x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x
(4x + 1) 4
1
( 7 - x) 5
x - 3 has a
1
tangent with gradient at point
2
N. Find the coordinates of N.
Product Rule
Differentiating the product of two functions y = uv gives the result
dy
dx
=u
dv
du
+v
dx
dx
Proof
y = uv
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
y + dy = (u + du) (v + dv)
= uv + udv + vdu + dudv
`
dy = udv + vdu + dudv ^ since y = uv h

dy
dv
du
dv
=u
+v
+ du
dx
dx
dx
dx
As dx " 0, du " 0
dy
dv
du
dv
F
lim
= lim < u
+v
+ du
dx " 0 d x
dx " 0
dx
dx
dx
dv
du
dv
F + lim < v
F + lim < du
F
= lim < u
dx " 0
d
x
"
0
d
x
"
0
dx
dx
dx
dy
dv
du
=u
+v
dx
dx
dx
483
You do not need to

know this proof.
It is easier to remember this rule as y l = uv l + vu l. We can also write this

the other way around which helps when learning the quotient rule in the next
section.
If y = uv, y l = u lv + v lu
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. ] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g
Solution
You could expand the brackets and then differentiate:
] 3x + 1 g ] x - 5 g = 3x 2 - 15x + x - 5
= 3x 2 - 14x - 5
dy
= 6x - 14
dx
Using the product rule:
y = uv where u = 3x + 1 and v = x - 5
ul = 3
vl = 1
y l = u lv + v l u
= 3 ] x - 5 g + 1 ] 3x + 1 g
= 3x - 15 + 3x + 1
= 6x - 14
2. 2x 5 ] 5x + 3 g3
Solution
y = uv where u = 2x 5 and v = ] 5x + 3 g 3
u l = 10x 4 v l = 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g 2
CONTINUED
484
y l = u lv + v l u
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 5.3 ] 5x + 3 g2 $ 2x 5
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g3 + 30x 5 ] 5x + 3 g2
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 6 ] 5x + 3 g + 3x @
= 10x 4 ] 5x + 3 g2 ] 8x + 3 g
We can simplify this further

by factorising.
3. (3x - 4) 5 - 2x
Solution
1
Remember
5 - 2x = ] 5 - 2x g 2
y = uv where u = 3x - 4 and v = ] 5 - 2x g 2
1
1
ul = 3
v l = - 2 $ (5 - 2 x ) 2
2
y l = u lv + v lu
1
1
1]
5 - 2x g 2 ] 3x - 4 g
2
1
5 - 2x - (3x - 4) ] 5 - 2x g 2
3x - 4
5 - 2x 1
(5 - 2x) 2
3x - 4
5 - 2x 5 - 2x
5 - 2x $ 5 - 2x - (3x - 4)
= 3 ] 5 - 2x g 2 +- 2 $
=3
=3
=3
=
=
5 - 2x
3(5 - 2x) - (3x - 4)
5 - 2x
15 - 6x - 3x + 4
=
5 - 2x
19 - 9x
=
5 - 2x
8.9 Exercises
1.
Change this into a product

Differentiate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
x 3 ] 2x + 3 g
] 3x - 2 g ] 2 x + 1 g
3x ] 5x + 7 g
4x 4 ^ 3x 2 - 1 h
2x ^ 3x 4 - x h
x 2 ] x + 1 g3
4x ] 3x - 2 g5
3x 4 ] 4 - x g3
] x + 1 g ] 2x + 5 g4
^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h 5
x 2-x
5x + 3
(l)
2x - 1
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
2.

to the curve y = 2x ] 3x - 2 g4 at
the point ^ 1, 2 h .
7.

to h = (t + 1) 2 (t - 1) 7at the point
^ 2, 9 h .
3.
If f (x) = (2x + 3) (3x - 1) 5,

evaluate fl(1) .
8.
4.
Find the exact gradient of the

tangent to the curve y = x 2x + 5
at the point where x = 1.
Find exact values of x for

which the gradient of the
tangent to the curve
y = 2x ] x + 3 g2 is 14.
9.
Given f (x) = (4x - 1) (3x + 2) 2,

find the equation of the
tangent at the point where
x = -1.
5.
Find the gradient of the

tangent where t = 3, given
x = ] 2t - 5 g ] t + 1 g3.
6.

to the curve y = x 2 ] 2x - 1 g4 at
the point ^ 1, 1 h .
Quotient Rule
u
Differentiating the quotient of two functions y = v gives the result.
dy
dx
du
dv
-u
dx
dx
v2
Proof
u
y= v
Given that dy, du and dv are small changes in y, u and v.
u + du
y + dy =
v + dv
u + du u
u
` dy =
- v a since y = v k
v + dv
v (u + du) u (v + dv)
=
v (v + dv)
v (v + dv)
v (u + du) - u (v + dv)
=
v (v + dv)
vu + vdu - uv - udv
=
v (v + dv)
vdu - udv
=
v (v + dv)
du
dv
v
-u
dy
dx
dx
=
v (v + dv)
dx
As dx " 0, dv " 0
485
486
lim
dx " 0

this proof.
dy
dx
dy
dx
R
S v du - u dv
S dx
dx
= lim S
dx " 0
v ( v + d v)
T
du
dv
v
-u
dx
dx
=
v2
V
W
W
W
X
It is easier to remember this rule as y l =
u lv - v lu
.
v2
u
u lv - v lu
If y = v , y l =
v2
EXAMPLES
Differentiate
1. 3x - 5
5x + 2
Solution
u
y = v where u = 3x - 5 and v = 5x + 2
ul = 3
vl = 5
yl =
=
u lv - v lu
v2
3 (5x + 2) - 5 (3x - 5)
(5x + 2) 2
15x + 6 - 15x + 25
=
(5x + 2) 2
31
=
(5x + 2) 2
2. 4x 3 - 5x + 2
x3 - 1
Solution
u
y = v where u = 4x 3 - 5x + 2 and v = x 3 - 1
u l = 12x 2 - 5
v l = 3x 2
u l v - v lu
yl =
v2
(12x 2 - 5) (x 3 - 1) - 3x 2 (4x 3 - 5x + 2)
=
(x 3 - 1 ) 2
12x 5 - 12x 2 - 5x 3 + 5 - 12x 5 + 15x 3 - 6x 2
=
(x 3 - 1 ) 2
10x 3 - 18x 2 + 5
=
(x 3 - 1) 2
8.10
1.
Exercises
Differentiate
1
2x - 1
(b) 3x
x+5
x3
(c)
2
x -4
(d) x - 3
5x + 1
(e) x - 7
x2
(f) 5x + 4
x+3
x
(g)
2
2x - x
(h) x + 4
x-2
(i) 2x + 7
4x - 3
(j) x + 5
3x + 1
(k) x + 1
3x 2 - 7
2x 2
(l)
2x - 3
2
(m) x + 4
x2 - 5
3
(n) x
x+4
3
(o) x + 2x - 1
x+3
2
(p) x - 2x - 1
3x + 4
3
x
+x
(q)
2
x -x-1
2x
(r)
1
(x + 5) 2
3
(s) (2x - 9)
5x + 1
x-1
(t)
(7x + 2) 4
5
(u) (3x + 4)
(a)
(2x - 5) 3
(v) 3x + 1
x+1
(w)
x-1
2x - 3
(x)
x2 + 1
(x - 9) 2
2.
Find the gradient of the tangent to

2x
the curve y =
at the point
3x + 1
1
c 1, m.
2
3.
If f (x) =
4.
Find any values of x for which

the gradient of the tangent to the
4x - 1
curve y =
is equal to - 2.
2x - 1
5.
Given f (x) =
f l(x) =
4x + 5
evaluate f l(2).
2x - 1
2x
find x if
x+3
1
.
6
6.

x
to the curve y =
at the
x+2
2
point c 4, m.
3
7.

x2 - 1
to the curve y =
at the
x+3
point where x = 2.
Angle Between 2 Curves

To measure the angle between two curves, measure the angle between the
tangents to the curves at that point.
487
488
tan i =
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
where m 1 and m 2 are the gradients of the tangents to
the curves at the point of intersection.
EXAMPLE
Find the acute angle formed at the intersection of the curves y = x 2 and
y = (x - 2) 2 .
Solution
The curves intersect at the point (1,1) .

For y = x 2
dy
= 2x
dx
dy
At (1, 1),
= 2 (1 )
dx
m1 = 2
`
For y = (x - 2) 2
dy
= 2 (x - 2 )
dx
dy
At (1, 1),
= 2 (1 - 2)
dx
m2 = - 2
`
tan i =
m1 - m2
1 + m1 m2
2 - (-2)
1 + 2 (-2)
4
=
3
i = 53c 08l
=
8.11
Exercises
1.
(a) Sketch the curves y = x 2 - 4

and y = x 2 - 8x + 12 on the same
set of axes.
(b) Show that the curves intersect
at the point Q (2, 0) .
(c) Find the gradient of the
tangent of each curve at point Q.
(d) Find the acute angle at which
the curves intersect at Q.
6.
The curves y = 2x 2 - 4x and

y = x 2 - x + 4 intersect at two
points X and Y.
(a) Find the coordinates of
X and Y.
(b) Find the gradient of the
tangent to each curve at X and Y.
(c) Find the acute angle between
the curves at X and Y.
2.
(a) Sketch the curve y = x 2 and

the line y = 6x - 9 on the same
set of axes.
(b) Find the point P, their point
of intersection.
(c) Find the gradient of the curve
y = x 2 at P.
(d) Find the acute angle between
the curve and the line at P.
7.

curve f (x) = x 2 - 1 and the line
g (x) = 3x - 1 at their 2 points of
intersection.
8.
(a) Find the points of intersection

between y = x 3 and y = x 2 + 2x.
(b) Find the acute angle between
the curves at these points.
9.
Show that the acute angle

between the curves y = x 2 and
y = 4x - x 2 is the same at both
the points of intersection.
3.

curves y = x 2 and y = x 3 at point
(1,1) .
4.

curves y = x 3 and y = x 2 - 2x + 2
at their point of intersection.
5.
What is the obtuse angle between

the curves f (x) = x 2 - 4x and
g (x) = x 2 - 12 at the point where
they meet?
10. Find the obtuse angles between

the curves y = x 3 + 2x and
y = 5x - 2x 2 at their points of
intersection.
489
490
Test Yourself 8
1.
Sketch the derivative function of

each graph
(a)
6.
7.
8.
Find the gradient of the tangent to the

curve y = x 3 - 3x 2 + x - 5 at the point
(-1, -10) .
dh
If h = 60t - 3t 2, nd
when t = 3.
dt
Find all x-values that are not
differentiable on the following curves.
(a)
(b)
(b)
5
4
3
2
1
2.
Differentiate y = 5x 2 - 3x + 2 from rst

principles.
3.
Differentiate
(a) 7x 6 - 3x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 4
(b) 3x - 4
2x + 1
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1-1
5.
Given f (x) = (4x - 3) 5, nd the value of

(a) f (1)
(b) f 1 (1).
1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
-5
dv
if v = 2t 2 - 3t - 4.
dt
Find
5
4
3
2
1
(c) (x 2 + 4x - 2) 9
(d) 5x(2x - 1) 4
(e) x 2 x
5
(f) 2
x
4.
-44 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
9.
Differentiate
(a) f ] x g = 2 ] 4x + 9 g4
5
(b) y =
x-3
(c) y = x ] 3x - 1 g2
4
(d) y = x
(e) f (x) = 5 x
10. Sketch the derivative function of the

following curve.
15. Find the equation of the tangent to the

curve y = x 2 + 2x - 5 that is parallel to
the line y = 4x - 1.
16. Find the gradient of the tangent to the

curve y = ] 3x - 1 g3 ] 2x - 1 g2 at the point
where x = 2.
17. Find f l(4) when f ] x g = ] x - 3 g9 .
x

1
1
curve y =
at the point where x = .
3x
6
1 2
at with respect
2
to t and nd the value of t for which
ds
= 5, u = 7 and a = - 10.
dt
19. Differentiate s = ut +
11. Find the equation of the tangent to

the curve y = x 2 + 5x - 3 at the point
^ 2, 11 h .
12. Find the point on the curve
y = x 2 - x + 1 at which the tangent has a
gradient of 3.
13. Find
dS
if S = 4rr 2.
dr
14. At which points on the curve

y = 2x 3 - 9x 2 - 60x + 3 are the tangents
horizontal?
20. Find the x-intercept of the tangent to

4x - 3
the curve y =
at the point where
2x + 1
x = 1.
21. Find the acute angle between the curve
y = x 2 and the line y = 2x + 3 at each
point of intersection.
22. Find the obtuse angle between the curve
y = x 2 and the line y = 6x - 8 at each
point of intersection.
1.
If f (x) = 3x 2 (1 - 2x) 5, nd the value of

f (1) and fl(1) .
2.
If A =
3.
dA
5h + 3
, nd
when h = 1.
7h - 1
dh
dx
Given x = 2t 4 + 100t 3, nd
and nd
dt
dx
values of t when
= 0.
dt
4.
Find the equations of the tangents to the

curve y = x (x - 1) (x + 2) at the points
where the curve cuts the x-axis.
5.
Find the points on the curve y = x 3 - 6

where the tangents are parallel to the line
y = 12x - 1. Hence nd the equations of
the normals to the curve at those points.
491
492
6.
Find f l(2) if f (x) =
7.
Differentiate (5x + 1) 3 (x - 9) 5 .
8.
Find the derivative of y =
9.
If f (x) = 2x 3 + 3x 2 + 4, for what exact

values of x is fl(x) = 7?
3x - 2 .
2x + 1
.
(4x - 9) 4
10. Find the equation of the normal to the

curve y = 3 x + 1 at the point where
x = 8.
11. The tangent to the curve y = ax 3 + 2 at
the point where x = 3 is inclined at 135c
to the x-axis. Find the value of a.
12. The normal to the curve y = x 2 + 1 at the
point where x = 2, cuts the curve again
at point P. Find the coordinates of P.
18. The function f (x) = 3x + 1 has a

tangent that makes an angle of 30c with
the x-axis. Find the coordinates of the
point of contact for this tangent and nd
its equation in exact form.
19. Find all x values of the function
f (x) = (x 2 - 3) (2x - 1) 8 for which
f l(x) = 0.
20. (a) Find any points at which the graph
below is not differentiable.
(b) Sketch the derivative function for
the graph.
y
90c
180c 270c
360c
13. Find the exact values of the

x- coordinates of the points on the curve
y = (3x 2 - 2x - 4) 3 where the tangent is
horizontal.
14. Find the gradient of the normal to the
curve y = 2x 5 - x at the point (4, 8) .
the curve y = x 3 - x 2 + 2x + 6 at point
P (1, 8) . Find the coordinates of point Q
where this tangent meets the y-axis and
calculate the exact length of PQ.
16. (a) Show that the curves y = ] 3x - 2 g5 and
5x - 3
y=
intersect at ^ 1, 1 h
x+1
(b) Find the acute angle between the
curves at this point.
17. The equation of the tangent to the
curve y = x 4 - nx 2 + 3x - 2 at the point
where x = - 2 is given by 3x - y - 2 = 0.
Evaluate n.
21. Find the point of intersection

between the tangents to the curve
y = x 3 - 2x 2 - 5x + 3 at the points where
x = 2 and x = - 1.
x2 - 3
parabola y =
at the point where
2
the tangent is perpendicular to the line
3x + y - 3 = 0.
23. Differentiate
3x - 2
.
2x 3
24. (a) Find the equations of the tangents

to the parabola y = 2x 2 at the points
where the line 6x - 8y + 1 = 0 intersects
with the parabola.
(b) Show that the tangents are
perpendicular.
25. Find any x values of the function

2
f (x ) = 3
where it is not
x - 8x 2 + 12x
differentiable.
33. Find fl(7) as a fraction, given

1
.
f (x) = 3
x+1
26. The equation of the tangent to the curve

y = x 3 + 7x 2 - 6x - 9 is y = ax + b at the
point where x = -4. Evaluate a and b.
34. For the function

f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c, f (2) = 4,
f l(1) = 0 and f l(x) = 8 when x = -3.
Evaluate a, b and c.
27. Find the exact gradient with rational

denominator of the tangent to the curve
y = x 2 - 3 at the point where x = 5.
p
28. The tangent to the curve y = x has a
1
gradient of - at the point where x = 3.
6
Evaluate p.
2r
dV
when r =
and h = 6 given
3
dr
1
V = rr 3 h.
3
29. Find
30. Evaluate k if the function

f (x) = 2x 3 - kx 2 + 1 has f l(2) = 8.
31. Find the equation of the chord joining
the points of contact of the tangents to
the curve y = x 2 - x - 4 with gradients
3 and -1.
passing through ^ 4, 3 h and parallel to the
tangent to the curve y = x 4 at the point
^ 1, 1 h .

curve S = 2rr 2 + 2rrh at the point where
r = 2 (h is a constant).
36. Differentiate
(a) 2x 3 - x ] 3x - 5 g4
2x + 1
(b)
(x - 3) 3
37. The tangents to the curve
y = x 3 - 2x 2 + 3 at points A and B are
perpendicular to the tangent at ^ 2, 3 h .
Find the exact values of x at A and B.
38. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
the curve y = x 2 + x - 1 at the point
P where x = 3.
(b) Find the coordinates of Q , the point
where the normal intersects the parabola
again.
493
494

SET 2
3
.
2x - 1
1.
Evaluate sin 309c 41l to 2 decimal places.
13. Find the domain and range of y =
2.
Simplify sin 2 38c + sin 2 52c.
3.
Find the equation of the straight line

through ^ -1, 3 h that is perpendicular to
the line 2x - 5y = 9.
14. (a) On a number plane, draw the

line 2x - y = 4.
(b) On your diagram, shade the region
given by y $ 0, 2x - y $ 4.
4.
Calculate the point of intersection

of the lines 2x - 3y - 10 = 0 and
5 x + 4 y - 2 = 0.
5.
Evaluate cot 107c 9l to 3 decimal places.
6.
ABCD is a parallelogram in which

BC = 2 cm, +ABC = 150c and
AB = 3 cm. Find
(a) the exact area of the parallelogram
(b) the exact lengths of both diagonals.
7.
The lines AB and AC have equations

3x - 4y + 9 = 0 and 8x + 6y - 1 = 0
respectively. Show that the lines are
perpendicular and nd the coordinates
of A.
8.
If sin ^ x + 5 hc = cos 70c, nd a possible

value of x.
9.
Simplify as a fraction the expression

sin 2 60c - cos 2 45c + tan 2 30c without
using a calculator.
15. Sketch y = x 2 - 5x + 4.
16. Simplify sin 2 i - sin 2 i cos 2 i.
17. Find the perpendicular distance from
^ -2, 3 h to the line 5x - 12y + 20 = 0.
through ^ 1, 2 h parallel to the line
through ^ -3, 4 h and ^ 5, 5 h .
19. Solve cos i = -
1
for 0c # i # 360c.
2
20. Find the gradient of the line through the

origin and ^ -3, 5 h .
21. Simplify
tan 20c + cot 70c

.
tan 20c
22. Find a in degrees and minutes.
23. Find the value of y correct to 3 signicant

gures.
10. Sketch 5x - 2y - 10 = 0.
11. On the number plane, shade in the region
given by x 2 + y 2 # 9 and x - y $ 2.
12. A soccer goal is 8 m wide. A man shoots
for goal when he is 9 m from one post
and 11 m from the other. Within what
angle must a shot be made in order to
score a goal?
24. Find the equation of the line passing

through ^ 1, 2 h that passes through the
intersection of lines x - 2y - 11 = 0 and
5x - y - 19 = 0.
25. Solve 3x - 7 1 2.
26. If f ] x g = 9 - 2x 2, find the value of f ] -1 g .
27. Find the value of x if f ] x g = 7 where
f ] x g = 2 x - 1.
28. Find the exact value of tan 300c.
29. Show that 3x - 4y + 10 = 0 is a tangent
to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4.
3-x
if x 2 1
30. If g ] x g = )
2x
if x # 1
(a) find g ] 2 g and g ] -3 g
(b) sketch the graph of g ] x g.
3x 2 h - 4xh + 2h 2
.
h "0
h
31. Find lim
32. Find the exact value of cos 135c.

33. A bird at the top of a 10 m tree sees
a mouse on the ground. If the angle
of depression is 34c51l, how far, to
1 decimal place, does the bird need
to fly to reach the mouse?
34. If the point ^ 3, -7 h is the midpoint
of ^ x, 3 h and ^ 8, y h, find the values of
x and y.
35.
(c) Find the area of TOPQ where O is the

origin.
38. Two points A and B are 100 m apart on
the same side of a tower. The angle of
elevation of A to the top of the tower is
20c and the angle of elevation from B is
27c. Find the height of the tower, to the
nearest metre.
39. The lines 3x - y = 6, 2x + y = 14 and
y = 0 enclose a triangle. Find the area of
the triangle.
40. Show that f ] x g = x 6 - x 2 - 3 is an even
function.
41. Differentiate x ^ 2x 2 + 1 h .
4
42. Solve 3y - 7 # 20.

3
43. Differentiate x .
44. (a) Find the equation of the tangent
to the curve y = x 3 - 2 at the point
P ^ 1, -1 h .
(b) The curve y = x 3 - 2 meets the y-axis
at Q. Find the equation of PQ.
(c) Find the equation of the normal
to y = x 3 - 2 at the point ^ -1, - 3 h .
(d) Find the point R where this normal
cuts the x-axis.
45. Find the distance between the
parallel lines 5x - 12y - 3 = 0 and
5x - 12y + 5 = 0.
(a) Find AB, correct to 1 decimal place.

(b) Find the area of TABC,
to 3 significant figures.
36. Simplify
9 - 9 sin 2 i .
37. (a) Find the equation of the straight line

l through ^ -1, 2 h that is perpendicular to
the line 3x + 6y - 7 = 0.
(b) Line l cuts the x-axis at P and the y-axis
at Q. Find the coordinates of P and Q.
46. What is the domain and range of the

3
function f ] x g =
?
x+4
47. Differentiate
2x - 7 .
48. Justin walks for 3.1 km due west, then

turns and walks for 2.7 km on a bearing
of 205c. How far is he from his starting
point? Give your answer correct to
1 decimal place.
495
496
49. Find the derivative of 4x 2 - 7x + 3 + 5x - 2 .

50. Find the derivative of
5x
.
x+1
51. Differentiate from rst principles

f ] x g = x 2 - 3 x + 2.
52. Write as a single fraction
3
4
2
.
- +
x 2 + 5x x x + 5
curve y = 3x 2 - 6x + 9 at the point
where x = 2.
65. Simplify
i
1 - t2
where t = tan
2
2
1+t
(b) cos i cos b - sin i sin b
(a)
(c)
2 tan 7a
1 - tan 2 7a
65. Find xlim

"
66. Solve
3x 3 + x
.
x3 - 2
3
1 5.
x-4
54. If f ] x g = 2x - 5x + 4x - 1, nd f ] -2 g
and f l ] -2 g .
67. Find the acute angle between the curves

y = x 2 and y = 2x 2 - 1 at their points of
intersection.
55. At the point ^ 2, -3 h on the curve

y = ax 2 + bx + 7, the tangent is inclined
at 135c to the x-axis. Find the values of
a and b.
68. Find the domain and range of

(a) y = 2x - 1
5
(b) y =
x+7

passing through ^ 3, 6 h that also passes
through the intersection of the lines
x - 2y = 0 and 3x + y + 7 = 0.
69. The point P ^ -3, 2 h divides the interval

AB into the ratio 2:3 where A = ^ 5, 4 h and
B = ^ a, b h . Find the values of a and b.

curve f ] x g = 2x 3 - 7x + 1 at the point
where x = -3.
58. Solve for x: 4 2x - 1 =
1
.
8
59. Divide the interval AB into the external

ratio 5:4, given A^ -2, 3 h and B^ 5, -1 h .
60. Find the exact value of sin 75c.
5x - y - 1 = 0 and 2x + 3y - 3 = 0.
62. Solve 2 cos x - sin x = 0 for
0c # x # 360c .
63. Sketch y =
x
.
x-2
(c) y = - 4 - x 2
70. Simplify 1 - 2 sin 2 i.

71. (a) Find all points of intersection
between the curves y = 2x 3 + x 2
and y = x 4 + 2x.
(b) Find the acute angle between the
two curves at each of these points of
intersection.
72. Find the general solutions of
1
(a) cos x =
2
(b) tan x =
1
3
(c) sin x =
3
.
2
73. For the interval AB where A = ^ 3, -2 h

and B = ^ -1, 4 h nd
(a) the midpoint
(b) the exact distance
(c) the gradient
(d) the equation of line AB.
74. Differentiate ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g6
(a) 12 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g5 + 3 ] 2x + 1 g6
(b) 36 ] 2x + 1 g5
(c) 6 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 1 g5 + 3 ] 2x + 1 g6
(d) 18 ] 2x + 1 g5.
75. Find an expression involving i for the
triangle below (there may be more than
one answer).
a
7
52 + 42 - 72
2#5#4
sin i
sin a
(b)
=
4
5
sin i
sin a
(c)
=
5
4
2
5 + 72 - 42
(d) cos i =
2#5#7
(a) cos i =
8x
if x 2 3
76. If f ] x g = * 3x 2 - 2
if 0 # x # 3
9
if x 1 0
evaluate f ] 3 g + f ] 1 g + f ] -1 g
(a) 35
(b) 226
(c) 233
(d) 53
3
78. The linear function with equation

4x - 2y + 3 = 0 has
1
(a) gradient -2, y-intercept -1
2
3
1
(b) gradient , y-intercept
4
2
1
(c) gradient 2, y-intercept 1
2
(d) gradient 4, y-intercept 3.
79. Write an expression for cos 2x (there may
be more than one answer)
77. The equation of the normal to the

parabola y = 3x 2 - 5x + 1 at the point
^ 2, 3 h is
(a) 7x - y - 11 = 0
(b) 7x - y - 17 = 0
(c) x + 7y - 23 = 0
(d) x + 7y - 19 = 0
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
sin 2 x - cos 2 x
cos 2 x - sin 2 x
2 sin 2 x - 1
2 cos 2 x - 1
80. Find the point if the interval AB where

A = ^ 4, 2 h and B = ^ -3, 5 h is divided in
an external ratio of 2:3.
1 1
(a) c 1 , 3 m
5 5
(b) ^ -17, 11 h
(c) ^ 18, -4 h
1 4
(d) c - , 3 m
5 5
497
9
Properties of
the Circle
TERMINOLOGY
Arc: Part of a curve, most commonly a portion of the
distance around the circumference of a circle
Chord: A straight line joining two points on the
circumference of a circle
Concentric circles: Circles that have the same centre
Concyclic points: Points that lie on the circumference of
the same circle
Cyclic quadrilateral: A cyclic quadrilateral is a figure
whose four vertices are concyclic points. The four vertices
lie on the circumference of a circle
Radius: A radius is the distance from the centre of a circle

out to the circumference (radii is plural, meaning more
than one radius)
Subtend: Form an angle at some point (usually the centre
or circumference of a circle)
Tangent: A straight line external to a curve or circle that
just touches the curve or circle at a single point
Chapter 9 Properties of the Circle
INTRODUCTION
IN CHAPTER 4, YOU STUDIED the geometry of angles, triangles, quadrilaterals
and other polygons. This chapter shows you some properties of the circle.
DID YOU KNOW?

A rainbow is the shape of an arc of a circle. If you
could see the whole rainbow, it would form a circle.
Research the rainbow on the Internet and find out
more about its shape and other properties.
Parts of a Circle
An arc is a part of the circumference.
A tangent touches the circle at one point.
499
500
Concentric circles are circles that have the same centre.
Equal circles have the same radius.
DID YOU KNOW?

Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) was a great artist, scientist and inventor. He studied geometry,
and many of his model drawings show this influence. His drawings included designs for
flying machines, spring-driven automobiles, bridges and weapons. Leonardos designs were
revolutionary, and the scientists of his time did not have the knowledge needed to make the
models work.
Arcs, Angles and Chords

Equal arcs subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.
501
Proof
Let two equal arcs have lengths l 1 and l 2, and subtend angles of a and b at the
centre of the circle.
Using l = ri , l 1 = ra and l 2 = rb
But l 1 = l 2
` ra = rb
`
a=b
The converse is also true:
If two arcs subtend equal angles at the centre of the

circle, then the arcs are equal.
EXAMPLE
AB is a diameter of the circle with centre O. Arc CB = arc BD.

Prove +AOC = +AOD.
Solution
Since arc CB = arc BD,+COB = +DOB
Let
+COB = +DOB = x
Then +AOC = 180c - +COB
= 180c - x
Also +AOD = 180c - +DOB
= 180c - x
`
+AOC = +AOD
(+AOB is a straight angle)

(similarly)
You will study the formula

l = r i in Chapter 5 of
the HSC Course book.
502
Equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre of the circle.
Proof
OA = OC
OB = OD
AB = CD
` by SSS, DOAB / DOCD
`
+AOB = +COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
(given)
(corresponding +s in congruent Ds)
The converse in also true:
Equal angles subtended at the centre of the circle cut off equal chords.
EXAMPLE
AD is a diameter of the circle with centre O, where AB = CD. Prove that

BC < AD.
503
Solution
Since
AB = CD, +AOB = +COD
Let +AOB = +COD = x
Then +BOC = 180c - (x + x)
= 180c - 2x
OB = OC
` D OBC is isosceles with +OBC = +OCB
+OBC + +OCB + 180c - 2x = 180c
+OBC + +OCB = 2x
`
+OBC = +OCB = x
`
+OBC = +AOB
(+AOD is a straight +)
(equal radii)
(+ sum of DOBC)
But these are equal alternate angles

` BC < AD
The angle at the centre of a circle is twice the angle at the

circumference subtended by the same arc.
These figures show that

this property can look
quite different in different
situations.
Proof
Join AO and produce to D.

Let +BAO = x and +CAO = y
` +BAC = x + y
OA = OB
(equal radii)
504
` +OBA = x
= +BAO
OA = OC
(base +s of isosceles D)
` +OCA = y
= +CAO
(equal radii)
+BOD = x + x
= 2x
(exterior + of DOBA)
+COD = y + y
= 2y
+BOC = +BOD + +COD
= 2x + 2y
= 2 (x + y )
= 2+BAC
(exterior + of DOCA)
EXAMPLES
1. Find the values of x and y.
Solution
x = 40
(+ at centre is twice the + at the circumference)
Reflex +BOC = 360c - 80c (+ of revolution)
= 280c
`
y = 140
2. Prove +BOC is twice the size of +OCA.
Solution
Let +OAC = x
+BOC = 2+OAC
= 2x
`
`
OA = OC
^ equal radii h
+OCA = +OAC = x (base +s of isosceles D)
+BOC = 2+OCA
Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
Proof
Join A and D to centre O

+AOD = 2+ABD
+AOD = 2+ACD
` +ABD = +ACD
505
506
EXAMPLE
Prove D ABC and D DEC are similar. Hence nd the value of y correct to
1 decimal place.
Solution
+ABC = +DEC
+BCA = +ECD
(+s in same segment)

(vertically opposite +s)
` D ABC ||| D DEC

EC
ED
`
=
BA
BC
y
6 .5
=
1 .7
1.2
1 .2y = 1 . 7 # 6. 5
1 .7 # 6 .5
y=
1 .2
= 9.2 cm correct to 1 decimal place.
The angle in a semicircle is a right angle.
Proof
+AOB = 180c
+AOB = 2+ACB
` +ACB = 90c
(straight +)
EXAMPLE
AB is a diameter of the circle below. If BC = 2 m and AB = 9 m, nd the
exact length of AC.
Solution
+ACB = 90c
` AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
9 2 = AC 2 + 2 2
81 = AC 2 + 4
77 = AC 2
` AC =
77 m
9.1 Exercises
1.
Find values of all pronumerals

(O is the centre of each circle).
(a)
(b)
507
508
(c)
3.

(a)
(d)
(b)
(e)
(c)
(f)
(d)
2.
The circumference of a circle is

16r cm. Find the length of the
arc that subtends an angle of 40c
at the centre of the circle.
(e)
(f)
4.

(a)
(g)
(b)
(h)
(c)
(i)
(d)
(j)
509
510
(e)
(f)
(j)
5.
(a) Prove D ABC ||| D DEC.

(b) Hence nd the value of x
6.
Find x and y, giving reasons.
7.
Find x and y, giving reasons.
(g)
(h)
(i)
8.
Evaluate x, giving reasons for

each step in your calculation.
11. Find x, giving reasons for each

step in your calculations.
9.
Prove D STV and DWUV are

similar. Hence nd x.
12. The circle below has centre O.

D
O y
A
x
38c
B
10. AB = 6 cm and BC = 3 cm. O is

the centre of the circle. Show
that the radius of the circle is
3 5
cm.
2
(a) Evaluate x and y.

(b) Show that AD = BC.
13. Show that AD < BC in the circle
below.
A
33c
114c
511
512
14. A circle has centre O and radius r

as shown.
15. The circle below has centre O and

+DAB = i.
A
i
(a) Show that triangles AOB and

ABC are similar.
(b) Show that BC = 2 r.
Show that +DAB and +BCD are

supplementary.
Chord Properties
A perpendicular line from the centre of a circle to a chord
bisects the chord.
Proof
+ADO = +BDO = 90c

OA = OB
(given)
(equal radii)
OD is common
` by RHS DOAD / DOBD
`
AD = BD
(corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
So OD bisects AB
A line from the centre of a circle that bisects a chord is perpendicular
to the chord.
EXAMPLES
1. Line OC is perpendicular to chord AB. If the radius of the circle is
6 cm and the chord is 11 cm long, nd the length of OC, correct to
1 decimal place.
Solution
AB = 11
` AC = 5.5
Also OA = 6
(OC bisects AB)

(radius-given)
OA = AC + OC
6 2 = 5.5 2 + OC 2
36 = 30.25 + OC 2
5.75 = OC 2
2
OC = 5.75
= 2.4 cm
CONTINUED
513
514
2. Given XY = YZ and +OXY = 54c, nd +XOY.
Solution
+OYX = 90c
(OY bisects XZ)
+XOY = 180c - (90c + 54c)

= 36c
(+ sum of DOXY)
Equal chords are equidistant from the centre of the circle.
Proof
Let CD = AB
+OEB = +OFD = 90c
OB = OD
AB = CD
(given)
(equal radii)
(given)
1
AB
2
1
DF = CD
2
BE = DF
BE =
by RHS DOEB / DOFD

OE = OF
`
`
(OE bisects AB)

(OF bisects CD)
Chords that are equidistant from the centre are equal.
Class Exercise
Prove that chords that are equidistant from the centre are equal.
EXAMPLE
In the circle below, with centre O, OE = 35 mm, DE = 56 mm and
OC = 21 mm. Show that AB = DE.
Solution
EF = 28 mm
(OF bisects DE)
OE = EF + OF
35 2 = 28 2 + OF 2
35 2 - 28 2 = OF 2
441 = OF 2
2
`
`
So
OF = 441
= 21 mm
OF = OC
AB = DE.
(chords equal when equidistant from the centre)
515
516
The products of intercepts of intersecting chords are equal.
AE: EB = DE: EC
Proof
+AED = +CEB
+DAE = +ECB
+ADE = +EBC
(vertically opposite +s)

(+s in same segment)
(similarly)
D AED <;D CEB

AE
DE
`
=
EB
EC
` AE: EB = DE: EC
`
EXAMPLE
Given chord AB = 12.3 cm, EB = 2.7 cm and DE = 10.6 cm, nd the

length of EC, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
AE = AB - EB
= 12.3 - 2.7
= 9 .6
AE: EB = DE: EC
9.6 # 2.7 = 10.6 # EC
9 .6 # 2 .7
`
EC =
10.6
= 2.4 cm
9.2 Exercises
1.

pronumerals (O is the centre of
each circle).
(d)
(a)
(e)
(b)
(f)
(c)
517
518
(g)
3.
A circle with radius 89 mm has

a chord drawn 52 mm from the
centre. How long, to the nearest
millimetre, is the chord?
4.
O and P are the centres of

intersecting circles with radii 20
cm and 8 cm respectively.
If AB = 10 cm, find the distance
OP, correct to 1 decimal place.
5.
Show AB = CD.
6.
AC = 20 cm and AD = 26 cm.
Find OB, correct to 1 decimal
place.
(h)
(i)
(j)
2.
Find the exact radius of a circle

with a chord that is 8 cm long
and 5 cm from the centre.
7.
Evaluate x and y, correct to

1 decimal place.
9.
A circle with centre O has radius r

and chord AB = x.
D
8.

pronumerals.
Show that CD =
2r + 4r 2 - x 2
.
2
A
10.
E
C
D
(a) Prove that triangles ABC and

CDE are similar.
(b) Show that
AC : CD = BC : CE.
Concyclic Points
Concyclic points are points that lie on the circumference of a circle.
519
520
Any 3 non-collinear points are concyclic. They lie on a unique circle,

with centre at the point of intersection of the perpendicular bisectors of the
intervals joining these points.
Four or more non-collinear points may not necessarily lie on a circle.
Cyclic quadrilaterals
A cyclic quadrilateral is a gure whose 4 vertices are concyclic points.
The opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are supplementary.
Proof
Join B and D to O.
Obtuse +DOB = 2+A
Reflex +DOB = 2+C
Obtuse +DOB + reflex +DOB = 360c
`
2+A + 2+C = 360c
`
+A + +C = 180c
(+ at centre is doubl e
+at circumference)
(+ of revolution)
Similarly, it can be proven that +B + +D = 180c by joining A and C to O.

If the opposite angles of a quadrilateral are supplementary,

then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
The property of opposite angles being supplementary in a cyclic quadrilateral

can also be used to prove the following property:
The exterior angle at a vertex of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal

to the interior opposite angle.
521
522
Proof
Let
Then
`
+A = x
+BCD = 180c - x
(opposite +s supplementary
in cyclic quadrilateral)
(+DCE straight angle)
+BCD + +BCE = 180c
+BCE = 180c - (180c - x)

= 180c - 180c + x
=x
+A = +BCE
EXAMPLE
Solution
OB = OD
`
+ODB = 20c
a + 20c + 20c = 180c
`
a = 180c - 40c
= 140c
b = 70c
c = 180c - 70c
= 110c
(equal radii)
(base + s of isosceles D equal)
(+ sum of D)
(+ at centre double + at circumference)

(opposite + s in cyclic quadrilateral)
9.3 Exercises
1.

pronumerals.
(e)
(a)
(f)
(b)
(g)
(c)
(h)
(d)
(i)
523
524
(e)
(j)
118c
yc
xc
O
46c
2.
(f)
pronumerals.
(a)
(g)
(b)
(h)
(c)
(i)
(d)
(j)
xc
111c
3.
Show that ABCD is a cyclic

quadrilateral.
(a)
58c C
C
B 58c
(b)
(c)
525
A
E
Tangent Properties
The tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn from

the point of contact.
The perpendicular
distance is the shortest
distance any other
distance would be greater
than the radius.

The line perpendicular to the radius at the point where it
meets the circle is a tangent to the circle at that point.
526
Here is another property of tangents to a circle:

Tangents to a circle from an exterior point are equal.
Proof
Join OB
+A = +C = 90c
OB is common
OA = OC
` by RHS, DOAB / DOCB
`
AB = CB
(tangent = radius)
(equal radii)
EXAMPLE
A circle with centre O and radius 10 cm has a tangent AB drawn to it
where OB = 26 cm. Find the length of AB.
527
Solution
OA = 10
+OAB = 90c
(radius)
(tangent = radius)
` OB 2 = OA 2 + AB 2
26 2 = 10 2 + AB 2
676 = 100 + AB 2
576 = AB 2
` AB = 576
= 24 cm
When two circles touch, the line through their centres

passes through their point of contact.
Proof
You could also prove this

result for when circles
touch internally.
AB is a tangent to circle with centre O

`
+OCB = 90c
AB is a tangent to circle with centre P
`
+PCB = 90c
+OCB + +PCB = 90c + 90c
= 180c
` OCP is a straight line.
(tangent = radius)
(similarly)
528
EXAMPLE
Two circles touch at A and the larger circle has centre O. Prove
(a) TABC and TAOD are similar
(b) CB < DO
(c) BC = 2DO.
Solution
(a) OA is a diameter of small circle
(line through centres passes

through point of contact)
(+ in semicircle)
` +ODA = 90c
Since AB is a diameter of the larger circle,
+BCA = 90c
(similarly)
` +BCA = +ODA
+A is common
` D ABC ;;; D AOD
(b) +BCA = +ODA
These are equal corresponding angles.
` CB < DO
(c)
AB
AB
`
OA
AB
`
OA
` BC
= 2 OA
[from (a)]
(OA radius)
=2
AC
BC
=
=2
AD
DO
= 2DO
=
(by similar Ds)
The angle between a tangent and a chord through the point

of contact is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
Proof
Draw in diameter CF and join EF.

Let +ECB = x.
+FCB = 90c
` +FCE = 90c - x
+FEC = 90c
(tangent = radius)
(+ in semicircle)
` +EFC = 180c - (90c + 90c - x) (angle sum of D )

=x
+EFC = +EDC
(angles in same segment)
` +EDC = +ECB
EXAMPLE
Evaluate x and y.
CONTINUED
529
530
Solution
+ABC = 180c - (95c + 50c)
= 35c
` x = 35c
y = 35c
(+ sum of D )
(+ s in alternate segment)
( y and +ABC in same segment)
The square of the length of the tangent from an external point

is equal to the product of the intercepts of the secant passing
through this point.
PQ 2 = QR:QS where PQ is a tangent to the circle.
Proof
The third pair of angles is

equal by angle sum of a
triangle.
+QPR = +PSR
+Q is common
` PQR ;;;D SPQ
PQ
QR
PR
=
=
`
QS
SP
PQ
PQ
QR
`
=
QS
PQ
2
PQ = QR:QS
(angles in alternate segments)
EXAMPLE
AB is a tangent to the circle and CD = 1.3 cm, BC = 1.7 cm. Find the
length of AB, correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
BD = 1.3 + 1.7
=3
AB 2 = BC: BD
= 1 .7 # 3
= 5 .1
AB = 5.1
= 2.3 cm correct to 1 decimal place.
9.4 Exercises
1.

pronumerals.
(a)
(b)
531
532
(c)
(h)
(d)
(i)
y
x
38c
O
(e)
(j)
(f)
2.
(g)

pronumerals (all external lines
are tangents to the circles).
(a)
(g)
(b)
(h)
(c)
(i)
(d)
xc
63c
yc
(j)
9 cm
15
cm
13 cm
(e)
y
P
(f)
533
534
3.
4.

pronumerals, giving reasons
for each step of your working
(O is the centre of circle, AB is
a tangent).
AB, BC and AC are tangents,

with AB = 24 cm, BC = 27 cm
and BM = 15 cm. Find the length
of AC.
6.

pronumerals (O is the centre of
each circle; all external lines are
tangents).
(a)
(b)
(c)
5.
AB = 6.5 m, AC = 3.9 m and

BC = 5.2 m. Prove A lies on a
diameter of the circle, given BC is
a tangent to the circle.
(d)
(e)
(i)
(f)
(j)
(g)
7.

pronumerals.
(a)
(h)
(b)
535
536
(c)
(h)
(d)
(i)
(e)
(j)
(f)
8.
(g)
Find AB, given AD = 4.9 m,

BC = 5.1 m and CD = 7.8 m.
Test Yourself 9
1.
O is the centre of the circle. Evaluate i.
2.
Evaluate y to 1 decimal place.
3.
4.
5.
Evaluate x, y and z, giving reasons for

each step of your working.
6.
O is the centre of the larger circle. Find

the value of x.
7.
AB is a tangent to the circle. Evaluate a, b

and c.
8.
O is the centre of the circle, and AB is

a tangent. Evaluate a, b, c and d, giving
reasons for each step of your working.
AB is a tangent to the circle. Find the

value of x to 1 decimal place.
O is the centre of the circle. Find the

length of tangents x and y.
537
538
9.
Find the length of the radius of the

circle. O is the centre.
13. Calculate the length of AB to 3

significant figures, given that A and B are
the centres of the circles.
10. Find the length of tangent AB.

14. Find the value of x to 1 decimal place.
11. Evaluate a and b.
12. O is the centre of the circle. Find the

value of a and b.
15. Find the length of AB.
16. Evaluate a and b.
17. Evaluate x and y, giving reasons for your

working.
18. Evaluate x, y and z.
19. Prove that DBCD is similar to DABC.
20. O is the centre of the circle.

(a) Prove that DOAC and DOBC are
congruent.
(b) Show that OC bisects AB.
1.
Find the length of the radius, to the

nearest centimetre, if AC = 10 cm and
BD = 3 cm.
2.
In the circle below with centre O,

OD = DC. Prove +AOE = 3+DCB.
539
540
3.
Two circles meet at points A and B.

A tangent to each circle is drawn from
A to meet the circles at D and C. Prove
+DAC = 90c.
5.
The triangles below have

+BDE = 2+BAD and +CDE = 2+CAD.
Prove that a circle can be drawn through
A, B and C with centre D.
4.
Three equal circles touch each other, as

in the figure.
(a) Prove that the triangle with vertices
the centres of the circles is equilateral.
(b) Find the perimeter of the curved
figure DEF in terms of the radius r of the
circles.
(c) Find the exact area of the shaded
region.
6.
Two chords AB and CD intersect

at 90c Prove, for obtuse
+AOD,+AOD + +COB = 180c where O
is the centre of the circle.
7.
Prove that any kite ABCD with

+ADC = +ABC = 90c is a cyclic
quadrilateral with diameter AC.
8.
A large circle with radius R is surrounded

by 7 smaller circles with radius r. A circle
is drawn through the centres of the
smaller circles. If R =
area in terms of r.
3r
, find the shaded
2
9.
Prove that if an interval subtends equal

angles at two points on the same side of
it, then the endpoints of the interval and
the two points are concyclic.
10. Prove that if both pairs of opposite angles

in a quadrilateral are supplementary,
then the quadrilateral is cyclic.
541
10
The Quadratic
Function
TERMINOLOGY
Axis of symmetry: A line about which two parts of
a graph are symmetrical. One half of the graph is a
reflection of the other
Coefficient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an
algebraic term e.g. in ax3 the a is the coefficient
Discriminant: Part of the quadratic formula, the algebraic
expression b 2 - 4ac is called the discriminant as its value
determines the number and nature of the roots of a
quadratic equation
Equations reducible to quadratics: Equations that can be
reduced to the form: ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Indefinite: A quadratic function where f(x) can be both
positive and negative for varying values of x
Maximum value: The maximum or greatest y-value of a

graph for a given domain
Minimum value: The minimum or smallest y-value of a
graph for a given domain
Negative definite: A quadratic function where f(x) is
always negative for all values of x
Positive definite: A quadratic function where f(x) is always
positive for all values of x
Root of an equation: The solution of an equation
Chapter 10 The Quadratic Function
543
INTRODUCTION
THE SOLUTION OF QUADRATIC equations is important in many fields,
such as engineering, architecture and astronomy. In this chapter you will

study quadratic equations in detail, and look at the relationship between
quadratic equations and the graphs of quadratic functions (the parabola).
You will study the axis of symmetry and maximum and minimum
values of the quadratic function. You will also look at the quadratic
formula in detail, and at the relationships between the roots (solutions)
of quadratic equations, the formula and the quadratic function.
DID YOU KNOW?

Thousands of clay tablets from ancient Babylonia have been discovered by archaeologists. These
tablets are from as far back as 2000 BC. They show that the Babylonians had mastered many
mathematical skills. Geometry, including Pythagoras theorem, was well developed, and geometric
problems were often worked out by using algebra.
Quadratic equations were used in solving geometry problems. The word quadratic comes
from the Latin quadratum, meaning four-sided figure. Completing the square and the quadratic
formula were both used to solve quadratic equations.
The Babylonians also had some interesting approximations for square roots. For example,
17
2 =
. An approximation for 2 that is very accurate was found on a tablet dating back to 1600 BC:
12
51
10
24
2 =1+
+
+
= 1.414213
60
60 2
60 3
Graph of a Quadratic Function

Axis of symmetry
EXAMPLE
(a ) Sketch the parabola y = x 2 - 4x on the number plane.
(b) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry of the parabola.
(c ) Find the minimum value of the parabola.
Solution
(a) For the y-intercept, x = 0
i.e. y = 0 2 - 4 (0)
=0
For the x-intercept, y = 0
The axis of symmetry lies halfway

between x = 0 and x = 4.
i.e. 0 = x 2 - 4x
= x (x - 4)
` x = 0 or x - 4 = 0
x=4
CONTINUED
544
(b) The axis of symmetry has equation x = 2.

(c) Since the parabola is symmetrical about the line x = 2, the
minimum value is on this line.
Substitute x = 2 into the equation of the parabola
i.e. y = 2 2 - 4 (2)
= -4
So the minimum value is - 4.
Class Investigation
1. How would you find the axis of symmetry for a graph with no
x-intercepts?
2. How would you find the axis of symmetry of a graph where the
x-intercepts are irrational numbers?
The axis of symmetry of the quadratic function y = ax 2 + bx + c has the

equation
b
x=2a
Proof
The axis of symmetry lies midway between the x-intercepts.
For the x-intercepts, y = 0
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0
x=
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
The x-coordinate of the axis of symmetry is the average of the

x-intercepts.
i.e.
- b - b 2 - 4ac
- b + b 2 - 4ac
+
2a
2a
x=
2
- 2b
2a
=
2
- 2b
=
4a
b
=2a
The parabola has a minimum value if a 2 0.

The shape of the parabola is concave upwards.
Minimum value
The parabola has a maximum value if a 1 0.

The shape of the parabola is concave downwards.
Maximum value
545
546
The minimum or maximum value is f c -
b
m
2a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the minimum value of
the quadratic function y = x 2 - 5x + 1.
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
b
2a
(- 5 )
x=i.e.
2 ( 1)
5
=
2
1
` Equation is x = 2
2
5 2
5
Minimum value: y = c m - 5 c m + 1
2
2
25 25
=
+1
4
2
1
= -5
4
x=-
a 2 0 gives a minimum
value.
1
So minimum value is - 5 .
4
2. Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the maximum value of
the quadratic function y = - 3x 2 + x - 5.
Solution
The equation of the axis of symmetry is given by
b
2a
1
x=i.e.
2 (- 3 )
1
=
6
1
` Equation is x =
6
1 2
1
Maximum value: y = - 3 c m + c m - 5
6
6
1
1
=+ -5
12 6
11
= -4
12
x=-
a 1 0 gives a maximum
value.
So maximum value is - 4
11
.
12
Class Investigation
Examine the graph of y = - 3x 2 + x - 5 from the above example. Are
there any solutions for the quadratic equation - 3x 2 + x - 5 = 0?
The minimum or maximum point of the parabola is called the vertex.
EXAMPLE
(a) Find the equation of the axis of symmetry and the coordinates of the
vertex of the parabola y = 2x 2 - 12x + 7.
(b) Find the y-intercept and sketch the graph.
Solution
(a) Axis of symmetry:
b
x=2a
- 12
=2#2
=3
When x = 3
y = 2 ] 3 g 2 - 12 ] 3 g + 7
= - 11
So the vertex is (3, -11) .

(b) For y-intercept, x = 0
-11
y = 2 ] 0 g 2 - 12 ] 0 g + 7
=7
(3, -11)
The vertex is the minimum point of the parabola since a 2 0.
10.1 Exercises
1.
By finding the intercepts on

the axes, sketch the parabola
y = x 2 + 2x. Find the equation
of its axis of symmetry, and the
minimum value.
2.
Find the equation of the axis of

symmetry and the minimum value
of the parabola y = 2x 2 + 6x - 3.
3.

axis of symmetry and the
minimum value of the parabola
y = x 2 + 3x + 2.
4.

minimum value of the parabola
y = x 2 - 4.
547
548
5.

minimum point of the parabola
y = 4x 2 - 3x + 1.
6.

maximum value of the parabola
y = - x 2 + 2x - 7.
7.

maximum point of the parabola
y = - 2x 2 - 4x + 5.
8.
Find the minimum value of

y = x 2 + 4x + 3. How many
solutions does the equation
x 2 + 4x + 3 = 0 have?
9.
Find the minimum value of

y = x 2 + x + 4. How many
x 2 + x + 4 = 0 have?
10. Find the minimum value of

y = x 2 + 4x + 4. How many
x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0 have?
11. Find the equation of the axis of
symmetry and the coordinates of
the vertex for each parabola.
(a) y = x 2 + 6x - 3
(b) y = - x 2 - 8x + 1
(c) y = - 2x 2 + 5x
(d) y = 4x 2 + 10x - 7
(e) y = 3x 2 + 18x + 4
12. Find
(i) the equation of the axis of
symmetry
(ii) the minimum or maximum
value and
(iii) the vertex of the parabola.
(a) y = x 2 + 2x - 2
(b) y = - 2x 2 + 4x - 1
13. Find the maximum or minimum
point for each function.
(a) y = x 2 + 2x + 1
(b) y = x 2 - 8x - 7
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
f ] x g = x 2 + 4x - 3
y = x 2 - 2x
f ] x g = x 2 - 4x - 7
f ] x g = 2x 2 + x - 3
y = - x 2 - 2x + 5
y = - 2x 2 + 8x + 3
f ] x g = - 3x 2 + 3x + 7
f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 4
14. For each quadratic function

(i) find any x-intercepts using the
quadratic formula.
(ii) state whether the function
has a maximum or minimum
value and find this value.
(iii) sketch the function on a
number plane.
(a) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x + 4
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2x - 3
(c) y = x 2 - 6x + 1
(d) f ] x g = x 2 + 2x
(e) y = 2x 2 - 18
(f) y = 3x 2 + x - 2
(g) f ] x g = - x 2 - 2x + 6
(h) f ] x g = - x 2 - x + 3
(i) y = - x 2 - 3x + 2
(j) y = - 2x 2 + 4x + 5
15. (a) Find the minimum value of
the parabola y = x 2 - 2x + 5.
(b) How many solutions
does the quadratic equation
x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 have?
(c) Sketch the parabola.
16. (a) How many x-intercepts
has the quadratic function
f ] x g = x 2 - 3x + 9 ?
(b) Find the minimum point of
the function.
(c) Sketch the function.
17. (a) Find the maximum value
of the quadratic function
f ] x g = - 2x 2 + x - 4 .
(b) How many solutions
has the quadratic equation
- 2x 2 + x - 4 = 0 ?
(c) Sketch the graph of the
quadratic function.
18. (a) Sketch the parabola

y = x 2 - 5x + 6.
(b) From the graph, find values
of x for which x 2 - 5x + 6 2 0.
(c) Find the domain over which
x 2 - 5x + 6 # 0 .
19. Sketch y = 3x 2 - 2x + 4 and
hence show that 3x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0
for all x.
549
20. By sketching f ] x g = x 2 + x + 2,
show that x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x.
21. Show by a sketch that
- x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x.
22. Sketch y = - 5x 2 + 4x - 1 and
show that -5x 2 + 4x - 1 1 0 for
all x.
Investigation
Could you tell without sketching the function y = x 2 - x + 5 if
x 2 - x + 5 2 0 for all x? How could you do this?
How could you know that - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x without sketching
the graph of f ] x g = - x 2 + 2x - 7?
Quadratic Inequalities
You looked at solving quadratic inequations in Chapter 3 using the number
line. You can also solve them using the graph of a parabola.
For any curve on a number plane

y = 0 is on the x-axis
(all values of y are zero on the x-axis)
y 2 0 is above the x-axis
(all positive values of y lie above the x-axis)
y 1 0 is below the x-axis
(all negative values of y lie below the x-axis)
Substituting ax 2 + bx + c for y in the general parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c gives

the following results:
For the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 on the x-axis
ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 above the x-axis
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 below the x-axis
You will look at this later

on in the chapter.
550
y
a20
ax2 + bx + c 2 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0
y
a10
ax 2 + bx + c 2 0
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0
EXAMPLES
1. Solve x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0.
Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 3x + 2 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave
upwards).
For x-intercepts, y = 0
0 = x 2 - 3x + 2
= ]x - 2g]x - 1g
x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = 2,
x=1
y $ 0 on and above the x-axis

So x 2 - 3x + 2 $ 0 on and above the x-axis.
` x # 1, x $ 2
2. Solve 4x - x 2 2 0.
Solution
First sketch y = 4x - x 2 showing x-intercepts (a 1 0 so it is concave
downwards).
0 = 4x - x 2
= x ]4 - x g
x = 0,
4-x=0
x = 0,
4=x
y
y 2 0 above the x-axis

So 4x - x 2 2 0 above the x-axis.
` 0 1 x 1 4.
CONTINUED
551
552
3. Solve x 2 - 25 1 0.
Solution
First sketch y = x 2 - 25 showing x-intercepts (a 2 0 so it is concave
upwards).
0 = x 2 - 25
= ]x + 5 g]x - 5 g
x + 5 = 0, x - 5 = 0
x = - 5,
x=5
y
-5
y 1 0 below the x-axis

So x 2 - 25 1 0 below the x-axis.
` -5 1 x 1 5
Further inequations
You learned how to solve inequations involving the pronumeral in the
denominator by using the number line in Chapter 3. Here we use quadratic
inequalities to solve them.
553
EXAMPLES
1. Solve
1
$ 2.
x+1
Solution
x ! -1
We dont know whether x + 1 is positive or negative, but ] x + 1 g 2 is
always positive. We can multiply both sides of the inequation by ] x + 1 g 2
without changing the inequality sign.
1
$2
x+1
1
# ]x + 1 g2 $ 2 # ]x + 1 g 2
x+1
x + 1 $ 2 ]x + 1 g2
0 $ 2 ]x + 1 g2 - ]x + 1 g
$ ]x + 1 g62 ]x + 1 g - 1 @
$ ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 2 - 1 g
$ ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 1 g
Factorise by taking out

x + 1 as a common factor.
We solve this by sketching the parabola y = ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 1 g.

For x-intercepts: y = 0
0 = ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 1 g
x + 1 = 0,
2x + 1 = 0
x = - 1,
2x = - 1
1
x=2
-1
1
2
0 $ ] x + 1 g ] 2x + 1 g on and below the x-axis. However, x ! -1

1
The solution is - 1 1 x # - .
2
2. Solve
4x
1 5.
x-2
Solution
x!2
We multiply both sides of the inequation by ] x - 2 g 2.
CONTINUED
554
4x
15
x-2
4x
# ] x - 2 g 2 1 5# ] x - 2 g 2
x-2
4x ] x - 2 g 1 5 ] x - 2 g 2
0 1 5 ] x - 2 g 2 - 4x ] x - 2 g
1 ] x - 2 g 6 5 ] x - 2 g - 4x @
1 ] x - 2 g ] 5x - 10 - 4x g
1 ] x - 2 g ] x - 10 g
Factorise by taking out x - 2

as a common factor.
We solve this by sketching the parabola y = ] x - 2 g ] x - 10 g .

0 = ] x - 2 g ] x - 10 g
x - 2 = 0, x - 10 = 0
x = 2,
x = 10
y
10
0 1 ] x - 2 g ] x - 10 g above the x-axis.

The solution is x 1 2, x 2 10.
10.2 Exercises
Solve
1.
x2 - 9 2 0
6.
2t - t 2 2 0
2.
n2 + n # 0
7.
x 2 + 2x - 8 2 0
3.
a 2 - 2a $ 0
8.
p 2 + 4p + 3 $ 0
4.
4 - x2 1 0
9.
m 2 - 6m + 8 2 0
5.
y 2 - 6y # 0
10. 6 - x - x 2 # 0
555
1
23. x $ 1
11. 2h 2 - 7h + 6 1 0
12. x 2 - x - 20 # 0
1
24. - x $ 2
13. 35 + 9k - 2k 2 $ 0
25.
1
23
x -1
26.
1
#1
x+2
27.
2
$5
x-2
28.
3
2 -1
x+3
20. ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g $ 5
29.
-1
#3
x-1
1
21. x 1 - 2
30.
14. q 2 - 9q + 18 2 0
15. ] x + 2 g2 $ 0
16. 12 - n - n 2 # 0
17. x 2 - 2x 1 15
18. - t 2 $ 4t - 12
19. 3y 2 2 14y + 5
Solve the inequations

in Chapter 3 using
these methods for extra
practice.
x
$4
x+2
1
22. x 2 3
The Discriminant
The values of x that satisfy a quadratic equation are called the roots of the
equation.
The roots of ax 2 + bx + c = 0 are the x-intercepts of the graph
y = ax 2 + bx + c
1. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has 2 x-intercepts, then the quadratic equation

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 2 real roots.
y
a20
a10
x
Since the graph can be both positive and negative, it is called an

indefinite function.
556
2. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has 1 x-intercept, then the quadratic equation

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 1 real root
y
a20
a10
x
3. If y = ax 2 + bx + c has no x-intercepts, then the quadratic equation

ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots
y
a20
a10
x
Since this graph is always positive,

it is called a positive definite
function.
Since this graph is always

negative, it is called a negative
definite function.
This information can be found without sketching the graph.
Investigation
1. Solve the following quadratic equations using the quadratic formula
(a) x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
(b) x 2 + 4x - 7 = 0
(c) x 2 + x + 5 = 0
(d) x 2 - 6x + 9 = 0
2. Without solving a quadratic equation, can you predict how many
roots it has by looking at the quadratic formula?
b 2 - 4ac
, the expression b 2 - 4ac is called
2a
the discriminant. It gives us information about the roots of the quadratic
equation ax 2 + bx + x = 0.
In the quadratic formula x =
-b !
EXAMPLES
Use the quadratic formula to find how many real roots each quadratic
equation has.
1. x 2 + 5x - 3 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- 5 ! 5 2 - 4 #1# - 3
=
2 #1
- 5 ! 25 + 12
=
2
- 5 ! 37
=
2
There are 2 real roots:
x=
x=
- 5 + 37 - 5 - 37
,
2
2
2. x 2 - x + 4 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- (-1) ! (-1) 2 - 4 #1# 4
=
2 #1
1 ! -15
=
2
x=
There are no real roots since
-15 has no real value.
3. x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
Solution
- b ! b 2 - 4ac
2a
- (- 2) ! (- 2) 2 - 4 #1#1
=
2 #1
2! 0
=
2
x=
CONTINUED
557
558
There are 2 real roots:

2+ 0 2- 0
,
2
2
= 1, 1
x=
However, these are equal roots.
Tis the Greek

letter 'delta'.
Notice that when there are 2 real roots, the discriminant b 2 - 4ac 2 0.
When there are 2 equal roots (or just 1 real root), b 2 - 4ac = 0.
When there are no real roots, b 2 - 4ac 1 0.
We often use D = b 2 - 4ac.
1. If T2 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 2 real

unequal (different) roots.
y
a20
a10
x
If T is a perfect square, the roots are rational.

If T is not a perfect square, the roots are irrational.
2. If T = 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has 1 real root
or 2 equal roots.
y
a20
a10
x
3. If T1 0, then the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real roots.

y
a10
a20
x
If T1 0 and a 2 0, it is positive
definite and ax 2 + bx + c 2 0
for all x.
If T1 0 and a 1 0, it is
negative definite and
ax 2 + bx + c 1 0 for all x.
We can examine the roots of the quadratic equation by using the

discriminant rather than the whole quadratic formula.
EXAMPLES
1. Show that the equation 2x 2 + x + 4 = 0 has no real roots.
Solution
T = b 2 - 4ac
= 12 - 4 ] 2 g ] 4 g
= 1 - 32
= - 31
10
So the equation has no real roots.
2. Find the values of k for which the quadratic equation 5x 2 - 2x + k = 0
has real roots.
Solution
For real unequal roots, T 2 0.
For real equal roots, T = 0.
So for real roots, T $ 0.
CONTINUED
559
560
T $0
b - 4ac $ 0
2
] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 5 g ] k g $ 0
4 - 20k $ 0
4 $ 20k
1
$k
5
3. Show that x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.
Solution
If a 2 0 and T1 0, then ax 2 + bx + c 2 0 for all x.
y
a20
x
a =1
20
T = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -2 g 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 4 - 16
= -12
10
Since a 2 0 and T1 0, x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x.
4. Show that the line 4x + y + 4 = 0 is a tangent to the parabola y = x 2.
Solution
For the line to be a tangent, it must intersect with the curve in only
1 point.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2
-11
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
It is too hard to tell from the graph if the line is a tangent, so we solve
simultaneous equations to find any points of intersection.
]1 g
]2 g
y = x2
4x + y + 4 = 0
4x + x 2 + 4 = 0
x 2 + 4x + 4 = 0
We dont need to find the roots of the equation as the question only asks
how many roots there are. We find the discriminant.
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 42 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 16 - 16
=0
` the equation has 1 real root (equal roots) so there is only one point of
intersection.
So the line is a tangent to the parabola.
10.3 Exercises
1.
Find the discriminant of each

quadratic equation.
(a) x 2 - 4x - 1 = 0
(b) 2x 2 + 3x + 7 = 0
(c) - 4x 2 + 2x - 1 = 0
(d) 6x 2 - x - 2 = 0
(e) - x 2 - 3x = 0
(f) x 2 + 4 = 0
(g) x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
(h) -3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0
(i) - 2x 2 + x + 2 = 0
(j) - x 2 + 4x - 4 = 0
2.
Find the discriminant and

state whether the roots of the
quadratic equation are real or
imaginary (not real), and if they
are real, whether they are equal
or unequal, rational or irrational.
561
562
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x2 - x - 4 = 0
2x 2 + 3x + 6 = 0
x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0
x 2 + 6x + 9 = 0
2x 2 - 5x - 1 = 0
- x 2 + 2x - 5 = 0
- 2x 2 - 5x + 3 = 0
- 5x 2 + 2x - 6 = 0
-x2 + x = 0
- 2x 2 + 8x - 2 = 0
3.
Find the value of p for which

the quadratic equation
x 2 + 2x + p = 0 has equal roots.
4.
Find any values of k for

which the quadratic equation
x 2 + kx + 1 = 0 has equal roots.
5.
Find all the values of b for which

2x 2 + x + b + 1 = 0 has real roots.
6.
Evaluate p if px 2 + 4x + 2 = 0 has
no real roots.
7.
Find all values of k for which

] k + 2 g x 2 + x - 3 = 0 has 2 real
unequal roots.
8.
9.
Prove that 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all

real x.
Find the values of k for which
x 2 + ] k + 1 g x + 4 = 0 has real
roots.
10. Find values of k for which the

expression kx 2 + 3kx + 9 is
positive definite.
11. Find the values of m for
which the quadratic equation
x 2 - 2mx + 9 = 0 has real and
different roots.
12. If x 2 - 2kx + 1 = 0 has real roots,

evaluate k.
13. Find exact values of p if
px 2 - 2x + 3p = 0 is negative
definite.
14. Evaluate b if
] b - 2 g x 2 - 2bx + 5b = 0 has real
roots.
15. Find values of p for which
x 2 + px + p + 3 = 0 has real roots.
16. Show that the line y = 2x + 6
cuts the parabola y = x 2 + 3 in
2 points.
17. Show that the line 3x + y - 4 = 0
cuts the parabola y = x 2 + 5x + 3
in 2 points.
18. Show that the line y = - x - 4
does not touch the parabola
y = x 2.
19. Show that the line y = 5x - 2
is a tangent to the parabola
y = x 2 + 3x - 1 .
20. The line y = 3x - p + 1 is a
tangent to the parabola y = x 2.
Evaluate p.
21. Which of these lines is a tangent
to the circle x 2 + y 2 = 4?
(a) 3x - y - 1 = 0
(b) 5x + y - 3 = 0
(c) 4x + 3y - 10 = 0
(d) 5x - 12y + 26 = 0
(e) 2x + y - 7 = 0
Quadratic Identities
When you use the quadratic formula to solve an equation, you compare a
quadratic, say, 3x 2 - 2x + 5 = 0 with the general quadratic ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
563
You are assuming when you do this that 3x 2 - 2x + 5 and ax 2 + bx + c are

equivalent expressions.
We can state this as a general rule:
If two quadratic expressions are equivalent to each other then the
corresponding coefficients must be equal.
If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 / a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for all real x

then a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2
Proof
If a 1 x 2 + b 1 x + c 1 = a 2 x 2 + b 2 x + c 2 for more than two values of x, then
(a 1 - a 2) x 2 + (b 1 - b 2) x + (c 1 - c 2) = 0.
That is, a 1 = a 2, b 1 = b 2 and c 1 = c 2 .
EXAMPLES
1. Write 2x 2 - 3x + 5 in the form A (x - 1)2 + B (x - 1) + C.
Solution
A ] x - 1 g2 + B (x - 1) + C = A (x 2 - 2x + 1) + Bx - B + C
= Ax 2 - 2Ax + A + Bx - B + C
= Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C
For 2x 2 - 3x + 5 / Ax 2 + (- 2A + B) x + A - B + C
A=2
- 2A + B = - 3
A-B+C=5
- 2 ( 2) + B = - 3
- 4 + B = -3
B=1
Substitute A = 2 and B = 1 into (3):
2-1+C=5
1+C=5
C=4
( 1)
(2)
( 3)
` 2x 2 - 3x + 5 / 2 (x - 1) 2 + (x - 1) + 4
CONTINUED
You learnt how to solve

simultaneous equations
with 3 unknowns in
Chapter 3.
564
2. Find values for a, b and c if x 2 - x / a (x + 3)2 + bx + c - 1.
Solution
a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c - 1 = a (x 2 + 6x + 9) + bx + c - 1
= ax 2 + 6ax + 9a + bx + c - 1
= ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1
2
For x - x / ax 2 + (6a + b) x + 9a + c - 1
a =1
6a + b = -1
9a + c - 1 = 0
6 (1) + b = -1
6 + b = -1
b = -7
9 (1) + c - 1 = 0
8+c=0
c = -8
` a = 1, b = -7, c = - 8
( 1)
( 2)
( 3)
3. Find the equation of the parabola that passes through the points
(-1, -3), (0, 3) and (2, 21) .
Solution
The parabola has equation in the form y = ax 2 + bx + c. Substitute the
points into the equation:
^ -1, -3 h:
-3 = a ] -1 g 2 + b ] -1 g + c
=a-b+c
a - b + c = -3
^ 0, 3 h :
3 = a ]0 g2 + b ]0 g + c
=c
]1 g
]2 g
^ 2, 21 h:
c =3
21 = a ] 2 g 2 + b ] 2 g + c
= 4a + 2b + c
`
4a + 2b + c = 21
Solve simultaneous equations to find a, b and c.
a - b + 3 = -3
a - b = -6
]3 g
( 4)

4a + 2b + 3 = 21
4a + 2b = 18
(4) # 2:
2a - 2b = -12
(6) + (5):
2a - 2b = -12
4a + 2b = 18
6a
=6
a=1
Substitute a = 1 into (5):
4 (1) + 2b = 18
4 + 2b = 18
2b = 14
b=7
`
a = 1, b = 7, c = 3
Thus the parabola has equation y = x 2 + 7x + 3.
(5 )
(6 )
10.4 Exercises
1.
Find values of a, b and c for

which
(a) x 2 + 4x - 3
/ a ]x + 1 g 2 + b ]x + 1 g + c
(b) 2x 2 - 3x + 1
/ a ]x + 2 g2 + b ]x + 2 g + c
(c) x 2 - x - 2
/ a ]x - 1 g2 + b ]x - 1 g + c
(d) x 2 + x + 6
/ a ]x - 3 g2 + b ]x - 3 g + c
(e) 3x 2 - 5x - 2
/ a ]x + 1 g2 + b ]x - 1 g + c
(f) 4x 2 + x - 7
/ a ]x - 2 g2 + b ]x - 2 g + c
(g) 2x 2 + 4x - 1
/ a ]x + 4 g2 + b ]x + 2 g + c
(h) 3x 2 - 2x + 5
/ a ] x + 1 g 2 + bx + c
(i) - x 2 + 4x - 3
/ a ]x + 3 g2 + b ]x + 3 g + c
(j) - 2x 2 + 4x - 3
/ a ]x - 1 g2 + b ]x + 1 g + c
2.
Find values of m, p and q for

which 2x 2 - x - 1
/ m ] x + 1 g 2 + p ] x + 1 g + q.
3.
Express x 2 - 4x + 5 in the form

Ax ] x - 2 g + B ] x + 1 g + C + 4.
4.
Show that x 2 + 2x + 9 can

be written in the form
a ]x - 2g]x + 3g + b ]x - 2g + c
where a = 1, b = 1 and c = 17.
5.
Find values of A, B and C if

x 2 + x - 2 / A ] x - 2 g 2 + Bx + C.
6.
Find values of a, b and c

for which 3x 2 + 5x - 1
/ ax ] x + 3 g + bx 2 + c ] x + 1 g .
7.
Evaluate K, L and M if
x 2 / K ] x - 3 g 2 + L ] x + 1 g - 2M.
565
566
8.
9.
10. Find the equation of the parabola

that passes through the points
(a) (0, -5), (2, -3) and (-3, 7)
Find the values of a, b and c if
(b) (1, -2), (3, 0) and (-2, 10)
20x - 17 / a ] x - 4 g 2 - b ] 5x + 1 g + c.
(c) (-2, 21), (1, 6) and (-1, 12)
(d) (2, 3), (1, -4) and (-1, -12)
(e) (0, 1), (-2, 1) and (2, -7)
Express 4x 2 + 2 in the form

a ] x + 5 g + b ] 2x - 3 g 2 + c - 2 .
Sum and Product of Roots

When you solve a quadratic equation, you may notice a relationship between
the roots. You also used this to factorise trinomials in Chapter 2.
EXAMPLE
(a) Solve x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0.
(b) Find the sum of the roots.
(c) Find the product of the roots.
Solution
(a)
Notice -9 is the coefficient of

x and 20 is the constant term
in the equation.
x 2 - 9x + 20 = 0
(x - 4) (x - 5) = 0
x - 4 = 0, x - 5 = 0
` x = 4,
x=5
(b) Sum = 4 + 5
=9
(c) Product = 4 # 5
= 20
This relationship with the sum and product of the roots works for any
quadratic equation.
The general quadratic equation can be written in the form

x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0
where a and b are the roots of the equation.
Proof
Suppose the general quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has roots a and b.
Then this equation can be written in the form
567
(x - a ) (x - b) = 0
i.e. x - bx - a x + ab = 0
x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0
2
EXAMPLES
1. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 6 and - 1.
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula
x 2 - (a + b) x + ab = 0 where a = 6 and b = -1
a + b = 6 + -1
=5
ab = 6 # -1
= -6
Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives
x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0
Method 2:
If 6 and -1 are the roots of the equation then it can be written as
]x - 6 g]x + 1 g = 0
x 2 + x - 6x - 6 = 0
x 2 - 5x - 6 = 0
2. Find the quadratic equation that has roots 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 .
Solution
Method 1: Using the general formula
a+b=3+ 2+3- 2
=6
ab = (3 + 2 ) # (3 - 2 )
= 3 2 - ( 2 )2
=9-2
=7
Substituting into x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0 gives
x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0
Method 2:
If 3 + 2 and 3 - 2 are the roots of the equation then it can be
written as
_x - "3 + 2 ,i_x - "3 - 2 ,i = 0
^x - 3 - 2 h^x - 3 + 2 h = 0
x 2 - 3x + 2 x - 3x + 9 - 3 2 - 2 x + 3 2 - 2 = 0
x 2 - 6x + 7 = 0
It doesnt matter
which way around we
name these roots.
568
We can find a more general relationship between the sum and product of
roots of a quadratic equation.
If a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0:

b
Sum of roots: a + b = - a
c
Product of roots: ab = a
Proof
If an equation has roots a and b, it can be written as x 2 - (a + b )x + ab = 0.
But we know that a and b are the roots of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
Using quadratic identities, we can compare the two forms of the
equation.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
ax 2 bx c
0
a + a +a=a
c
b
x2 + a x + a = 0
c
b
For x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab / x 2 + a x + a
b
- (a + b ) = a
b
`
a + b = -a
c
Also
ab = a
EXAMPLES
1. Find (a) a + b (b) ab (c) a2 + b2 if a and b are the roots of
2x 2 - 6x + 1 = 0.
Solution
b
(a) a + b = - a
==3
(-6)
2
569
c
(b) ab = a
1
=
2
(c)
a 2 + b 2 ! (a + b ) 2
^ a + b h2 = a 2 + 2ab + b2
^ a + b h2 - 2ab = a 2 + b2
] 3 g 2 - 2 c 1 m = a2 + b2
2
9 - 1 = a 2 + b2
8 = a 2 + b2
2. Find the value of k if one root of kx 2 -7x + k + 1 = 0 is - 2.
Solution
If - 2 is a root of the equation then x = -2 satisfies the equation.
Substitute x = - 2 into the equation:
k ] -2 g 2 - 7 ] -2 g + k + 1 = 0
4k + 14 + k + 1 = 0
5k + 15 = 0
5k = - 15
k = -3
3. Evaluate p if one root of x 2 + 2x - 5p = 0 is double the other root.
You could use b
and 2b instead.
Solution
If one root is a then the other root is 2a .
Sum of roots:
b
a + b = -a
2
1
3a = - 2
2
a=3
a + 2a = -
CONTINUED
570
Product of roots:
c
ab = a
- 5p
a # 2a =
1
2
2a = - 5p
2 2
2 c - m = - 5p
3
4
2 c m = - 5p
9
8
= - 5p
9
8
=p
45
10.5 Exercises
1.
2.
Find a + b and ab if a and b are

the roots of
(a) x 2 + 2x + 1 = 0
(b) 2x 2 - 3x - 6 = 0
(c) 5x 2 - x - 9 = 0
(d) x 2 + 7x + 1 = 0
(e) 3y 2 - 8y + 3 = 0
If a and b are the roots
of the quadratic equation
x 2 - 3x - 6 = 0, find the value of
(a) a + b
(b) ab
1
1
+
(c)
a
b
4.
Find the value of m in

x 2 + 2mx - 6 = 0 if one of the
roots is 2.
5.
If one of the roots of

2x 2 - 5x + k - 1 = 0 is - 3, find
the value of k.
6.
One root of
3x 2 - 2 (3b + 1) x + 4b = 0 is 8.
Find the value of b.
7.
In the quadratic equation

2x 2 - 3x + k = 0, one root is
double the other. Find the value
of k.
8.

x 2 - 8x + p - 1 = 0, one root
is triple the other. Find the
value of p.
9.

(k - 2) x 2 + 50x + 2k + 3 = 0,
the roots are reciprocals of each
other. Find the value of k.
(d) a2 + b2
3.
Reciprocals are n and
1
.
n
Find the quadratic equation

whose roots are
(a) 2 and - 5
(b) - 3 and 7
(c) - 1 and - 4
(d) 4 + 5 and 4 - 5
(e) 1 + 2 7 and 1 - 2 7
10. In the quadratic equation

x 2 + mx + 2 = 0, the roots are
consecutive. Find the values of m.
- 3x 2 - (k + 1) x + 5 = 0, the
roots are equal in magnitude but
opposite in sign. Find the value
of k.
12. Find values of n in the equation
2x 2 - 5(n - 1) x + 12 = 0 if the
two roots are consecutive.
13. If the sum of the roots of
x 2 + px + r = 0 is - 2 and the
product of roots is - 7, find the
values of p and r.
14. One root of the quadratic
equation x 2 + bx + c = 0 is 4 and
the product of the roots is 8. Find
the values of b and c.
15. The roots of the quadratic
equation x 2 + 4x - a = 0 are
b + 1 and b - 3. Find the values
of a and b.
16. Show that the roots of
3mx 2 + 2x + 3m = 0 are always
reciprocals of one another.
17. Find values of k in the equation

k +1
m = 0 if:
x 2 + (k + 1 ) x + c
4
(a) roots are equal in magnitude
but opposite in sign
(b) roots are equal
(c) one root is 1
(d) roots are reciprocals of one
another
(e) roots are real.
18. Find exact values of p in the
equation x 2 + px + 3 = 0 if
(a) the roots are equal
(b) it has real roots
(c) one root is double the other.
19. Find values of k in the equation
x 2 + kx + k - 1 = 0 if
(a) the roots are equal
(b) one root is 4
(c) the roots are reciprocals of
one another.
20. Find values of m in the equation
mx 2 + x + m - 3 = 0 if
(a) one root is -2
(b) it has no real roots
(c) the product of the roots is 2.
Equations Reducible to Quadratics

To solve a quadratic equation such as ] x - 3 g 2 - ] x - 3 g - 2 = 0, you could
expand the brackets and then solve the equation. However, in this section you
will learn a different way to solve this.
There are other equations that do not look like quadratic equations that
can also be solved this way.
Consecutive numbers
are numbers that
follow each other
in order, such as
3 and 4.
571
572
EXAMPLES
1. Solve ] x + 2 g 2 - 3 ] x + 2 g - 4 = 0.
Solution
u=x+2
Let
Then u - 3u - 4
]u - 4 g]u + 1 g
u - 4 = 0, u + 1
u = 4,
u
2
But
=0
=0
=0
= -1
u=x+2
So x + 2 = 4,
x = 2,
x + 2 = -1
x = -3
2
2. Solve x + x = 3 where x ! 0.
Solution
2
x+ x =3
2
x#x+x#x =3#x
x 2 + 2 = 3x
x 2 - 3x + 2 = 0
]x - 2 g]x - 1 g = 0
x - 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = 2,
x=1
3. Solve 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0.
Solution
x
2
9x = ^ 32 h = ^ 3x h
So 9 x - 4.3 x + 3 = 0 can be written as
^ 3 x h2 - 4.3 x + 3 = 0
Let
k = 3x
k 2 - 4k + 3 = 0
]k - 3 g]k - 1 g = 0
k - 3 = 0, k - 1 = 0
k = 1,
k=3
But k = 3 x
So 3 x = 1,
x = 0,
3x = 3
x=1
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4. Solve 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 for 0c # x # 360c.
Solution
sin x = u
Let
Then 2u + u - 1 = 0
] 2u - 1 g ] u + 1 g = 0
2u - 1 = 0 or u + 1 = 0
u = -1
2u = 1
2
u=
1
2
But u = sin x
1
So sin x = or sin x = -1
2
1
sin x = has solutions in the 1st and 2nd quadrants
2
1
sin 30c =
2
So x = 30c, 180c - 30c
= 30c, 150c
30c
3
600c
For sin x = - 1, we use the graph of y = sin x

y
90c
180c
270c
360c
-1
From the graph:

x = 270c
So solutions to 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 are
x = 30c, 150c, 270c
CONTINUED
See Chapter 6 if you have

forgotten how to solve a
trigonometric equation.
574
10.6 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
Solve
(a) ] x - 1 g 2 + 7 ] x - 1 g + 10 = 0
(b) ^ y - 3 h 2 - ^ y - 3 h - 2 = 0
(c) ] x + 2 g 2 - 2 ] x + 2 g - 8 = 0
(d) ] n - 5 g 2 + 7 ] n - 5 g + 6 = 0
(e) ] a - 4 g 2 + 6 ] a - 4 g - 7 = 0
(f) ^ p + 1 h 2 - 9 ^ p + 1 h + 20 = 0
(g) ] x + 3 g 2 - 4 ] x + 3 g - 5 = 0
(h) ] k - 8 g 2 - ] k - 8 g - 12 = 0
(i) ] t - 2 g 2 + 2 ] t - 2 g - 24 = 0
(j) ] b + 9 g 2 - 2 ] b + 9 g - 15 = 0
Solve (x ! 0) .
6
(a) x - x = 1
6
(b) x + x = 5
20
(c) x + x - 9 = 0
15
(d) x + x = 8
12
(e) 2x + x = 11
(c) 5 2x - 5 x - 20 = 0
(d) 9 x + 3 x - 12 = 0
(e) 4 x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0
5.
6.
7.
4
= 5 ( x ! 0) .
x2
1 2
1
Solve b x + x l + b x + x l - 2 = 0
(x ! 0) .
Solve
1 2
1
n - 9 d x 2 + 2 n + 20 = 0
x2
x
correct to 2 decimal places
(x ! 0) .
d x2 +
8.
Solve
(a) x 4 - 7x 2 - 18 = 0
9.
(b) y 4 - 6y 2 + 8 = 0, giving exact
values
2
(c) ^ x 2 - x h + ^ x 2 - x h - 2 = 0
giving exact values
(d)
^ x 2 + 3x -1 h2 - 7 ^ x 2 + 3x -1 h +10 = 0
correct to 2 decimal places
10.
2
(e) ^ a 2 + 4a h + 2 ^ a 2 + 4a h - 8 = 0
giving exact values.
Solve
(a) 2 2x - 9.2 x + 8 = 0
(b) 3 2p + 3 p - 12 = 0
Solve x 2 +
Solve for 0c # x # 360c.

(a) sin 2 x - sin x = 0
(b) cos 2 x + cos x = 0
(c) 2 sin 2 x - sin x - 1 = 0
(d) 2 cos 2 x = cos x
(e) sin x = cos 2 x - 1
Solve for 0c # x # 360c.
(a) tan 2 x - tan x = 0
(b) cos 2 x - 1 = 0
(c) 2 sin 2 x - sin x = 0
(d) 8 sin 4 x - 10 sin 2 x + 3 = 0
(e) 3 tan 4 x - 10 tan 2 x + 3 = 0
Show that the equation
2
x+3+
= 5 has 2 real
x+3
irrational roots (x ! - 3) .
Test Yourself 10
1.
Solve
(a) x 2 - 3x # 0
(b) n 2 - 9 2 0
(c) 4 - y 2 $ 0
2.
Evaluate a, b and c if 2x 2 - 5x + 7
= 2a(x + 1) 2 + b (x + 1) + c.
3.
Find
(a) the equation of the axis of
symmetry and
(b) the minimum value of the parabola
y = x 2 - 4x + 1.
4.
Show that y = x 2 - 2x + 7 is a positive

definite quadratic function.
5.
If a and b are roots of the quadratic

equation x 2 - 6x + 3 = 0, find
(a) a + b
(b) ab
1
1
+
(c)
a
b
(d) ab2 + a 2 b
(e) a 2 + b2
9.
Find
(a) the equation of the axis of
symmetry and
(b) the maximum value of the quadratic
function y = - 2x 2 - x + 6.
10. Write 3x 2 + 7 in the form

a (x - 2) 2 + b (x + 3) + c.
11. Solve 2 sin 2 x + sin x - 1 = 0 for
0c # x # 360c.
12. Find the value of k in x 2 + 3x + k - 1 = 0
if the quadratic equation has
(a) equal roots
(b) one root - 3
(c) one root double the other
(d) consecutive roots
(e) reciprocal roots.
3
13. Solve 2x = 5 + x
(x ! 0) .
14. Find values of m such that

mx 2 + 3x - 4 1 0 for all x.
6.
Solve (3x - 2) 2 - 2 (3x - 2) - 3 = 0.
15. Solve 5 2x - 26.5 x + 25 = 0.
7.
Describe the roots of each quadratic

equation as
(i) real, different and rational
(ii) real, different and irrational
(iii) equal or
(iv) unreal.
(a) 2x 2 - x + 3 = 0
(b) x 2 - 10x - 25 = 0
(c) x 2 - 10x + 25 = 0
(d) 3x 2 + 7x - 2 = 0
(e) 6x 2 - x - 2 = 0
16. For each set of graphs, state whether they

have
(i) 2 points
(ii) 1 point
(iii) no points of intersection.
(a) xy = 7 and 3x - 5y - 1 = 0
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 9 and y = 3x - 3
(c) x 2 + y 2 = 1 and x - 2y - 3 = 0
2
(d) y = x and y = 3x + 1
(e) y = x 2 and y = 4x - 4
8.
Show that - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x.
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576
17. State if each quadratic function is

(i) indefinite
(ii) positive definite or
(iii) negative definite.
(a)
(d)
18. Show that kx 2 - px + k = 0 has reciprocal

roots for all x.
(b)
19. Find the quadratic equation that has

roots
(a) 4 and - 7
(b) 5 + 7 and 5 - 7
20. Solve 2 2x - 10.2 x + 16 = 0.
21. Solve
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3
17
x+1
2n
$1
n-3
2
23
5y - 1
3x
#2
2x + 5
2x + 1
$5
x-4
1.
Show that the quadratic equation

2x 2 - kx + k - 2 = 0 has real rational
roots.
2.
Find the equation of a quadratic

function that passes through the points
(- 2, 18), (3, - 2) and (1, 0) .
3.
Find the value of a, b and c if

x 2 + 5x - 3 / ax (x + 1) + b (x + 1)2 + cx.
25
= 10.
x2 + 1
4.
Solve x 2 + 1 +
5.
Find the maximum value of the function

f (x) = - 2x 2 - 4x + 9.
6.
Find the value of n for which the

equation (n + 2) x 2 + 3x - 5 = 0 has one
root triple the other.
7.
Find the values of p for which

x 2 - x + 3p - 2 2 0 for all x.
12. Find exact values of k for which

x 2 + 2kx + k + 5 = 0 has real roots.
8.
Show that the quadratic equation

x 2 - 2px + p 2 = 0 has equal roots.
13. Solve 3 - 2 cos 2 x - 3 sin x = 0 for

0c # x # 360c.
9.
Solve 2 2x + 1 - 5.2 x + 2 = 0.
1 2
1
14. Solve b x + x l - 5 b x + x l + 6 = 0.
10. Find values of A, B and C if

4x 2 - 3x + 7 / (Ax + 4)2 + B (x + 4) + C.
4x + 1
in the form
x -x-2
a
b
+
.
x-2 x+1
11. Express
15. Solve 2 sin 2 x + cos x - 2 = 0 for

0c # x # 360c.
16. If a and b are the roots of the quadratic
equation 2x 2 + 4x - 5 = 0, evaluate
a 3 + b 3.
577
11
Locus and the
Parabola
TERMINOLOGY
Axis: A line around which a curve is reflected e.g. the axis
of symmetry of a parabola
Latus rectum: A focal chord that is perpendicular to the

axis of the parabola
Cartesian equation: An equation involving two variables

x and y
Locus: The path traced out by a point that

moves according to a particular pattern or rule.
Locus can be described algebraically or
geometrically
Chord: An interval joining any two points on a curve. In

this chapter, any two points on a parabola
Circle: The locus of a point moving so that it is
equidistant from a fixed point on a plane surface
Directrix: A fixed line from which all points equidistant
from this line and a fixed point called the focus form a
parabola
Focal chord: A chord that passes through the focus
Focal length: The distance between the focus and the
vertex of a parabola or the shortest distance between the
vertex and the directrix
Focus: A fixed point from which all points equidistant
from this point and the directrix form a parabola
Parabola: The locus of a point moving so that it is

equidistant from a fixed point called the focus and a
fixed line called the directrix
Parametric equations: A set of equations where variables
x and y are both written in terms of a third variable,
called a parameter, usually p or t
Tangent: A straight line that touches a curve at a single
point only.
Vertex: The turning point (maximum or minimum point)
of a parabola. It is the point where the parabola meets
the axis of symmetry
Chapter 11 Locus and the Parabola
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER EXPANDS THE work on functions that you have already learned.
It shows a method of finding the equation of a locus. In particular, you will

study the circle and the parabola, defined as a locus.
A parabola can also be defined as a set of parametric equations, and you
will study these in this chapter.
DID YOU KNOW?

Locus problems have been studied since very early times. Apollonius of Perga (262190 BC),
a contemporary (and rival) of Archimedes, studied the locus of various figures. In his Plane Loci,
he described the locus points whose ratio from two fixed points is constant. This locus is called
the Circle of Apollonius.
2
Apollonius also used the equation y = lx for the parabola.
Ren Descartes (15961650) was another mathematician who tried to solve locus problems.
His study of these led him to develop analytical (coordinate) geometry.
Locus
A relation can be described in two different ways. It can be a set of points that
obey certain conditions, or a single point that moves along a path according
to certain conditions.
A locus is the term used to describe the path of a single moving point
that obeys certain conditions.
579
580
EXAMPLES
Describe the locus of the following.
1. A pencil on the end of compasses.
Solution
The path of the pencil is a circle with centre at the point of the
compasses.
2. A person going up an escalator (standing still on one step).
What would the locus be

if the person walks up the
escalator?
Solution
The body travels along a straight line parallel to the escalator.
3. A doorknob on a closing door.
Solution
If the door could swing right around it would follow a circle. So a door
closing swings through an arc of a circle.
4. A point on the number line that is 3 units from 0.
Solution
The locus is !3.

5. A point in the number plane that moves so that it is always 3 units
from the y-axis.
Solution
The locus is 2 vertical lines with equations x = !3.
Class Discussion
Describe the path of a person abseiling down a cliff.
11.1 Exercises
Describe the locus of the following:
1.
a racing car driving around a

track
2.
a person climbing a ladder
3.
a child on a swing
4.
a balls flight when thrown
5.
a person driving up to the 5th

floor of a car park
581
582
6.
7.
a point that moves along the

number line such that it is always
less than 2 units from 0
a point on the number plane that
moves so that it is always 2 units
from the origin
8.
a point that moves so that it is

always 1 unit from the x-axis
9.

always 5 units from the y-axis
10. a point that moves so that it is

always 2 units above the x-axis
always 1 unit from the origin
always 4 units from the point
^ 1, - 2 h
13. a point that is always 5 units

below the x-axis
away from the point (1, 1)
15. a point that is always 7 units to
the left of the y-axis
16. a point that is always 3 units to
the right of the y-axis
from the x-axis
from the y-axis
from the point (- 2, 4)
20. a point that is always 1 unit from
the point (- 4, 5).
A locus describes a single point P ^ x, y h that moves along a certain path. The
equation of a locus can often be found by using P ^ x, y h together with the
information given about the locus.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it
is always 3 units from the origin.
Solution
You studied this formula in

2
Chapter 7. It is easier to use d
than d to find the equation of
the locus.
You may recognise this locus as a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h radius 3 units. Its
equation is given by x 2 + y 2 = 9.
Alternatively, use the distance formula.
d=
2
2
_ x2 - x1 i + _ y2 - y1 i
or d 2 = _ x 2 - x 1 i2 + _ y 2 - y 1 i2
583
Place P anywhere on
the number plane.
Let P ^ x, y h be a point of the locus.

We want
PO = 3
i.e.
PO 2 = 9
^x - 0h2+ ^y - 0h2 = 9
x2 + y2 = 9
2. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves
so that distance PA to distance PB is in the ratio 2:1 where
A = ^ - 3, 1 h and B = ^ 2, - 2 h .
Solution

PA : PB = 2:1
i.e.
`
2
PA
=
PB
1
PA = 2PB
PA 2 = ] 2PB g 2
= 4PB 2
[x - ^ - 3 h] 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 $ ^ x - 2 h 2 + [y - ^ - 2 h] 2 .
^ x + 3 h 2 + ^ y - 1 h2 = 4 [^ x - 2 h 2 + ^ y + 2 h 2 ]
2
x + 6x + 9 + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 4 ^ x 2 - 4x + 4 + y 2 + 4x + 4 h
= 4x 2 - 16x + 16 + 4y 2 + 16y + 16
0 = 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22
or 3x 2 - 22x + 3y 2 + 18y + 22 = 0
i.e.
3. Find the equation of the locus of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so that

the line PA is perpendicular to line PB, where A = ^ 1, 2 h and B = ^ - 3, -1 h .
CONTINUED
Use the distance

formula as in
Example 1.
This is the equation

of a circle.
584
Solution
These results come from

Chapter 7.
The locus is a circle with

diameter AB.

For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = -1
y2 - y1
Using m = x - x
2
1
y-2
PA: m 1 =
x -1
y - ] -1 g
PB: m 2 =
x - ]-3g
y +1
=
x+3
For PA perpendicular to PB
y - 2 y +1
#
= -1
x -1 x + 3
y2 - y - 2
= -1
x 2 + 2x - 3
y 2 - y - 2 = - ^ x 2 + 2x - 3 h
= - x 2 - 2x + 3
i.e. x 2 + 2x + y 2 - y - 5 = 0
4. Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is equidistant from
fixed point A ^ 1, - 2 h and fixed line with equation y = 5.
Solution

B has coordinates ^ x, 5 h .
We want
PA = PB
PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - 1 h + [ y - ^ - 2 h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - 5 h 2
^x - 1h2+ ^y + 2h2 = ^y - 5h2
x 2 - 2x + 1 + y 2 + 4y + 4 = y 2 - 10y + 25
x 2 - 2x + 14y - 20 = 0
i.e.
This is the equation of

a parabola. Can you
see where the parabola
lies?
11.2 Exercises
1.
Find the equation of the locus of

point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it
is always 1 unit from the origin.
2.

point P ^ x, y h that moves so that
it is always 9 units from the point
^ -1, -1 h .
3.
4.
5.
6.
Find the equation of the locus

of a point that moves so that it
is always 2 units from the point
^ 5, - 2 h .
it is equidistant from the points
^ 3, 2 h and ^ -1, 5 h .
of a point that moves so that it
is equidistant from the points
^ - 4, 6 h and ^ 2, -7 h .
point P ^ x, y h that moves so that it
is equidistant from the x-axis and
the y-axis.
7.

a point P that moves so that PA
is twice the distance of PB where
A = ^ 0, 3 h and B = ^ 4, 7 h .
8.

the ratio of PA to PB is 3:2 where
A = ^ - 6, 5 h and B = ^ 3, -1 h .
9.

of a point that moves so that
it is equidistant from the point
^ 2, - 3 h and the line y = 7.
10. Find the equation of the locus of

equidistant from the point ^ 0, 5 h
and the line y = - 5.

and the line x = 6.
^ 1, -1 h and the line y = 3.
^ 0, - 3 h and the line y = 3.
of a point P ^ x, y h that moves so
that the line PA is perpendicular
to line PB where A = ^ 1, - 3 h and
B = ^ 4, 5 h .
to line PB, where A = ^ - 4, 0 h and
B = ^ 1, 1 h .
to line PB where A = ^ 1, 5 h and
B = ^ - 2, - 3 h .
17. Point P moves so that
PA 2 + PB 2 = 4 where A = ^ 3, -1 h
and B = ^ - 5, 4 h . Find the
18. Point P moves so that
PA 2 + PB 2 = 12 where
A = ^ - 2, - 5 h and B = ^ 1, 3 h .
of P.
its distance from the line
3x + 4y + 5 = 0 is always 4 units.
585
586

its distance from the line
12x - 5y - 1 = 0 is always 1 unit.
21. Find the equation, in exact form,
of the locus of a point that moves
so that its distance from the line
x - 2y - 3 = 0 is always 5 units.
it is equidistant from the line
4x - 3y + 2 = 0 and the line
3x + 4y - 7 = 0.

it is equidistant from the line
3x + 4y - 5 = 0 and the line
5x + 12y - 1 = 0.
24. Given two points A ^ 3, - 2 h and
B ^ -1, 7 h, find the equation of the
locus of P ^ x, y h if the gradient of
PA is twice the gradient of PB.
25. If R is the fixed point ^ 3, 2 h
and P is a movable point ^ x, y h,
find the equation of the locus
of P if the distance PR is twice
the distance from P to the line
y = -1.
PROBLEM
Can you see 2 mistakes in the solution to this question?
Find the locus of point P ^ x, y h that moves so that its perpendicular
distance from the line 12x + 5y - 1 = 0 is always 3 units.
Solution
d=
3=
=
=
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
a2 + b2
| 5x + 12y - 1|
5 2 + 12 2
| 5x + 12y - 1|
25 + 144
| 5x + 12y - 1|
169
| 5x + 12y - 1|
=
13
` 39 = 5x + 12y - 1
0 = 5x + 12y - 40
Can you find the correct locus?
Circle as a Locus
The locus of point P (x, y) that is always a constant distance from a fixed
point is a circle.
The circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r, has the equation

x2 + y2 = r2
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from the
origin.

OP = r
i.e.
OP 2 = r 2
2
^ x - 0 h + ^ y - 0 h 2 = r2
x2 + y2 = r2
So x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle with radius r
and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
The circle, centre ^ a, b h and radius r, has the

equation
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h that is always r units from point
A ^ a, b h .
587
588

AP = r
i.e.
AP 2 = r 2
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
So ] x - a g2 + ^ y - b h2 = r 2 is the equation of the locus. It describes a circle
with radius r and centre ^ a, b h .
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the locus of a point that is always 2 units from
the point ^ -1, 0 h .
Solution
You could find this equation by

using P (x, y) and treating the
question as a locus problem.
This is a circle with radius 2 and centre ^ -1, 0 h . Its equation is in the form
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r2
i.e. [x - ^ -1 h] 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = 2 2
^ x + 1 h 2 + y2 = 4
x 2 + 2x + 1 + y 2 = 4
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 3 = 0
2. Find the radius and the coordinates of the centre of the circle
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0.
Solution
You learned how to
complete the square in
Chapter 3.
We put the equation into the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 .

To do this we complete the square.
b 2
In general, to complete the square on x 2 + bx, add c m to give:
2
b 2
b 2
x 2 + bx + c m = c x + m
2
2
First we move any constants to the other side of the equation, then
complete the square.
2 2
To complete the square on x 2 + 2x, we add c m = 1.
2
6 2
To complete the square on y 2 - 6y, we add c m = 9.
2
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y = 15
2
x + 2x + 1 + y 2 - 6y + 9 = 15 + 1 + 9
^ x + 1 h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 25
^ x - ] - 1 g h 2 + ^ y - 3 h 2 = 52
The equation is in the form ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - b h 2 = r 2 .
This is a circle, centre ^ -1, 3 h and radius 5.
11.3 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
4.
Find the length of the radius and

the coordinates of the centre of
each circle.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5
(c) ^ x - 4 h 2 + ^ y - 5 h 2 = 16
(d) ^ x - 5 h 2 + ^ y + 6 h 2 = 49
(e) x 2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 81
Find the equation of each circle
in expanded form (without
grouping symbols).
(a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4
(b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5
(c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3
(d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6
(e) Centre ^ - 4, 2 h and radius 5
(f) Centre ^ 0, - 2 h and radius 1
(g) Centre (4, 2) and radius 7
(h) Centre ^ - 3, - 4 h and radius 9
(i) Centre ^ - 2, 0 h and radius 5
(j) Centre ^ - 4, -7 h and
radius 3 .
a point moving so that it is 1 unit
from the point ^ 9, - 4 h .
of a point moving so that it is
4 units from the point ^ - 2, - 2 h .
5.

7 units from the point ^ 1, 0 h .
6.

2 units from the point ^ - 3, 8 h .
7.

a point moving so that it is 2
units from the point ^ 5, - 2 h .
8.
Find the equation of a circle with

centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius 3 units.
9.
Find the equation of a circle with

centre ^ 1, 5 h and radius 1 unit.
10. Find the equation of a circle with

centre ^ - 6, 1 h and radius 6 units.
11. Find the equation of a circle with
12. Find the equation of a circle
with centre ^ 0, - 3 h and radius
2 2 units.
13. Find the coordinates of the centre
and the length of the radius of
each circle.
(a) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y - 4 = 0
(b) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
(c) x 2 + y 2 - 2y = 0
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590
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x2 x2 +
x2 x2 +
x2 +
x2 x2 +
10x + y 2 + 6y - 2 = 0
2x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
12x + y 2 = 0
6x + y 2 - 8y = 0
20x + y 2 - 4y + 40 = 0
14x + y 2 + 2y + 25 = 0
2x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
14. Find the centre and radius of the

circle with equation given by
x 2 - 6x + y 2 + 2y - 6 = 0.
x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 10y + 4 = 0.
x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 12y - 12 = 0.
x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 14y + 1 = 0.
x 2 + 3x + y 2 - 2y - 3 = 0.
19. Sketch the circle whose
equation is given by
x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0.
20. Prove that the line
3x + 4y + 21 = 0 is a
tangent to the circle
x 2 - 8x + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0.
Concentric circles have

the same centre.
21. (a) Show that

x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 4y + 1 = 0 and
x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 4y - 4 = 0 are
concentric.
(b) Find the difference between
their radii.
22. Given two points A ^ 2, - 5 h and
B ^ - 4, 3 h, find the equation of
the circle with diameter AB.

tangent from ^ 4, - 5 h to the circle
x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 2y - 11 = 0.
24. Find the exact length of AB
where A and B are the centres
of the circles x 2 - 6x + y 2 = 0
and x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 3 = 0
respectively.
25. (a) Find the length of XY where
X and Y are the centres of the
circles x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
and x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
respectively.
(b) Find the radius of each circle.
(c) What conclusion can you draw
from the results for (a) and (b)?
26. Show that the circles x 2 + y 2 = 4
and x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 4y - 4 = 0
both have 3x + 4y + 10 = 0 as a
tangent.
27. A circle has centre C ^ -1, 3 h and
radius 5 units.
(a) Find the equation of the
circle.
(b) The line 3x - y + 1 = 0 meets
the circle at two points. Find
their coordinates.
(c) Let the coordinates be X and
Y, where Y is the coordinate
directly below the centre C. Find
the coordinates of point Z, where
YZ is a diameter of the circle.
(d) Hence show +ZXY = 90c.
28. (a) Find the perpendicular
distance from P ^ 2, - 5 h to the line
5x + 12y - 2 = 0.
(b) Hence find the equation
of the circle with centre P and
tangent 5x + 12y - 2 = 0.
Parabola as a Locus
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line
is always a parabola. The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is
called the directrix.
Work on the parabola as a locus is very important, as the properties of the

parabola are useful to us. The parabola is used in lenses of glasses and cameras,
in car headlights, and for bridges and radio telescope dishes.
DID YOU KNOW?

Any rope or chain supporting a load (e.g.
a suspension bridge) is in the shape of a
parabola.
Find some examples of suspension
bridges that have a parabola shaped chain.
Other bridges have ropes or chains
hanging freely. These are not in the shape
of a parabola, but are in a shape called a
catenary. Can you find some bridges with this
shape?
More recent bridges are cable-stayed,
where ropes or chains are attached to towers,
or pylons, and fan out along the sides of the bridge. An example is the Anzac Bridge
in Sydney.
There are many different bridge designs. One famous bridge in Australia is the Sydney
Harbour Bridge.
Research different bridge designs and see if you can find some with parabolic shapes.
Parabola with vertex at the origin

Just as the circle has a special equation when its centre is at the origin, the
parabola has a special equation when its vertex is at the origin. Both also have
a more general formula.
591
592
The locus of a point that is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line
is always in the shape of a parabola.
If the fixed point is (0, a) and the fixed line is y = - a (where a 2 0), then
one of the equidistant points is the origin (0, 0). The distance between the
points (0, 0) and (0, a) is a units.
The point on y = - a directly below the origin is ^ 0, - a h and the distance
from (0, 0) to ^ 0, - a h is also a units.
y
(0, a)
a
x
a
(0, -a)
y =- a
To find the equation of the parabola, we use the general process to find
the equation of any locus. The features of the parabola have special names.
A parabola is equidistant from a fixed point and a fixed line.

The fixed point is called the focus.
The fixed line is called the directrix.
The turning point of the parabola is called the vertex.
The axis of symmetry of the parabola is called its axis.
The distance between the vertex and the focus is called the focal
length.
An interval joining any two points on the parabola is called a chord.
A chord that passes through the focus is called a focal chord.
The focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis is called the latus
rectum.
A tangent is a straight line that touches the parabola at a single point.
593
PARABOLA x 2 = 4 ay
The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point
^ 0, a h and the line y = - a is a parabola with equation
x 2 = 4ay
Proof

Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line y = - a, point B = ^ x, - a h .
PA = PB
`
PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - 0 h 2 + ^ y - a h 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [y - ^ - a h] 2
x2 + ^ y - a h 2 = ^ y + a h 2
x 2 + y 2 - 2ay + a 2 = y 2 + 2ay + a 2
x 2 = 4ay
The parabola x 2 = 4ay has

focus at ^ 0, a h
directrix with equation y = - a
vertex at ^ 0, 0 h
axis with equation x = 0
focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a
latus rectum that is a horizontal focal chord with length 4a
Class Investigation
Find the equation of the locus if point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from ^ 0, - a h
and y = a.
Since the focal length is a, a

is always a positive number.
594
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus has coordinates ^ 0, 2 h
and whose directrix has equation y = - 2.
Solution
The focus has coordinates in the form ^ 0, a h and the directrix has
equation in the form y = - a, where a = 2.
` the parabola is in the form x 2 = 4ay where a = 2
i.e. x 2 = 4 (2) y
x 2 = 8y
2.
(a) Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola x 2 = 20y.
(b) Find the points on the parabola at the endpoints of the latus rectum
and find its length.
Solution
(a) The parabola x 2 = 20y is in the form x 2 = 4ay
4a = 20
` a=5
The focal length is 5 units.
We can find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the
directrix in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x 2 = 20y and count 5 units up and down from the
origin as shown.
y
x2 = 20y
(0, 5)
5
x
5
(0, -5) y = -5
The focus is (0, 5) and the directrix has equation y = -5.
595
Method 2:
The focus is in the form (0, a) where a = 5.
So the focus is (0, 5).
The directrix is in the form y = - a where a = 5.
So the directrix is y = - 5.
(b) The latus rectum is a focal chord that is perpendicular to the axis of
the parabola as shown
y
x2 = 20 y
(0, 5)
x
The endpoints of the latus rectum will be where the line y = 5 and the
parabola intersect.
Substitute y = 5 into the parabola.
x 2 = 20y
= 20 ] 5 g
= 100
x = ! 100
= !10
So the endpoints are (-10, 5) and (10, 5).
y
x2 = 20 y
(-10, 5)
(0, 5)
(10, 5)
x
From the graph, the length of the latus rectum is 20 units.
CONTINUED
The latus rectum is 4a

units long which gives
20 units.
596
3. Find the equation of the focal chord to the parabola x 2 = 4y that

passes through (- 4, 4).
Solution
The parabola x 2 = 4y is in the form x 2 = 4ay.
4a = 4
à=1
The focal length is 1 unit.
The focus is 1 unit up from the origin at (0, 1) and the focal chord also
passes through (- 4, 4).
y
(-4, 4)
x2 = 4y
(0, 1)
x
You used these

formulae in Chapter 7.
We can find the equation of the line between (0, 1) and (- 4, 4) by using
either formula
y - y1
y2 - y1
y - y 1 = m _ x - x 1 i or x - x = x - x
1
2
1
y - y1
y2 - y1
x - x1 = x2 - x1
y -1
4 -1
=
x-0
-4 - 0
y -1
3
x = -4
- 4 ^ y - 1 h = 3x
- 4y + 4 = 3x
0 = 3x + 4y - 4
As you saw in the previous chapter, a parabola can be concave

downwards. Can you guess what the equation of this parabola might be?
PARABOLA x 2 = - 4 ay
The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from the
point ^ 0, - a h and the line y = a is a parabola with equation x 2 = - 4ay
Proof
y
B(x, a)
y=a
x
P(x, y)
A(0, -a)
Let P(x, y) be a point of the locus.

Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line y = a, point B = ^ x, a h .
PA = PB
`
PA 2 = PB 2
2
^ x - 0 h 2 + 7 y - ^ - a h A = ^ x - x h 2 + ^ y - a h2
x 2 + ^ y + a h2 = ^ y - a h2
2
x + y 2 + 2ay + a 2 = y 2 - 2ay + a 2
x 2 = - 4ay
The parabola x 2 = - 4ay has

focus at ^ 0, - a h
directrix with equation y = a
vertex at (0, 0)
axis with equation x = 0
focal length a
latus rectum a horizontal focal chord with length 4a
597
598
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 0, - 4 h and directrix
y = 4.
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is below the directrix as shown. So
the parabola will be concave downwards (the parabola always turns away
from the directrix).
y
y=4
4
x
4
(0, -4)
The focal length is 4 so a = 4.

The parabola is in the form x 2 = - 4ay where a = 4.
x 2 = - 4ay
= -4]4gy
= - 16y
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex, the coordinates of the focus and
the equation of the directrix of the parabola x 2 = - 12y.
Solution
The parabola x 2 = -12y is in the form x 2 = - 4ay.
4a = 12
à=3
The vertex is (0, 0).
We can find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix
in two ways.
Method 1:
Draw the graph x 2 = -12y and count 3 units up and down from the
origin as shown. (The parabola is concave downward.)
y=3
3
x
3
(0, -3)
x2 = -12y
Counting down 3 units, the focus is ^ 0, - 3 h .

Counting up 3 units, the directrix has equation y = 3.
Method 2:
The focus is in the form ^ 0, - a h where a = 3.
So the focus is ^ 0, - 3 h .
The directrix is in the form y = a where a = 3.
So the directrix is y = 3.
3. Find the equation of the parabola with focal length 5 and whose
vertex is ^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis is x = 0.
Solution
Vertex ^ 0, 0 h and axis given by x = 0 give a parabola in the form
x 2 = !4ay, since there is not enough information to tell whether it is
concave upwards or downwards.
This gives two possible parabolas.
CONTINUED
599
600
Focal length of 5 means a = 5

i.e.
The equation is x 2 = !4 (5) y

x 2 = !20y
11.4 Exercises
1.
2.
3.
Find the equation of each

parabola.
(a) focus (0, 5), directrix y = - 5
(b) focus (0, 9), directrix y = - 9
(c) focus (0, 1), directrix y = -1
(d) focus (0, 4), directrix y = - 4
(e) focus (0, 10), directrix
y = -10
(f) focus (0, 3), directrix y = - 3
(g) focus (0, 6), directrix y = - 6
(h) focus (0, 11), directrix
y = -11
(i) focus (0, 2), directrix y = - 2
(j) focus (0, 12), directrix
y = -12
parabola.
(a) focus (0, - 1), directrix y = 1
(b) focus (0, - 3), directrix y = 3
(c) focus (0, - 4), directrix y = 4
(d) focus (0, - 7), directrix y = 7
(e) focus (0, - 6), directrix y = 6
(f) focus (0, - 9), directrix y = 9
(g) focus (0, - 8), directrix y = 8
(h) focus (0, - 2), directrix y = 2
(i) focus (0, -15), directrix
y = 15
(j) focus (0, -13), directrix
y = 13
Find
(i) the coordinates of the
focus and
(ii) the equation of the
directrix of
(a) x 2 = 4y
(b) x 2 = 28y
(c) x 2 = 16y
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x 2 = 36y
x 2 = 40y
x 2 = 44y
x 2 = 12y
x 2 = 6y
x 2 = 10y
x 2 = 15y
4.
Find
focus and
directrix of
(a) x 2 = - 4y
(b) x 2 = - 24y
(c) x 2 = - 8y
(d) x 2 = - 48y
(e) x 2 = - 20y
(f) x 2 = - 16y
(g) x 2 = - 32y
(h) x 2 = - 40y
(i) x 2 = - 2y
(j) x 2 = - 22y
5.
Find the equation of the parabola

with
(a) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 7 h
and equation of the directrix
y = -7
(b) coordinates of the focus
^ 0, 11 h and equation of the
directrix y = -11
(c) coordinates of the focus
^ 0, - 6 h and equation of the
directrix y = 6
(d) coordinates of the focus ^ 0, 2 h
and coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h .
(e) coordinates of the vertex

^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis x = 0
and focal length 3
(f) coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis x = 0
and focal length 8
(g) coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h and equation of the axis
x = 0, and passing through the
point ^ - 8, 2 h
(h) coordinates of the vertex
x = 0, and passing through the
point ^ -1, 7 h .
6.
Find the coordinates of the focus,

the equation of the directrix and
the focal length of the parabola
(a) x 2 = 8y
(b) x 2 = 24y
(c) x 2 = -12y
(d) x 2 = 2y
(e) x 2 = - 7y
(f) 2x 2 = y
7.
Find the equation of the focal

chord that cuts the curve x 2 = 8y
at ^ - 4, 2 h .
8.
The tangent with equation

2x - y - 4 = 0 touches the
parabola x 2 = 4y at A. Find the
coordinates of A.
9.
The focal chord that cuts the

parabola x 2 = - 6y at ^ 6, - 6 h cuts
the parabola again at X. Find the
coordinates of X.
10. Find the coordinates of the

endpoints of the latus rectum of
the parabola x 2 = - 8y. What is
the length of the latus rectum?
11. The equation of the latus rectum

of a parabola is given by y = - 3.
The axis of the parabola is x = 0,
and its vertex is ^ 0, 0 h .
parabola.
directrix.
(c) Find the length of the focal
chord that meets the parabola at
1
c 2, - m .
3
12. (a) Show that the point ^ - 3, 3 h
lies on the parabola with
equation x 2 = 3y.
(b) Find the equation of the line
passing through P and the focus F
of the parabola.
(c) Find the coordinates of the
point R where the line PF meets
the directrix.
13. (a) Find the equation of chord
1
PQ where P c -1, m and Q ^ 2, 1 h
4
lie on the parabola x 2 = 4y.
(b) Show that PQ is not a focal
chord.
(c) Find the equation of the circle
with centre Q and radius 2 units.
(d) Show that this circle passes
through the focus of the
parabola.
14. (a) Show that Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i lies on
the parabola x 2 = 4ay.
(b) Find the equation of the focal
chord through Q.
(c) Prove that the length of the
latus rectum is 4a.
601
602
Investigation
Sketch the parabola x = y 2. You may like to complete the table below to
help you with its sketch.
x
y
-3
-2
-1
Is this parabola a function? What is its axis of symmetry?
The parabola that has y2 rather than x2 in its equation is a sideways

parabola. It still has the same properties, but generally the x and y values are
swapped around.
PARABOLA y 2 = 4 ax
The locus of point P ^ x, y h moving so that it is equidistant from the point
^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a is a parabola with equation
y 2 = 4ax
Proof
Find the equation of the locus of point P ^ x, y h, which moves so that it is
equidistant from the point ^ a, 0 h and the line x = - a.
Coordinates of B are ^ - a, y h .
We want
PA = PB
i.e.
PA 2 = PB 2
^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - 0 h 2 = [x - ^ - a h 2 ] 2 + ^ y - y h 2
^ x - a h 2 + y2 = ^ x + a h 2
x 2 - 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 + 2ax + a 2
y 2 = 4ax
The parabola y 2 = 4ax has

focus at ^ a, 0 h
equation of directrix x = - a
vertex at ^ 0, 0 h
axis with equation y = 0
focal length the distance from the vertex to the focus with length a
latus rectum that is a vertical focal chord with length 4a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (7, 0) and directrix
x = - 7.
Solution
If we draw this information, the focus is to the right of the directrix
as shown (the parabola always turns away from the directrix). So the
parabola turns to the right.
y
x=-7
7
(7, 0)
CONTINUED
603
604

The parabola is in the form y 2 = 4ax where a = 7.
y 2 = 4ax
= 4^7hx
= 28x.
2. Find the coordinates of the focus and the equation of the directrix of
the parabola y 2 = 32x.
Solution
The parabola y 2 = 32x is in the form y 2 = 4ax.
4a = 32
` a=8
Method 1:
Draw the graph y 2 = 32x and count 8 units to the left and right from the
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the right.)
y
x=-8
8
(8, 0)
y2 = 32x
2
Counting 8 units to the right, the focus is (8, 0).

Counting 8 units to the left, the directrix has equation x = - 8.
Method 2:
The focus is in the form (a, 0) where a = 8.
So the focus is (8, 0).
The directrix is in the form x = - a where a = 8.
So the directrix is x = - 8.
A parabola can also turn to the left.
PARABOLA y 2 = - 4 ax
The locus of a point P(x, y) moving so that it is equidistant from
the point ^ - a, 0 h and the line x = a is a parabola with equation
y 2 = - 4ax
Proof
y
P(x, y)
B(a, y)
A( - a, 0)
x=a
Let P(x, y) be a point of the locus.

Taking the perpendicular distance from P to the line x = a,
point B = ^ a, y h .
PA = PB
`
PA 2 = PB 2
7 x - ^ - a h A + ^ y - 0 h2 = ^ x - a h 2 + ^ y - y h 2
^ x + a h 2 + y2 = ^ x - a h 2
2
x 2 + 2ax + a 2 + y 2 = x 2 - 2ax + a 2
y 2 = - 4ax
605
606
The parabola y 2 = - 4ax has

focus at (- a, 0)
directrix with equation x = a
vertex at (0, 0)
axis with equation y = 0
focal length a
latus rectum a vertical focal chord with length 4a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 4, 0) and directrix
x = 4.
Solution
Drawing this information shows that the parabola turns to the left.
y
4
x
( - 4, 0)
x=4

The parabola is in the form y 2 = - 4ax where a = 4.
y 2 = - 4ax
= -4^ 4h x
= -16x.
the parabola y 2 = - 2x.
Solution
The parabola y 2 = - 2x is in the form y 2 = - 4ax.
4a = 2
` a=
1
2
The focal length is
1
unit.
2
Method 1:
1
Draw the graph y 2 = - 2x and count unit to the left and right from the
2
origin as shown. (The parabola turns to the left.)
y
1
2
- 1, 0
2
1
2
x
)
x=
1
2
1
1
units to the left, the focus is c - , 0 m .
2
2
1
1
Counting units to the right, the directrix has equation x = .
2
2
Counting
Method 2:
1
The focus is in the form (- a, 0) where a = .
2
1
So the focus is c - , 0 m .
2
1
The directrix is in the form x = a where a = .
2
1
So the directrix is x = .
2
11.5 Exercises
1.

parabola.
(a) focus (2, 0), directrix x = - 2
(b) focus (5, 0), directrix x = - 5
(c) focus (14, 0), directrix
x = -14
(d) focus (9, 0), directrix x = - 9
(e) focus (8, 0), directrix x = - 8
(f) focus (6, 0), directrix x = - 6
(g) focus (7, 0), directrix x = - 7
(h) focus (3, 0), directrix x = - 3
(i) focus (4, 0), directrix x = - 4
(j) focus (1, 0), directrix x = -1
2.

parabola.
(a) focus (- 9, 0), directrix x = 9
(b) focus (- 4, 0), directrix x = 4
(c) focus (-10, 0), directrix x = 10
(d) focus (- 6, 0), directrix x = 6
(e) focus (- 2, 0), directrix x = 2
(f) focus (-12, 0), directrix x = 12
(g) focus (-11, 0), directrix x = 11
(h) focus (- 5, 0), directrix x = 5
(i) focus (- 3, 0), directrix x = 3
(j) focus (- 7, 0), directrix x = 7
607
608
3.
4.
5.
Find
focus and
directrix of
(a) y 2 = 8x
(b) y 2 = 12x
(c) y 2 = 16x
(d) y 2 = 4x
(e) y 2 = 28x
(f) y 2 = 32x
(g) y 2 = 24x
(h) y 2 = 36x
(i) y 2 = x
(j) y 2 = 18x
Find
focus and
directrix of
(a) y 2 = - 8x
(b) y 2 = -12x
(c) y 2 = - 28x
(d) y 2 = - 4x
(e) y 2 = - 24x
(f) y 2 = - 52x
(g) y 2 = - 60x
(h) y 2 = - 2x
(i) y 2 = - 26x
(j) y 2 = - 5x
with
(a) coordinates of the focus ^ 5, 0 h
x = -5
(b) coordinates of the focus ^ 1, 0 h
x = -1
(c) coordinates of the focus
^ - 4, 0 h and equation of the
directrix x = 4
(d) coordinates of the focus ^ 3, 0 h
and coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h
(e) coordinates of the vertex
^ 0, 0 h equation of the axis y = 0
and focal length 9
(f) coordinates of the vertex

^ 0, 0 h, equation of the axis y = 0
and focal length 2
(g) coordinates of the vertex
y = 0 and passing through the
point ^ 3, 6 h
(h) coordinates of the vertex
y = 0 and passing through the
point ^ 2, 1 h .
6.
Find the coordinates of the focus,

the equation of the directrix and
the focal length of the parabola
(a) y 2 = 8x
(b) y 2 = 4x
(c) y 2 = -12x
(d) y 2 = 6x
(e) y 2 = - 5x
(f) 3y 2 = x
7.
Find the equation of the focal

chord that cuts the curve y 2 = 16x
at ^ 4, 8 h .
8.
Find the length of the latus

rectum of the parabola y 2 = 12x.
What are the coordinates of its
endpoints?
9.
The line with equation

x - 3y - 27 = 0 meets the
parabola y 2 = 4x at two points.
Find their coordinates.
1
10. Let R c , - 2 m be a point on the
5
parabola y 2 = 20x.
(a) Find the equation of the focal
chord passing through R.
(b) Find the coordinates of the
point Q where this chord cuts the
directrix.
(c) Find the area of DOFQ where
O is the origin and F is the focus.
(d) Find the perpendicular
distance from the chord to the
point P ^ -1, -7 h .
(e) Hence nd the area of DPQR.
609
Application
A parabolic satellite dish receives its signals through the focus. If the dish has
height 12 m and a span of 20 m, find where the focus should be placed, to the
nearest mm.
SOLUTION
The parabola is of the form x 2 = 4ay and passes through (10, 12) and (-10, 12)
Substituting (10, 12) gives
2
10 = 4a (12)
100 = 48a
2.083 = a
So the focus should be placed 2.083 m from the vertex.
Here is a summary of the 4 different types of parabola with the vertex at

the origin.
1. x 2 = 4ay
y
x2 = 4ay
Focus
(0, a)
x
Directrix
y = -a
This is 2083 mm to
the nearest millimetre.
610
2. x 2 = - 4ay
y
Directrix
y=a
x
Focus
(0, -a)
x 2 = -4ay
3. y 2 = 4ax
y
Directrix
x = -a
Focus
(a, 0)
y 2 = 4a x
4. y 2 = - 4ax
y
Directrix
x=a
Focus
(-a, 0)
y2 = -4ax
General Parabola
When the parabola does not have its vertex at the origin, there is a more
general formula.
Since we use a to mean the focal length, we cannot use (a, b) as the
vertex. We use (h, k) instead.
PARABOLA (x - h)2 = 4a(y - k)

The concave upwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal
length a has equation ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola with vertex ^ h, k h and focal length a.
Counting up a units from vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h, k + a h .

Counting down a units from V gives the point on the directrix D = ^ h, k - a h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by y = k - a.
We find the equation of the locus of P ^ x, y h that is equidistant from point
F ^ h, k + a h and line y = k - a.
B has coordinates ^ x, k - a h .
We want
PF = PB
i.e.
PF 2 = PB 2
^ x - h h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2 = ^ x - x h 2 + [ y - ^ k + a h] 2
^x - hh2 + ^ y - k - ah2 = ^ y - k + ah2
^x - hh2 = ^ y - k + ah2- ^ y - k - ah2
= [^ y - k + a h + ^ y - k - a h ] # [^ y - k + a h - ^ y - k - a h ]
^ difference of two squares h
= ^ 2y - 2k h ^ 2a h
= 4ay - 4ak
= 4a ^ y - k h
611
612
The parabola ^ x - h h2 = 4a ^ y - k h has

axis parallel to the y-axis
vertex at ^ h, k h
focus at ^ h, k + a h
directrix with equation y = k - a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus ^ 2, 3 h and directrix with
equation y = - 7.
Solution
Draw a diagram to find

the vertex and to find a.
Coordinates of B are ^ 2, -7 h .
The vertex is the midpoint of ^ 2, 3 h and ^ 2, -7 h .
` vertex = ^ 2, - 2 h
Focal length is the distance from the focus to the vertex.
`
a=5
From the diagram the parabola is concave upwards.
The equation is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h
i.e.
^ x - 2 h 2 = 4 ^ 5 h [ y - ^ - 2 h]
= 20 ^ y + 2 h
x 2 - 4x + 4 = 20y + 40
x 2 - 4x - 20y - 36 = 0
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and the focus, and the equation of
the directrix, of the parabola with equation x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0.
613
Solution
Complete the square on x.
x 2 + 6x - 12y - 3 = 0
x 2 + 6x = 12y + 3
x 2 + 6x + 9 = 12y + 3 + 9
^ x + 3 h2 = 12y + 12
= 12 (y + 1)
So the parabola has equation ^ x + 3 h2 = 12 ^ y + 1 h .
Its vertex has coordinates ^ - 3, -1 h .
4a = 12
` a=3
The parabola is concave upwards as it is in the form ^ x - h h 2 = 4a ^ y - k h .
Count up 3 units to the focus

` focus = ^ - 3, 2 h
Count down 3 units to the directrix
` directrix has equation y = - 4.
PARABOLA (x - h)2 = - 4a(y - k)

The concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a
has equation ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h
Proof
Find the equation of the concave downwards parabola with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
It is easy to find
the focus and the
directrix by counting
along the y-axis.
614
Counting down a units from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h, k - a h .

Counting up a units from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h, k + a h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by y = k + a.
We find the equation of the locus of P(x, y) that is equidistant from point
F ^ h, k - a h and line y = k + a.
y
B
y=k+a
P (x, y)
F (h , k - a)
B has coordinates ^ x, k + a h .
We want
PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
2
2
^x - hh2 + 7y - ^k - ahA = ^x - xh2 + 7y - ^k + ahA
2
2
2
^x - hh + ^y - k + ah = ^y - k - ah
^x - hh2 = ^y - k - ah2- ^y - k + ah2
= 7^y - k - ah + ^y - k + ahA7^y - k - ah - ^y - k + ahA
(difference of two squares)
= ^ 2y - 2k h ^ - 2a h
= - 4ay + 4ak
= - 4a ^ y - k h
The parabola ^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h has

axis parallel to the y-axis
vertex at (h, k)
focus at ^ h, k - a h
directrix with equation y = k + a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (- 2, 1) and directrix
y = 3.
Solution
y
1
1
(-2, 1)
y=3
2
1
-2 -1
Coordinates of B are (- 2, 3).

The vertex is the midpoint of (- 2, 1) and (- 2, 3).
` vertex = (- 2, 2)
Focal length a = 1.
From the diagram the curve is concave downwards.
^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h
i.e.
2
7x - ^ -2 h A = -4 ]1 g^ y - 2 h
^ x + 2h 2 = -4^ y - 2h
x 2 + 4x + 4 = - 4y + 8
x 2 + 4x + 4y - 4 = 0.
2. Find the coordinates of the vertex and focus, and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0.
CONTINUED
615
616
Solution
Complete the square on x.
x 2 - 8x + 8y - 16 = 0
x 2 - 8x = - 8y + 16
x 2 - 8x + 16 = - 8y + 16 + 16
^ x - 4 h2 = - 8y + 32
= -8^ y - 4h
So the parabola has equation ^ x - 4 h 2 = - 8 ^ y - 4 h .
Its vertex has coordinates (4, 4).
4a = 8
à=2
The parabola is concave downwards as it is in the form
^ x - h h 2 = - 4a ^ y - k h .
y
y=6
(4, 4)
4
3
2
(4, 2)
2
1
1
Count down 2 units to the focus

` focus = ^ 4, 2 h
Count up 2 units to the directrix
` directrix has equation y = 6.
PARABOLA ( y - k)2 = 4a(x - h)

The parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a that turns
to the right has equation ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the right with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h + a, k h .
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h - a, k h .
So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h - a.
F ^ h + a, k h and line x = h - a.
x=h-a
P (x, y)
F (h +a, k)
B has coordinates ^ h - a, y h .
We want
PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
2
2
7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - y h2
^x - h - ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2
^y - kh2 = ^x - h + ah2- ]x - h - ag2
= 7^x - h + ah + ^x - h - ahA7^x - h + ah - ^x - h - ahA

= ^ 2x - 2h h ^ 2a h
= 4ax - 4ah
= 4a ^ x - h h
617
618
The parabola ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h has

axis parallel to the x-axis
vertex at ^ h, k h
focus at ^ h + a, k h
directrix with equation x = h - a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (1, -1) and directrix
x = - 5.
Solution
y
x = -5
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
(1, -1)
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
B
-2
-3
Coordinates of B are (- 5, -1).

The vertex is the midpoint of (- 5, -1) and (1, -1).
` vertex = ^ - 2, -1 h
Focal length a = 3
From the diagram the parabola curves to the right.
^ y - k h 2 = 4a ] x - h g
i.e.
2
7 y - ^ -1 h A = 4 ] 3 g 7 x - ^ - 2 h A
^ y + 1 h 2 = 12 ] x + 2 g
y 2 + 2y + 1 = 12x + 24
y 2 + 2y - 12x - 23 = 0
directrix of the parabola y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0.
Solution
Complete the square on y.
y 2 + 12y - 4x - 8 = 0
y 2 + 12y = 4x + 8
y 2 + 12y + 36 = 4x + 8 + 36
^ y + 6 h 2 = 4x + 44
= 4 ^ x + 11 h
So the parabola has equation ^ y + 6 h2 = 4 ^ x + 11 h
or 7 y - ] - 6 g A 2 = 4 6 x - ] -11 g @ .
Its vertex has coordinates (-11, - 6).
4a = 4
` a=1
The parabola turns to the right as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = 4a ^ x - h h .
y
x = -12
x
(-11, -6)
1
(-10, -6)
Count 1 unit to the right for the focus

` focus = ^ -10, - 6 h .
Count 1 unit to the left for the directrix
` directrix has equation x = -12.
PARABOLA (y k)2 = 4a(x h)

The parabola with vertex (h, k) and focal length a that turns to
the left has equation ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
619
620
Proof
Find the equation of the parabola that turns to the left with vertex (h, k) and
focal length a.
Counting a units to the left from the vertex V gives the focus F = ^ h - a, k h.
Counting a units to the right from the vertex V gives the point on the directrix
D = ^ h + a, k h.
So the equation of the directrix is given by x = h + a.
F ^ h - a, k h and line x = h + a.
y
x=h+a
B
P (x, y)
F (h -a, k)
B has coordinates ^ h + a, y h .
We want
PF = PB
PF 2 = PB 2
2
7x - ^h - ahA + ^y - kh2 = 7x - ^h + ahA + ^y - y h2
^x - h + ah2+ ^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2
2
^y - kh2 = ^x - h - ah2- ^x - h + ah2

= 7^x - h - ah + ^x - h + ahA7^x - h - ah - ^x - h + ahA
= ^ 2x - 2h h ^ - 2a h
= - 4ax + 4ah
= - 4a ^ x - h h
= - 4a ^ y - k h
The parabola ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ] x - h g has

axis parallel to the x-axis
vertex at (h, k)
focus at ^ h - a, k h
directrix with equation x = h + a
EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the parabola with focus (2, 1) and directrix x = 3.
Solution
y
x=3
1 1
2 2
1
(2, 1)
1
(2 2x, 1)
Coordinates of B are (3, 1).

The vertex is the midpoint of (3, 1) and (2, 1).
1
` vertex = c 2 , 1 m
2
1
Focal length a =
2
From the diagram the parabola curves to the left.
^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
1
1
i.e.
^y - 1h2 = -4c m cx - 2 m
2
2
1
2
^y - 1h = -2cx - 2 m
2
y 2 - 2y + 1 = - 2x + 5
y 2 - 2y + 2x - 4 = 0
directrix of the parabola y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0.
CONTINUED
621
622
Solution
Complete the square on y.
y 2 + 4y + 8x - 4 = 0
y 2 + 4y = - 8 x + 4
y 2 + 4y + 4 = - 8x + 4 + 4
^ y + 2 h 2 = - 8x + 8
= -8 ]x - 1 g
So the parabola has equation ^ y + 2 h2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g
or 7 y - ] - 2 g A 2 = - 8 ] x - 1 g .
Its vertex has coordinates ^ 1, - 2 h .
4a = 8
` a=2
The parabola turns to the left as it is in the form ^ y - k h 2 = - 4a ^ x - h h
y
x=3
1
-3 -2 -1
1
-1
(-1, -2)
-22
(1, -2)
Count 2 units to the left for the focus

` focus = ^ -1, - 2 h .
Count 2 units to the right for the directrix
` directrix has equation x = 3.
11.6 Exercises
1.
Complete the square on x to

write each equation in the form
] x - h g2 = !4a ^ y - k h .
(a) x 2 - 6x - 8y - 15 = 0
(b) x 2 - 10x - 4y + 1 = 0
(c) x 2 - 2x - 4y - 11 = 0
(d) x 2 - 8x + 12y - 20 = 0
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x 2 - 12x - 8y - 20 = 0
x 2 + 14x + 16y + 1 = 0
x 2 - 4x + 4y - 16 = 0
x 2 + 18x - 12y + 9 = 0
x 2 + 2x - 8y - 7 = 0
x 2 - 6 x + 4y + 1 = 0
2.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
4.
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
Complete the square on y to

write each equation in the form
^ y - k h2 = !4a ] x - h g
y 2 - 8y - 4x = 0
y 2 - 2y - 8x - 15 = 0
y 2 + 4y - 12x - 8 = 0
y 2 - 20y + 4x - 16 = 0
y 2 + 6y + 16x - 7 = 0
y 2 - 12y - 8x + 4 = 0
y 2 + 10y + 24x - 23 = 0
y 2 + 24y - 4x = 0
y 2 - 4y + 20x - 16 = 0
y 2 + 8y + 8x = 0
Find the equation of each parabola

(a) focus ^ -1, 3 h, directrix y = - 1
(b) focus ^ - 4, 1 h, directrix y = -1
(c) focus (2, 0), directrix y = - 4
(d) focus (3, 6), directrix y = 2
(e) focus ^ - 2, 5 h, directrix
y = -3
(f) focus ^ -1, - 4 h, directrix y = 4
(g) focus ( 4, - 3), directrix y = 7
(h) focus ^ - 5, 1 h, directrix y = 5
(i) focus ^ - 3, - 6 h, directrix y = 0
(j) focus ^ 0, -7 h, directrix y = - 5
(k) focus (2, 3), directrix x = - 4
(l) focus ^ -1, 4 h, directrix x = - 3
(m) focus (6, 0), directrix x = 2
(n) focus ( 3, - 2 ), directrix
x = -5
(o) focus ^ 1, -1 h, directrix x = - 3
(p) focus ^ - 2, - 4 h, directrix x = 4
(q) focus (2, 1), directrix x = 4
(r) focus ^ - 5, 3 h, directrix x = 3
(s) focus ^ - 1, 2 h, directrix x = 0
(t) focus (3, 1), directrix x = 4
Find
(i) the coordinates of the focus and
(ii) the equation of the directrix of
(a) x 2 - 6x - 4y - 3 = 0
(b) x 2 - 2x - 8y - 7 = 0
(c) x 2 + 4x - 4y = 0
(d) x 2 - 8x - 12y + 4 = 0
(e) x 2 + 10x - 8y + 1 = 0
(f) x 2 - 6x + 4y + 1 = 0
x2
x2
x2
x2
+ 2x + 8y - 15 = 0
- 4 x + 4y = 0
- 8x + 12y + 4 = 0
+ 4x + 16y - 12 = 0
5.
Find
(i) the coordinates of the focus and
(ii) the equation of the directrix of
(a) y 2 + 2y - 4x - 3 = 0
(b) y 2 - 8y - 12x + 4 = 0
(c) y 2 - 6y - 8x - 7 = 0
(d) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0
(e) y 2 - 2y - 24x + 25 = 0
(f) y 2 + 10y + 8x + 1 = 0
(g) y 2 + 14y + 4x + 1 = 0
(h) y 2 - 12y + 20x - 4 = 0
(i) y 2 - 4y + 32x - 28 = 0
(j) y 2 + 6y + 40x + 29 = 0
6.

with vertex ^ 0, 3 h if it is concave
upwards and a = 3.
7.

with vertex ^ - 2, -1 h, focal
length 2, and axis parallel to the
y-axis.
8.
A parabola has its vertex at

^ 1, - 5 h and its focal length as 1.
If the parabola is concave
upwards, find its equation.
9.
A parabola has its axis parallel

to the x-axis. If its vertex has
coordinates ^ 2, 6 h and a = 3, find
its equation if it turns to the left.

with vertex at ^ 1, 0 h and focus at
^ 1, 4 h .
that has vertex ^ 1, 1 h and focus
^ 1, 8 h .
12. A parabola has its vertex at
^ 2, - 2 h and focus at ^ - 4, - 2 h .
Find its equation.
623
624

with vertex ^ 0, 3 h and focus ^ 8, 3 h .
with vertex ^ 3, 3 h and equation of
directrix y = 5.
21. The latus rectum of a parabola

has endpoints ^ - 2, 3 h and ^ 6, 3 h .
Find two possible equations for
the parabola.
22.

with vertex ^ 3, -1 h and directrix
x = -1.
16. A parabola has directrix y = 5 and
focus ^ - 3, 3 h . Find its equation.
and the line y = - 4.
with focus ^ 2, -1 h and directrix
x = 10.
19. Find the coordinates of the vertex
and focus and the equation of the
directrix for the parabola
(a) x 2 + 4x - 8y + 12 = 0
(b) x 2 - 6x - 12y + 33 = 0
(c) x 2 - 2x + 4y + 5 = 0
(d) y 2 - 8y - 16x + 64 = 0
(e) y 2 + 4y - 24x + 4 = 0
(f) y 2 + 8x + 40 = 0.
20. For the parabola
x 2 + 2x + 28y - 111 = 0, find
the coordinates of its vertex and
focus, and the equations of its
directrix and axis. What is its
maximum value?
(a) Find the equation of the arch

above.
(b) Find the coordinates of its
focus and the equation of its
directrix.
23. (a) Sketch y = x 2 + 2x - 8,
showing intercepts and the
minimum point.
focus and the equation of the
directrix of the parabola.
with vertex ^ - 2, 3 h that also
passes through ^ 2, 1 h and is
concave downwards.
25. A parabolic satellite dish has a
diameter of 4 m at a depth of
0.4 m. Find the depth at which
its diameter is 3.5 m, correct to
1 decimal place.
DID YOU KNOW?

The word directrix is due to the Dutch mathematician Jan De Witt (162972). He published a
work called Elementa curvarum, in which he defined the properties of the parabola, ellipse,
circle and hyperbola. These curves are all called conic sections.
De Witt was well known as the Grand Pensionary of Holland. He took part in the politics
and wars of his time, opposing Louis XIV. When the French invaded Holland in 1672, De Witt
was seized and killed.
Tangents and Normals

Remember that the gradient of the tangent to a curve is given by the
derivative.
The normal to the curve is perpendicular to its tangent at that point.
That is, m 1 m 2 = - 1 for perpendicular lines.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the gradient of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 8y at the point
^ 4, 2 h .
Solution
x 2 = 8y
x2
y=
8
dy
2x
=
8
dx
x
=
4
CONTINUED
625
626
dy
4
4
=1
At ^ 4, 2 h,
dx
2. Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point

^ - 8, 16 h .
Solution
x 2 = 4y
dy
dx
At (- 8, 16):
x2
4
2x
=
4
x
=
2
-8
=
2
= -4
= - 4.
y=
So
dy
dx
So the gradient of the tangent m 1

`
m 1 m 2 = -1
So
`
] - 4 g m 2 = -1
m2 =
1
4
The equation of the normal is given by

y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
i.e.
1
[x - (- 8)]
4
1
= (x + 8 )
4
4y - 64 = x + 8
0 = x - 4y + 72.
y - 16 =
11.7 Exercises
1.

to the parabola x 2 = 12y at the
point where x = 2.
3.
Find the gradient of the normal

point where x = 2.
2.

to the parabola x 2 = - 3y at the
point ^ 6, -12 h .
4.

point ^ 4, 1 h .
5.
Show that the gradient of the

tangent to the curve x 2 = 2y at
any point is its x-coordinate.
6.

to the curve x 2 = 8y at the point
^ 4, 2 h .
7.
Find the equation of the normal

where x = - 4.
8.
Find the equations of the tangent

and normal to the parabola
x 2 = - 24y at the point ^ 12, - 6 h .
9.
Find the equations of the tangent

and normal to the parabola
x 2 = 16y at the point where x = 4.

to the curve x 2 = - 2y at the
point ^ 4, - 8 h . This tangent meets
the directrix at point M. Find the
coordinates of M.
11. Find the equation of the normal
^ 6, 3 h . This normal meets the
parabola again at point P. Find
the coordinates of P.
627
12. The normal of the parabola

x 2 = 18y at ^ - 6, 2 h cuts the
parabola again at Q. Find the
coordinates of Q.
13. Find the equations of the normals
to the curve x 2 = - 8y at the
1
points ^ -16, - 32 h and c - 2, - m .
2
Find their point of intersection
and show that this point lies on
the parabola.
at ^ 8, 4 h on the parabola x 2 = 16y.
This tangent meets the tangent
at the vertex of the parabola at
point R. Find the coordinates
of R.
15. (a) Show that the point P _ 2p, p 2 i
lies on the parabola x 2 = 4y.
normal to the parabola at P.
(c) Show that p 2 + 1 = 0 if the
normal passes through the focus
of the parabola ^ p ! 0 h .
Parametric Equations of the Parabola

An equation involving x and y, for example x 2 = 4ay, is called a Cartesian
equation.
Equations can also be written in parametric form. In this form, x and y
are both written in terms of a third variable called a parameter.
An example of a Cartesian equation is y = x 2 - 1.
An example of parametric equations is x = 2t + 3, y = t - 2.
Any Cartesian equation can be written in parametric form.
The word Cartesian comes

from the name of the
mathematician Descartes.
628
EXAMPLE
Write y = 3x + 1 in parametric form.
Solution
There are many different ways this can be done.
For example: Given parameter p
(a) Let x = p
Then y = 3x + 1
= 3p + 1
So parametric equations are x = p, y = 3p + 1.
(b) Let x = p - 5
Then y = 3x + 1
= 3^ p - 5h + 1
= 3p - 15 + 1
= 3p - 14
So parametric equations are x = p - 5, y = 3p - 14.
There are many different ways to write parametric equations. Can you
find some more for the example above?
We can also change parametric equations back into Cartesian form.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the Cartesian equation of x = 3t + 1, y = 2t - 3.
Solution
We use the process for solving simultaneous equations to eliminate the
parameter.
]1 g
x = 3t + 1
]2 g
y = 2t - 3
From (1)
x - 1 = 3t
x -1
=t
3
Substitute in (2)
y = 2t - 3
x -1
m-3
3
3y = 2 ] x - 1 g - 9
= 2x - 2 - 9
= 2x - 11
0 = 2x - 3y - 11
= 2c
2. Find the Cartesian equation of x = 2q, y = q 2 - 3.
Solution
x = 2q
]1 g
y=q -3
]2 g
From (1)
x = 2q
x
=q
2
Substitute in (2)
y = q2 - 3
x 2
=c m -3
2
x2
=
-3
4
4y = x 2 - 12
0 = x 2 - 4y - 12
The equation of a parabola can be written as a set of parametric

equations.
The parabola x 2 = 4ay can be written as

x = 2at
y = at 2
where t is a parameter.
Proof
Substitute x = 2at into x 2 = 4ay
^ 2at h2 = 4ay
4a 2 t 2 = 4ay
at 2 = y
` x = 2at and y = at 2 satisfy the equation x 2 = 4ay
Class Investigation
1. How would you write x 2 = - 4ay in parametric form?
2. How would you write y 2 = 4ax in parametric form?
3. How would you write y 2 = - 4ax in parametric form?
629
630
The parabola x 2 = - 4ay can be written as

x = 2at
y = - at 2
Proof
Substitute x = 2at into x 2 = - 4ay
^ 2at h2 = - 4ay
4a 2 t 2 = - 4ay
at 2 = - y
- at 2 = y
` x = 2at and y = - at 2 satisfy the equation x 2 = - 4ay.
The parabola y 2 = 4ax can be written as

x = at 2
y = 2at
Proof
Substitute y = 2at into y 2
] 2at g2
4a 2 t 2
at 2
= 4ax
= 4ax
= 4ax
=x
` x = at 2 and y = 2at satisfy the equation y 2 = 4ax.
The parabola y 2 = - 4ax can be written as

x = - at 2
y = 2at
Proof
Substitute y = 2at into y 2
] 2at g2
4a 2 t 2
at 2
- at 2
= - 4ax
= - 4ax
= - 4ax
= -x
=x
` x = - at 2 and y = 2at satisfy the equation y 2 = - 4ax.
631
EXAMPLES
1. Given the parabola x = 4t and y = 2t 2, find
(a) its Cartesian equation
(b) the points on the parabola when t = !2.
Solution
(a) x = 4t
x
` 4 =t
Substitute into y = 2t 2:
x 2
y = 2c m
4
2x 2
=
16
x2
=
8
8y = x 2
(b) When t = 2
x = 4^2h
=8
y = 2 ^ 2 h2
=8
When t = - 2
x = 4^-2h
= -8
y = 2 ^ - 2 h2
=8
When t = !k, the

points are symmetrical
about the y-axis.
` points are ^ 8, 8 h and ^ - 8, 8 h .

the parabola x = -12t, y = - 6t 2 .
Solution
Method 1:
We can find the Cartesian equation.
x = -12t
]1g
]2g
y = - 6t
From ] 1 g
x = -12t
x
=t
-12
2
CONTINUED
632
Substitute in (2)
y = - 6t 2
x 2
m
-12
x2
= -6c
m
144
x2
=24
- 24y = x 2
= -6c
This is in the form x 2 = - 4ay (concave downwards parabola with vertex

at the origin).
4a = 24
a=6
So focal length is 6 units.
y
y=6
6
x
6
(0, - 6)
Method 2:
The equations x = -12t, y = - 6t 2 are in the form x = - 2at, y = - at 2 .
` a=6
The equations satisfy x 2 = - 4ay
x2 = - 4 ] 6 g y
= - 24y
This is a concave downward parabola with focus ^ 0, - a h and directrix
y = a.
So focus = ^ 0, - 6 h and directrix has equation y = 6.
3. Write x 2 = 32y as a set of parametric equations.
Solution
4a = 32
So a = 8
Equations are in the form x = 2at, y = at 2 .
So x = 2 ] 8 g t, y = 8t 2
x = 16t, y = 8t 2
4. Write y 2 = 12x in parametric form.
Solution
4a = 12
a=3
Equations are in the form x = at 2, y = 2at
So x = 3t 2, y = 2 ] 3 g t
x = 3t 2, y = 6t
11.8 Exercises
1.
Sketch the graph of

(a) x = t - 2, y = t 2
(b) x = t - 2, y = 3t - 1
(c) x = 2t, y = 4t - 3
(d) x = t + 1, y = t 2
(e) x = 2t, y = 2t 2 - 3
(f) x = 6t, y = 3t 2
2.
Find the Cartesian equation of

(a) x = 4t, y = 2t - 1
(b) x = t + 3, y = 2t - 5
(c) x = t - 1, y = t 2 + t
t
(d) x = , y = 4t 2 - 1
2
1
(e) x = , y = 2t
t
3.
Write as a set of parametric

equations
(a) x 2 = 4y
(b) x 2 = 12y
(c) x 2 = - 8y
(d) x 2 = 16y
(e) x 2 = - 36y
(f) x 2 = 20y
(g) x 2 = - 6y
(h) x 2 = y
(i) 2x 2 = y
(j) x 2 = -10y
4.
Find the Cartesian equation for

each parabola
(a) x = 8t, y = 4t 2
(b) x = 10t, y = 5t 2
(c) x = 2t, y = t 2
(d) x = -14t, y = - 7t 2
(e) x = 4t, y = - 2t 2
(f) x = 2at, y = at 2
(g) x = 2m, y = - m 2
(h) x = 12p, y = 6p 2
1
(i) x = - t, y = - t 2
2
(j) x = 2aq, y = aq 2
5.
(a) Show that _ 6t, - 3t 2 i lies on

the parabola x 2 = -12y for all
values of t.
(b) Find the coordinates of point
P where t = - 2.
(c) Find the equation of the
tangent to the parabola at P.
6.
(a) Find the coordinates of Q on

the parabola x = 8t, y = 4t 2 at the
point where t = - 1.
normal to the parabola at Q.
633
634
7.
A parabola has equations

x = 4t 2, y = 8t. Find the
coordinates of its focus and the
equation of its directrix.
8.
Find the coordinates of point P

on the parabola x = t 2, y = - 2t
where t = 2. Find the equation of
line PS where S is the focus of the
parabola.
9.
(a) Find the Cartesian equation

of the parabola x = 12t, y = 6t 2 .
3
m lies on the
8
parabola. What is the value of t at
this point?
(b) The point c 3,

to the parabola x = 4t, y = 2t 2 at
the point where t = 3.
Chords, Tangents and Normals

If P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2) are any two points on the parabola x 2 = 4ay,
p+q
then the chord PQ has gradient
2
and equation y -
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0
2
Proof
y2 - y1
m= x -x
2
1
=
=
=
ap 2 - aq 2
2ap - 2aq
a _ p2 - q2 i
2a ^ p - q h
a ^ p + qh^ p - qh
2a ^ p - q h
p+q
=
2
Learn to derive these

equations rather than
memorise them.
The equation formula is

y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
p+q
` y - aq 2 =
(x - 2aq)
2
1
= (p + q) x - aq (p + q)
2
1
= (p + q) x - apq - aq 2
2
1
` y - (p + q) x + apq = 0
2
If PQ is a focal chord, then pq = - 1
Proof
x 2 = 4ay has focus (0, a).
1
PQ has equation y - ^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
For PQ to be a focal chord, it passes through (0, a).
1
i.e. a - (p + q) $ 0 + apq = 0
2
a + apq = 0
apq = - a
pq = -1
The tangent to the parabola x 2 = 4ay at the point P(2ap, ap2) has gradient
p and equation given by y - px + ap 2 = 0
Proof
x 2 = 4ay
x2
` y=
4a
dy
2x
=
4
a
dx
x
=
2a
At P ^ 2ap, ap 2 h
dy
2ap
=
2a
dx
=p
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
`
y - ap 2 = p ^ x - 2ap h
= px - 2ap 2
` y - px + ap 2 = 0
The tangents to the parabola x 2 = 4ay at points P _ 2ap, ap 2 i and

Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i intersect at the point [a ^ p + q h , apq @
Proof
Equation of tangent at P is
Equation of tangent at Q is
y - px + ap 2 = 0
y - qx + aq 2 = 0
(1)
( 2)
635
636
(1) (2).
- px + qx + ap 2 - aq 2 = 0
x ( q - p ) = a (q 2 - p 2 )
= a (q + p) (q - p)
x = a (q + p)
Substitute in (1):
y - p $ a (q + p) + ap 2 = 0
y - apq - ap 2 + ap 2 = 0
y = apq
` point of intersection is [a ^ p + q h , apq @
1
The normal to the curve x 2 = 4ay at point P _ 2ap, ap 2 i has gradient p
and equation given by x + py = ap 3 + 2ap
Proof
Tangent at P has gradient p.
For perpendicular lines, m 1 m 2 = - 1
1
` normal has gradient - .
p
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
1
` y - ap 2 = - ^ x - 2ap h
p
p (y - ap 2) = - (x - 2ap)
py - ap 3 = - x + 2ap
x + py = ap 3 + 2ap
The normals to the parabola x 2 = 4ay at P _ 2ap, ap 2 i and

Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i intersect at [- apq ^ p + q h, a _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i]
Proof
Equation of normal at P is
Equation of normal at Q is
x + py = ap 3 + 2ap
x + qy = aq 3 + 2aq
(1) - (2):
py - qy = ap 3 - aq 3 + 2ap - 2aq
( 1)
(2 )
y ^ p - q h = a _ p 3 - q 3 i + 2a ^ p - q h
= a ^ p - q h _ p 2 + pq + q 2 i + 2a ^ p - q h
y = a _ p 2 + pq + q 2 i + 2a
= a _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i
Substitute in (1):
x + p $ a (p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2) = ap 3 + 2ap
x + ap 3 + ap 2 q + apq 2 + 2ap = ap 3 + 2ap
x = - ap 2 q - apq 2
= - apq (p + q)
` point of intersection is [- apq ^ p + q h, a _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i]

EXAMPLES
1. Find the equation of the chord joining points where t = 3 and t = 2
on the parabola x = 2at, y = at 2 .
Solution
When t = 3
x = 2a ^ 3 h
= 6a
When t = 2
x = 2a ^ - 2 h
x = - 4a
y = a ^ 3 h2
= 9a
y = a ^ - 2 h2
= 4a
` points are (6a, 9a) and ^ 4a, 4a h

y2 - y1
Gradient m = x - x
2
1
4a - 9a
=
- 4a - 6a
- 5a
=
-10a
1
=
2
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
1
` y - 4a = ^ x + 4a h
2
2y - 8a = x + 4a
0 = x - 2y + 12a
2. Find the equation of the tangent to the parabola x 2 = 8y at the point
_ 4t, 2t 2 i .
Solution
x 2 = 8y
x2
` y=
8
637
638
dy
dx
2x
8
x
=
4
=
At (4t, 2t2)
dy
4t
=
4
dx
=t
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
` y - 2t 2 = t ^ x - 4 t h
= tx - 4t 2
`
0 = tx - y - 2t 2
The equations of the tangent, normal and chord can also be derived from
points in Cartesian form rather than parametric form.
If point A(x1, y1) lies on the parabola x 2 = 4ay, then the equation of the
tangent at A is given by
xx 1 = 2a _ y + y 1 i
Proof
x2
4a
dy
2x
=
4a
dx
x
=
2a
y=
At (x1, y1)
dy
dx
x1
2a

y - y1 = m ^ x - x1 h
x1
=
^ x - x1 h
2a
2a (y - y 1) = x 1 ^ x - x 1 h
2ay - 2ay 1 = xx 1 - x 12
= xx 1 - 4ay 1
2ay + 2ay 1 = xx 1
2a (y + y 1) = xx 1
(since x 12 = 4ay 1)
If point A (x1, y1) lies on the parabola x 2 = 4ay, then the equation of the
normal at A is given by
2a
y - y1 = - x _ x - x1 i
1
Proof
x2
4a
dy
2x
=
4a
dx
x
=
2a
y=
At (x1, y1)
dy
dx
x1
2a
For normal, m 1 m 2 = 1
2a
m2 = - x
`
1
y - y1 = m _ x - x1 i
2a
` y - y1 = - x ^ x - x1 h
1
The equation of the chord of contact XY of tangents drawn from external

point (x1, y1) to the parabola x 2 = 4ay is given by
xx 1 = 2a _ y + y 1 i
Proof
Let X = _ 2ap, ap 2 i and Y = _ 2aq, aq 2 i .

Then chord XY has equation y -
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
639
640
Now the tangents at X and Y intersect at P _ x 1, y 1 i .

But the intersection of tangents is [a ^ p + q h , apq @
` x1 = a ^ p + q h
and y 1 = apq
From (1):
x1
p+q= a
(1)
(2)
(3)
Substituting (2) and (3) into the equation of chord XY gives

1 d x1 n
x + y1 = 0
2 a
2ay - x 1 x + 2ay 1 = 0
2a (y + y 1) - x 1 x = 0
2a (y + y 1) = x 1 x
y-
EXAMPLE
1
1
Tangents are drawn from the point c , - m to the points P and Q on the
2
2
parabola x 2 = 4y. Find the equation of the chord of contact PQ and the
coordinates of P and Q.
Solution
x 2 = 4y
` 4a = 4
a=1
PQ has equation xx 1 = 2a _ y + y 1 i where x 1 =
1
1
and y 1 = - .
2
2
1
1
x = 2cy - m
2
2
= 2y - 1
x = 4y - 2
` x - 4y + 2 = 0 is the equation of the chord of contact.
To find P and Q, solve simultaneous equations.
x 2 = 4y
x - 4y + 2 = 0
From (2):
x + 2 = 4y
Substitute into (1):
x2 = x + 2
x -x-2=0
(x - 2) (x + 1) = 0
`
x = 2, -1
2
(1)
(2)
( 3)
Substitute x = 2 into (3):

2 - 4y + 2 = 0
4 = 4y
1=y
Substitute x = 1 into (3):
-1 - 4y + 2 = 0
1 = 4y
1
=y
4
So P and Q are points (2, 1) and c -1,
1
m.
4
11.9 Exercises
1.
Find the
(i) gradient and
(ii) equation of chord AB on the
parabola
(a) x 2 = 16y where
A = _ 8t, 4t 2 i and
B = _ 8n , 4n 2 i
(b) x 2 = 8y where
A = _ 4p, 2p 2 i and
B = _ 4q , 2q 2 i
(c) x 2 = 12y where
A = _ 6m, 3m 2 i and
B = _ 6n , 3n 2 i
(d) x 2 = 20y where
A = _ 10p, 5p 2 i and
B = _ 10q, 5q 2 i
(e) x 2 = 4y where
A = _ 2a, a 2 i and B = _ 2b, b 2 i
(f) x 2 = - 8y where
A = _ 4p, - 2p 2 i and
B = _ 4 q , - 2q 2 i
(g) x 2 = - 24y where
A = _ 12a, - 6a 2 i and
B = _ 12b, - 6b 2 i
(h) x 2 = -16y where
A = _ - 8p, - 4p 2 i and
B = _ - 8q, - 4 q 2 i
(i) x 2 = - 4y where
A = _ 2s, - s 2 i and
B = _ 2t , - t 2 i
(j) x 2 = - 28y where

A = _ - 14p, -7p 2 i and
B = _ -14q, -7q 2 i
2.
Find
(i) the gradient of the tangent,
(ii) the gradient of the normal,
(iii) the equation of the tangent and
(iv) the equation of the normal
to the curve
(a) x 2 = 4y at the point
(2p, p2)
(b) x 2 = 12y at the point
(6q, 3q2)
(c) x 2 = 8y at the point
(4t, 2t2)
(d) x 2 = 20y at the point
(10n, 5n2)
(e) x 2 = 24y at the point
(12p, 6p2)
(f) x 2 = -16y at the point
(8k, - 4k2)
(g) x 2 = - 4y at the point
(- 2q, - q 2)
(h) x 2 = - 8y at the point
(4t, - 2t 2)
(i) x 2 = - 12y at the point
(- 6m, - 3m 2)
(j) x 2 = - 32y at the point
(16a, - 8a2)
641
642
3.
4.
5.
Find the point of intersection

between the
(i) tangents and
(ii) normals to the curve
(a) x 2 = 4y at the points
(2p, p2) and (2q, q2)
(b) x 2 = 16y at the points
(8p, 4p2) and (8q, 4q2)
(c) x 2 = 8y at the points
(4a, 2a2) and (4b, 2b2)
(d) x 2 = 12y at the points
(6s, 3s2) and (6t, 3t2)
(e) x 2 = 20y at the points
(10t, 5t2) and (10w, 5w2)
(f) x 2 = - 24y at the points
(12p, - 6p2) and (12q, - 6q2)
(g) x 2 = - 16y at the points
(8m, - 4m2) and (8n, - 4n2)
(h) x 2 = - 40y at the points
(20p, -10p2) and (20q, -10q2)
(i) x 2 = - 20y at the points
(10h, - 5h2) and (10k, - 5k2)
(j) x 2 = - 12y at the points
(- 6p, - 3p2) and (- 6q, - 3q2)
(i) tangent and
(ii) normal at the point (x1, y1)
to the parabola
(a) x 2 = 8y
(b) x 2 = 12y
(c) x 2 = 16y
(d) x 2 = 4y
(e) x 2 = 20y
(f) x 2 = - 4y
(g) x 2 = - 8y
(h) x 2 = - 24y
(i) x 2 = - 44y
(j) x 2 = - 28y
Find the equation of the chord
of contact AB of tangents drawn
from an external point (x1, y1) to
the parabola
(a) x 2 = 16y
(b) x 2 = 4y
(c) x 2 = 8y
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
x 2 = 12y
x 2 = 20y
x 2 = - 4y
x 2 = - 24y
x 2 = - 8y
x 2 = -16y
x 2 = - 36y
6.
Derive the equation of the

tangent to the curve x 2 = 4ay at
the point
(a) _ 2ap, ap 2 i
(b) _ x 0, y 0 i
7.
Find the equation of chord

XY on the parabola x 2 = 8y
where X = _ 4t, 2t 2 i and
Y = _ 4r, 2 r 2 i .
8.
Find the equation of chord PQ on

the parabola x = 6t, y = 3t 2, given
that t = 2 at P and t = 3 at Q.
9.
Show that the equation of the

normal to the parabola x 2 = -18y
at the point d - 9t, -
9t 2 n
is given
2
by 2x + 2ty + 9t 3 + 18t = 0.
10. Derive the equation of the
normal to the parabola x 2 = 4ay
at the point _ 2at, at 2 i .
11. Find the equation of the chord of
contact of tangents drawn from
the external point ^ 3, -1 h to the
parabola x 2 = 8y.
12. Show that 3x + 4y + 4 = 0 is
a focal chord of the parabola
x 2 = - 4 y.
13. Show that if PQ is a focal chord
of x 2 = 4ay where P is the point
_ 2ap, ap 2 i and Q is the point
_ 2aq, aq 2 i then pq = -1.
14. Find the point of intersection of
the tangents to the curve
1
x 2 = 12y at ^ - 6, 3 h and c 2, m .
3
15. Show that the tangents to the

curve x 2 = 4ay at P _ 2ap, ap 2 i and
Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i intersect at the point
[a ^ p + q h , apq @ .
16. (a) Find the equation of the
chord joining P ^ 8, 8 h and
1
Q c 2, m where P and Q are points
2
on the parabola x 2 = 8y.
(b) Show that PQ is a focal chord.
17. Points P _ 2ap, ap 2 i and
Q _ 2aq, aq 2 i lie on the parabola
x 2 = 4ay.
(a) Show that the normal at P is
given by x + py = ap 3 + 2ap.
(b) Find the point N where this
normal meets the axis of the
parabola.
18. Point M ^ 4, - 8 h lies on the
parabola x 2 = - 2y.
chord through M.
(b) Find point N where this chord
cuts the parabola again.
19. Tangents are drawn from an
external point P ^ - 2, -1 h to the
parabola x 2 = 12y.
chord of contact of the tangents.
points where the tangents meet
the parabola.
20. (a) Find the coordinates of the
focus F of the parabola x = 12t,
y = 6t 2 .
(b) Find the equation of the focal

chord PF where P is the point
1
c 6, 1 m on the parabola.
2
(c) Find Q where this chord cuts
the parabola again.
(d) Find the equations of the
tangents to the parabola at P
and Q.
(e) Prove that the tangents are
perpendicular.
(f) Find the point of intersection
R of these tangents.
(g) Show that R lies on the
directrix.
21. The chord of contact of two
tangents drawn from an external
point P to the parabola x 2 = 8y
has equation x + 2y - 3 = 0.
Find the coordinates of P.
22. Find the equation of the normal
to the parabola x = 6t, y = 3t 2 at
the point where t = - 1.
23. Prove that the tangents at
the end of a focal chord are
perpendicular.
24. Show that the tangents at the
ends of a focal chord intersect on
the directrix.
25. Show that the equation of the
tangent at the point P _ x 0, y 0 i on
the parabola x 2 = 4ay is given by
xx 0 = 2a _ y + y 0 i .
Properties of the Parabola
The tangents at the end of a focal chord intersect at right angles on the
directrix.
643
644
Proof
Let PQ be a focal chord of x 2 = 4ay where P = _ 2ap, ap 2 i and Q = _ 2aq, aq 2 i .
Then pq = -1
Tangent at P has gradient m 1 = p
Tangent at Q has gradient m 2 = q
pq = -1
i.e. m 1 m 2 = -1
` the tangents are perpendicular
Tangents intersect at [a ^ p + q h , apq @
i.e. y = apq
But pq = - 1
`
y = -a
This is the equation of the directrix.
` tangents intersect on the directrix
EXAMPLE
1
m and Q ^ - 8, - 8 h lie on the parabola x 2 = - 8y.
2
(a) Find the equation of line PQ.
(b) Show that PQ is a focal chord.
(c) Prove that the tangents at P and Q intersect at right angles on the
directrix.
Points P c 2, -
Solution
(a) Equation of PQ
y - y1
y2 - y1
x - x1 = x2 - x1
1
- +8
y+8
2
=
x+8
2+8
3
=
4
4y + 32 = 3x + 24
0 = 3x - 4y - 8
(1)
(b)
x 2 = - 8y
` 4a = 8
a=2
Focus = (0, - 2)
Substitute (0, - 2) into (1)

RHS = 3 (0) - 4 (- 2) - 8
=0
= LHS
` PQ is a focal chord
(c)
x2
8
dy
x
=4
dx
dy
2
=At P,
4
dx
1
=2
y=-

y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
1
1
y + = - ( x - 2)
2
2
2y + 1 = - x + 2
]1 g
x + 2y - 1 = 0
At Q ,
dy
dx
=-
]-8g
4
=2

y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
y + 8 = 2 (x + 8 )
= 2x + 16
]2 g
0 = 2x - y + 8
P has gradient m 1 = -
1
2
Q has gradient m 2 = 2
1
#2
2
= -1
m1 m2 = -
` the tangents are perpendicular

Solve simultaneous equations to find the point of intersection.
x + 2y - 1 = 0
2x - y + 8 = 0
(1) # 2: 2x + 4y - 2 = 0
(2) - (3): - 5y + 10 = 0
CONTINUED
]1 g
]2 g
]3 g
645
646
10 = 5y
2=y
Substitute in (1)
x+4-1=0
x = -3
` point of intersection is ^ - 3, 2 h
The directrix has equation y = a
i.e.
y=2
The point ^ - 3, 2 h lies on the line y = 2
` the tangents meet on the directrix.
The tangent at point P on a parabola is equally inclined to the axis of the

parabola and the focal chord through P.
Proof
FP = PR ^ definition of a parabola h
PR = PS + SR
= ap 2 + a
` FP = ap 2 + a
Tangent PQ has equation y - px + ap 2 = 0
At Q , x = 0
y - 0 + ap 2 = 0
y = - ap 2
`
Q = _ 0, - ap 2 i
FQ = FO + OQ
= a + ap 2
= FP
` +FQP = +FPQ ] base+s of isosceles D g

` tangent is equally inclined to the axis and the focal chord.
Application
This property of the parabolathat is, that the tangent at P is equally inclined to
the axis of the parabola and the focal chord through Pis used in many practical
applications, including telescopes, headlights and radar.
Class Investigation
Explore the use of the parabola in everyday life. You could go on an
excursion to the Observatory, the physics section of a university, an optics
manufacturer, an engineering company or a camera manufacturer.
Write about the use of the parabola in any of the above applications, or
any others you can think of.
647
648
Locus Problems
EXAMPLES
1. Find the locus of the midpoints of the chords in the parabola x 2 = 4ay
that pass through (0, 2).
Solution
Equation of chord PQ where P = _ 2ap, ap 2 i and Q = _ 2aq, aq 2 i is given by
1
y - ^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
If PQ passes through (0, 2):
2-
1
(p + q) 0 + apq = 0
2
apq = - 2
]1 g
For midpoint M(x, y)

2ap + 2aq
2
= a ^ p + qh
x
`p + q = a
ap 2 + aq 2
y=
2
1
= a _ p2 + q2 i
2
1
= a 7 ^ p + q h2 - 2pq A
2
Substitute (2) into (3)
x=
]2 g
]3 g
1 ; b x l2
a a - 2pq E
2
x2
2y = a - 2apq
x2
= a +4
2ay = x 2 + 4a
x 2 = 2ay - 4a
= 2a ( y - 2)
y=
` locus is a parabola with vertex (0, 2) and focal length
6 from ] 1 g @
a
.
2
2. Points P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2) lie on the parabola x 2 = 4ay and
chord PQ passes through ^ 0, - 4a h. Find the locus of the intersection of
the normals drawn from P and Q.
649
Solution
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0.
2
PQ passes through ^ 0, - 4a h
1
` - 4a - (p + q) 0 + apq = 0
2
apq = 4a
pq = 4
PQ has equation y -
( 1)
Normals intersect at [- apq ^ p + q h, a ^ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 h] .

i.e.
x = - apq ^ p + q h
= - 4a ^ p + q h
[from (1)]
x
=p+q
- 4a
y = a ^ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 h
= a ^ p2 + 4 + q2 + 2 h
(2)
= a _ p2 + q2 + 6 i
y
2
2
a =p +q +6
= ^ p + q h2 - 2pq + 6
= ^ p + q h2 - 8 + 6
= ^ p + q h2 - 2
x2
=
-2
16a 2
y
x2
a + 2 = 16a 2
16ay + 32a 2 = x 2
[from (2)]
This is the equation of

a parabola with vertex
(0, - 2a) and focal
length 4a.
16a ^ y + 2a h = x 2
11.10 Exercises
1.
2.

chord PF on the parabola x 2 = 8y
where P = ^ - 8, 8 h and F is the
focus.
(b) Find the coordinates of Q
where the focal chord intersects
the parabola again.
(c) Find the point of intersection
of the tangents at P and Q.
(d) Show that the tangents at
P and Q are perpendicular.
tangent to the parabola x 2 = 4y at
the point P(2p, p2).
(b) Find the length of PF where

F is the focus.
(c) Show that PF = FR where R is
the y-intercept of the tangent.
3.

tangent to the parabola x 2 = 12y
at the point T(6t, 3t 2).
(b) Find the coordinates of Y, the
y-intercept of the tangent.
(c) Show that TF = FY where F is
the focus.
4.

tangent to the parabola x 2 = - 20y
at the point Q(10q, - 5q2).
650
(b) Find the coordinates of R, the

y-intercept of the tangent.
(c) Show that +FQR = +FRQ
where F is the focus.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
(a) Find the equation of chord AB

on the parabola x 2 = 12y where
1
A = c 2, m and B = ^ - 18, 27 h .
3
(b) Show that AB is a focal chord.
(c) Show that the tangents at A
and B are perpendicular.
(d) Show that the tangents
intersect on the directrix.
the midpoint M of all chords PQ
where P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2)
lie on the parabola x 2 = 4ay and
PQ passes through (0, 2a).
Find the equations of the
tangents to the curve x 2 = 8y
at the points P(4p, 2p2) and
Q(4q, 2q2). Find the equation
of the locus of their point of
intersection if PQ is a focal chord.
point R that is the intersection
of the normals at P(2p, p2) and
Q(2q, q2) on the parabola x 2 = 4y,
given that pq = - 4.
The chord PQ is a focal chord
of the parabola x 2 = 4ay where
P = ^ 2ap, ap 2 h and Q = ^ 2aq, aq 2 h .
the midpoint of PQ.
10. Tangents to the parabola x 2 = 4ay

drawn from points P(2ap, ap2)
and Q(2aq, aq2) intersect at
right angles at point R. Find the
equation of the locus of
(a) point R
(b) the midpoint of PQ.
11. The normal at any point

P _ - 8p, - 4p 2 i on the parabola
x 2 = -16y cuts the y-axis at point
M. Find the equation of the locus
of the midpoint of PM.
12. Given that P(2ap, ap2) and
Q(2aq, aq2) lie on the parabola
x 2 = 4ay, chord PQ subtends a
right angle at the origin.
(a) Show pq = 4.
(b) Find the equation of the locus
of the midpoint of PQ.
(c) Show that this locus is a
parabola, and find its vertex and
focal length.
13. Find the locus of the midpoint
of PF where P is the point
(2ap, ap2) on the parabola
x 2 = 4ay and F is its focus.
14. (a) Find the point of intersection
T of the tangents at P(2ap, ap2)
and Q(2aq, aq2) on the parabola
x 2 = 4ay.
(b) Given that PQ passes through
(0, 6a), find the equation of the
locus of T.
15. Normals to the parabola
x = 2at, y = at 2 from points
P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2)
intersect at N. Find the equation
of the locus of N if PQ passes
through the point (0, 3a).
Class Investigation
Can you spot 6 mistakes in the solution to this question?
Find the equation of the normal to the parabola x 2 = 4ay at the point
P(2ap, ap2).
SOLUTION
x 2 = 4ay
x2
y=
`
4a
dy
x
=4a
dx
dy
ap 2
At P,
=
4a
dx
p2
m1 =
`
4
For normal, m 1 m 2 = - 1
p2
m = -1
4 2
4
m2 = 2
p
if y - y 1 = m _ x - x 1 i
4
y - 2ap = 2 _ x - ap 2 i
p
p 2 y - 2ap 2 = 4 _ x - ap 2 i
= 4x - 4ap 2
`
p 2 y = 4x + 2ap 2
i.e.
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Test Yourself 11
1.
Find the equation of the locus of a point

moving so that it is equidistant from
A ^ - 1, 2 h and B ^ 3, 5 h.
2.
Find the equation of the parabola with

focus ^ 2, 1 h and directrix y = - 3.
3.
Find the radius and centre of the circle

x 2 - 6x + y 2 - 2y - 6 = 0.
4.
Find the coordinates of

(a) the vertex and
(b) the focus of the parabola
(y + 3) 2 = 12 ] x - 1 g .
5.
(a) Find the coordinates of P on the

parabola x = 4t, y = 2t 2, where t = 2.
(b) Find the equation of the tangent at P.
6.
Find the equation of the locus of a point

that is always 5 units from the origin.
7.
Find
(a) the equation of the directrix and
(b) the coordinates of the focus of the
parabola x 2 = - 8y.
8.
A point P ^ x, y h moves so that AP and BP

are perpendicular, given A = ^ 3, 2 h and
B = ^ - 4, 1 h . Find the equation of the
locus of P.
9.
Point P ^ x, y h is equidistant from the

point A ^ 4, - 2 h and the line y = 6. Find
the equation of the locus.
10. Find (a) the coordinates of the (i) vertex

and (ii) focus and (b) the equation
of the directrix of the parabola
x 2 - 2x - 4y + 5 = 0.
parabola x 2 = 18y at the point ^ - 6, 2 h .
12. Find the length of the diameter of the

circle x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 12y + 3 = 0.
13. Find the equation of the parabola with
directrix x = 6 and focus ^ - 6, 0 h .
14. A parabola has a focus at ^ 0, 4 h and its
vertex is at ^ 0, 2 h. Find the equation of
the parabola.
15. Find the equation of the locus of a point
that is always 3 units from the line
4x - 3y - 1 = 0 .
16. A point is equidistant from the x- and
y-axis. Find the equation of its locus.
17. Find the equation of the parabola with
vertex at the origin, axis y = 0 and
1
passing through the point c 1 , 5 m .
4
18. Find the gradient of
(a) the tangent and
(b) the normal to the parabola x 2 = - 12y
at the point where x = 3.
19. Find the Cartesian equation of
(a) x = 6t, y = 3t 2
(b) x = - 8t 2, y = - 16t.
20. (a) Find the equation of the normal
to the parabola x 2 = 4y at the point
^ - 8, 16 h .
(b) This normal cuts the parabola again
at Q. Find the coordinates of Q.
21. Show that 7x - 3y + 12 = 0 is a focal
chord of the parabola x 2 = 16y.
22. Find the point of intersection of the
normals to the parabola x 2 = -12y at the
1
1
points c 4, -1 m and c - 2, - m .
3
3
23. Find the equation of the chord PQ on the

parabola x = 4t, y = 2t 2 if t = 5 at P and
t = 2 at Q.
24. Points P (10p, 5p2) and Q (10q, 5q2) lie on
the parabola x 2 = 20y. Find the equation
of the locus of the midpoint of PQ if
pq = - 2.
parabola x = 2at, y = at 2 the point where
t = 3.
26. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to
the parabola x 2 = 12y at the point P (6, 3).
(b) Find R, the y-intercept of the tangent.
(c) Show that FP = FR where F is the
focus.
27. (a) Find the equation of the
chord PQ given that P(2ap, ap2) and
Q(2aq, aq2) are points on the parabola

x 2 = 4ay.
(b) If PQ is a focal chord show that
pq = - 1.
parabola x = 8t, y = 4t 2 at the point
where t = - 2.
29. Tangents are drawn from an external
point P ^ 2, - 3 h to the parabola x 2 = 4y.
(a) Find the equation of the chord of
contact of the tangents.
(b) Find the coordinates of the points at
which each tangent meets the parabola.
30. Chord PQ is a focal chord of x 2 = 4ay
where P = ^ 2ap, ap 2 h and Q = ^ 2aq, aq 2 h .
Find the equation of the locus of the points
of intersection of the tangents at P and Q.
1.
(a) Find the equation of the locus of

point P, which is equidistant from fixed
points A ^ 3, 5 h and B ^ -1, 2 h .
(b) Show that this locus is the
perpendicular bisector of line AB.
2.
(a) Find the equation of the circle with

(b) Show that the circle cuts the x-axis at
the points ^ 5, 0 h and ^ - 3, 0 h .
3.
4.
5.
(a) Find the equation of the normals to

the parabola x 2 = 8y at the points
1
M c - 2, m and N ^ 8, 8 h .
2
(b) Show that these normals are
perpendicular.
(c) Find the point of intersection X of
the normals.
(d) Find the equation of line MN and
show that it is a focal chord.
Write in Cartesian form the equation

x = sin i, y = cos 2i.
6.
From which point on the parabola x 2 = 4ay

does the normal pass through the focus?
The line with equation 5x - 12y + 36 = 0

is a chord of the parabola x 2 = 12y. Find
the point of intersection of the tangents
to the parabola from the endpoints of the
chord.
7.
(a) Find the equation of the tangents to

the parabola x 2 = 4y at the points
1
A c 1, m and B ^ - 4, 4 h .
4
(b) Show that the point of intersection of
these tangents lies on the directrix.
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654
8.
Find the equation of the parabola with

axis parallel to the y-axis and passing
through points ^ 0, - 2 h, ^ 1, 0 h and
^ 3, - 8 h .
9.
Find the equation of the straight line

through the centres of the circles with
equations x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 8y - 5 = 0 and
x 2 - 2x + y 2 + 10y + 10 = 0.
10. Sketch the region

x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 4y - 4 # 0.
11. (a) Find the equation of the locus
of a point P moving so that PA is
perpendicular to PB where A = ^ - 4, 3 h
and B = ^ 0, 7 h .
(b) Show that this locus is a circle with
centre ^ - 2, 5 h and radius 2 2 .
12. Find the exact gradient, with rational
denominator, of the normal to the
parabola y 2 = 12x at the point where
x = 4 in the first quadrant.
13. (a) Find the equation of the parabola
with vertex ^ 3, - 2 h and focus ^ 7, - 2 h .
(b) Find the equation of the tangent to
the parabola at the point where x = 4 in
the first quadrant.
14. Find the exact length of the line
from ^ 2, 7 h to the centre of the circle
x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 6y - 3 = 0 .
midpoints of all chords of length
2 units in the circle with equation
x 2 + y 2 - 2y - 3 = 0.
16. A satellite dish is to be 3.5 m wide and

1.1 m deep. Find the position of the
focus in millimetres, correct to the
nearest millimetre.
1.1 m
3.5 m
17. Find the equation of the locus of point

P that moves such that the distance
from P to the lines 3x - 4y + 1 = 0 and
12x + 5y + 3 = 0 is in the ratio 3:1.
18. PQ is a chord of x 2 = 4ay where
P = (2ap, ap 2) and Q = _ 2aq, aq 2 i .
(a) Find the coordinates of point N that
divides PQ in the ratio 2:3.
(b) Find the locus of the midpoint of PQ
if pq = 2.
19. The chord of contact of the tangents to
the parabola x 2 = 4ay from an external
point R(x1, y1) passes through the point
N(0, 2a). Find the equation of the locus
of the midpoint of RN.
20. (a) Find the coordinates of T where T is
at the points t = - 2 and t = 5 on the
parabola x = 4t, y = 2t 2.
(b) Find the coordinates of P where P is
at the points X(2at, at2) and Y(2as, as2)
on the parabola x 2 = 4ay.
(c) The tangents from X and Y meet at
s-1
s+1
45c. Show that t =
or t =
.
s+1
1-s

SET 3
1.
Solve m 2 - 5m + 6 $ 0.
2.
Find the locus of point P that moves so

that it is equidistant from the points
A^ -3, 1 h and B ^ 5, 7 h .
3.
Write x = 4t, y = 2t 2 as an equation in

Cartesian form.
10.
Show that AF < CD given AC and FD are

straight lines.
4.
11. Find the equation of the locus of a

point whose distance from the line
3x - 4y + 1 = 0 is 3 units.
AB, AC and CB are tangents with

CZ = 3 cm, ZB = 7 cm and AY = 2 cm.
Find the perimeter of TABC.
5.
Find the centre and radius of the

circle with equation
x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 10y - 15 = 0.
6.
If a and b are the roots of the quadratic

equation 3x 2 - 2x - 1 = 0, find the
value of
(a) a + b
(b) ab
(c) a 2 + b2
7.
Find the coordinates of the focus and the

equation of the directrix of the parabola
x 2 = - 8 y.
8.
Solve ] x + 3 g + 5(x + 3) + 6 = 0.
9.
Find the value of k in the equation

x 2 - ] k - 4 g x + 3k = 0 if the sum of the
roots is -5.
12. Find the coordinates of the vertex and

focus of the parabola y = x 2 + 8x - 1.
13. Solve 2 2x - 9.2 x + 8 = 0.
14.
Find the value of k correct to 1 decimal

place.
the parabola x 2 = 16y at the point ^ -4, 1h .
16. For what values of b does the equation
x 2 + 4x - 2b = 0 have real roots?
655
656
17.
25.
i
0
32c
Find i. O is the centre of the circle.

18. A and B are the points ^ -4, 0 h and
^ 4, 0 h respectively. Point P ^ x, y h moves
so that PA 2 + PB 2 = 64. Find the
equation of the locus of P and describe
it geometrically.
19. Find the equation of the circle
with centre ^ -2, -3 h and radius
5 units.
20. The lines PA and PB are perpendicular,
where A is ^ -2, 7 h, B is ^ 5, -1 h and
P is ^ x, y h . Find the equation of the
locus of P.
21.
Find x and y. O is the centre of the circle.

26. Differentiate
9 - x2 .
27. The point P _ 2ap, ap 2 i lies on the

parabola x 2 = 4ay.
(a) Find the equation of the tangent to
the curve at P.
(b) Find the point R where this tangent
meets the directrix.
(c) Find the equation for FR where F is
the focus.
28. Find the locus of the point that is
equidistant from the point ^ 2, 5 h and the
line y = -3.
29. Show that D ABC is similar to DCDE and
hence find y, correct to 1 decimal place.
O is the centre of the circle. Show

+DAE = 90c - +BDC.
22. Find the gradient of the normal to
the curve x 2 = - 6y at the point where
x = - 4.
23. Find the locus of a point moving so that
the ratio of PA to PB is 2:3 where A is
^ 3, 2 h and B is ^ 0, 7 h .
24. If 2x 2 - 3x + 1 / a(x - 1) 2 + b(x - 1) + c,
find the values of a, b and c.

the curve ] x - 2 g2 = 8y at the point
where x = 6.
P ^ x, y h that moves so that it is always
equidistant from the point ^ -1, 3 h and
the line y = - 5.
32. Solve 2 2x - 5.2 x + 4 = 0.
33. Show that - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x.

34. Differentiate ^ 3x - 1 h ^ 2x + 5 h4.
35. Simplify cot x + tan x.
36. Prove that the opposite angles
are supplementary in any cyclic
quadrilateral.
37. Find the centre and radius of
the circle whose equation is
x 2 + 10x + y 2 - 6y + 30 = 0.
45. (a) Change the set of parametric

equations x = 2t, y = 4t 2 - 1 into
Cartesian form.
(b) Find the coordinates of the point
where t = -2.
(c) Find the equation of the normal to
the curve at the point where t = -2.
46. Find the value of i in degrees and
minutes.
38.
47.
AC is a tangent and AC < DE. Prove

FGED is a cyclic quadrilateral.
O is the centre of the circle. Find x.
39. Show that x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x.
48. Show that the quadratic equation

6x 2 + x - 15 = 0 has 2 real, rational roots.
40. Find the value of k in the quadratic

equation x 2 - 3x + k + 1 = 0 if the roots
are consecutive numbers.

curve y = 2x 4 - 5x 2 - 1 at the point
^ -1, -4 h.
41. Find the equation of the locus of the

point that is equidistant from ^ -2, 1 h
and ^ 4, 5 h .
50. Find values of k for which the

quadratic equation
x 2 - 2x + k - 2 = 0 has real roots.
42. A ship sails from port due east for

150 km, then turns and sails on a
bearing of 195c for 200 km.
(a) How far from port is the ship, to the
nearest kilometre?
(b) On what bearing, to the nearest
degree, is the ship from port?
51. Sketch y =
43. Find the values of a, b and c if

3x 2 - 7 / a ] x + 3 g2 + bx + c.
54. Find the exact value of tan 75c.
44. Solve 2x - 7 2 1.
x
.
2x + 1

through ^ 5, -4 h , that is parallel to the
line through ^ 7, 4 h and ^ 3, -1 h.
53. Divide the interval AB where A = ^ 1, -4 h
and B = ^ 7, 0 h in the ratio 2:3.
55. Solve
y
$ 5.
y+1
657
658

2+1
3 3+ 5
57. Find the values of x and y correct to

1 decimal place.
AB is a diameter of the larger circle

and DB is a straight line. Show AD is a
diameter of the smaller circle.
67. Solve 2 cos 2 x = 1 for 0c # x # 360c .
68. Solve equations x 2 + xy + 1 = 0 and
3x - y + 5 = 0 simultaneously.
69. Factorise a 3 - 8b 3 .
70. Solve
x+1 x+2
= 7.
2
3
58. Given f ] x g = 8x - 3, find the value of x

for which f ] x g = 5.
71. Find the gradient of the normal to the

curve y = 2x 3 + 7x + 1 at the point
where x = - 2.
59. Find the distance between ^ 0, 7 h and

^ -2, -1 h correct to 3 significant figures.
72. Find the perpendicular distance from

^ 3, -2 h to the line 4x - 3y - 9 = 0.
60. Find the value of p correct to 1 decimal

place.
73. Simplify
] sec i + 1 g ] sec i - 1 g .
74. Differentiate ] 2x + 5 g (x 2 - 1) 4.
x-2
.
x2 - 4
P(x, y) if PA is perpendicular to PB, given
A = ^ 3, -2 h and B = ^ -5, 5 h .
75. Find lim

x "2
a3 ^ b2 h
2
4
if a = and b = .
3
9
^ a - 1 h2 b 7
4
61. Simplify
1
62. Solve cos 2x = - for 0c # x # 360c .
2
77. Find the coordinates of the focus and the

equation of the directrix of the parabola
x 2 - 4x + 8y - 20 = 0.

through ^ 3, -1 h perpendicular to the line
3 x - 2 y - 7 = 0.

parabola x 2 = 36y at the point P(18p, 9p2).
64. Solve 5y - 3 = 5 - y.
65. Find the size of each internal angle in a
regular 20-sided polygon.
66.
79. Find the equation of the normal to

the parabola x 2 = -12y at the point
where x = 12.
80. If points P(2ap, ap2) and Q(2aq, aq2) lie
on the parabola x 2 = 4ay, find
(a) the equation of chord PQ
(b) the equation of the locus of the
midpoint of PQ if PQ passes through (0, 2a)
(c) Describe the shape of this locus.
81. The equation of the locus of point P(x, y)

that moves so that it is always 4 units
from ^ -1, 3 h is
(a) ^ x - 1 h2 + ^ y + 3 h2 = 4
(b) ^ x + 1 h + ^ y - 3 h = 4
(c) ] x + 1 g2 + ^ y - 3 h2 = 16
2
(d) ^ x - 1 h + ^ y + 3 h = 16
2
85. Find the centre and radius of the circle

x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 8y + 13 = 0.
(a) Centre ^ -1, 4 h, radius 4
(b) Centre ^ 1, -4 h, radius 2
(c) Centre ^ -1, 4 h, radius 2
(d) Centre ^ 1, -4 h, radius 4
86. In the circle, O is the centre. Evaluate x.
82. If a and b are the roots of the

quadratic equation x 2 - 5x + 2 = 0,
a b
evaluate +
b a
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
1
11
2
1
12
2
1
2
2
1
10
2
83. The equation of the locus of

point P(x, y) moving so that it is
equidistant from (3, 2) and the line
x = -1 is given by
(a) x 2 - 2x + 8y - 15 = 0
(b) y 2 - 4y - 8x + 12 = 0
(c) x - 2x - 8y + 17 = 0
2
(d) y - 4y + 8x - 4 = 0
2
84. The quadratic equation

x 2 + ] k - 3 g x + k = 0 has real roots.
Evaluate k
(a) k # 1, k $ 9
(b) k = 1, 9
(c) 1 # k # 9
(d) k 1 1, k 2 9
84
(a) x = 42c
(b) x = 168c
(c) x = 84c
(d) x = 96c
87. Find the Cartesian equation
for x = 8t, y = 4t 2 .
(a) x 2 = 32y
(b) x 2 = 4y
(c) x 2 = 16y
(d) x 2 = 8y
88. The equation of the normal to
the curve x 2 = 20y at the point
(10p, 5p2) is
(a) x + py = 5p 3 + 10p
(b) x - py = 5p 3 - 10p
(c) px + y = 15p 2
(d) px - y + 15p 2 = 0
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660
89. AB is a tangent to the circle. Which

statement is true (there may be more
than one answer)?
90. For the quadratic function

y = ax 2 + bx + c to be positive definite
(a) a 2 0, b 2 - 4ac 2 0
(b) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 2 0
(c) a 2 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0
A
D
C
B
AB
BD
=
AB
BC
CD
AB
(b)
=
AB
BC
(a)
(c) AB 2 = BC $ CD
(d) AB 2 = BC $ BD
(d) a 1 0, b 2 - 4ac 1 0
12
Polynomials 1
TERMINOLOGY
Coefcient: A constant multiplied by a pronumeral in an
algebraic term e.g. in ax3 the a is the coefficient
Monic polynomial: A polynomial where the leading

coefficient is 1
Degree: The value of the highest power of x in a

polynomial
Polynomial: A sum or difference of terms involving

integral powers of a variable, usually x. A function of the
form P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + f + an x n where a0, a1, ...
are real numbers and n is a positive integer or zero
Dividend: The number, algebraic expression or polynomial

that is being divided by another of the same type
Divisor: A number, algebraic expression or polynomial
that divides another of the same type
Factor theorem: If P(x) is divided by x - a and P (a) = 0
then x - a is a factor of P(x)
Leading term: The term with the highest power of x.
e.g. 5x 3 - 2x 2 + 3 has a leading term of 5x 3
Long division: A division of one polynomial into another
polynomial using a method similar to long division of
numbers
Quotient: The result when two numbers, algebraic

expressions or polynomials are divided
Remainder theorem: If P(x) is divided by x - a then the
remainder is given by P(a)
Root of a polynomial equation: The solution of polynomial
equation P (x) = 0. Graphically it is where the polynomial
crosses the x-axis.
Zeros: The zeros of a polynomial are the roots of the
polynomial equation P (x) = 0. They are the values that
make P(x) zero.
Chapter 12 Polynomials 1
663
INTRODUCTION
POLYNOMIALS ARE AN IMPORTANT part of algebra and are used in many
branches of mathematics. Some examples of polynomials that you have
already studied are linear and quadratic functions.
In this chapter you will study some properties of polynomials in general,
and relate polynomial expressions to equations and graphs.
DID YOU KNOW?

The word polynomial means an expression with many terms. (A binomial has 2 terms and a
trinomial has 3 terms). Poly means many, and is used in many words, for example, polyanthus,
polygamy, polyglot, polygon, polyhedron, polymer, polyphonic, polypod and polytechnic. Do you
know what all these words mean? Do you know any others with poly-?
Definition of a Polynomial
A polynomial is a function defined for all real x involving positive powers of x
in the form:
P ] x g = p 0 + p 1 x + p 2 x 2 + f + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n x n where n is a
positive integer or zero.
P(x) is a continuous and differentiable function.

Although the definition has the term pnxn last, we generally write
polynomials from the highest order down to the lowest. e.g. f ] x g = x 2 - 5x + 4.
We can describe various aspects of polynomial as follows:
p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 is called a polynomial
expression
P ] x g = p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 has degree n
where p n ! 0
p n, p n - 1, p n - 2, f p 0 are called coefficients
pnxn is called the leading term and pn is the leading coefficient
p0 is called the constant term
If p n = 1, P ] x g is called a monic polynomial
If p 0 = p 1 = p 2 = f = p n = 0 then P(x) is the zero polynomial
The degree of a polynomial

is the highest power of x
with non-zero coefficient.
Coefficients can be any real

number but we generally
use integers in this course
for convenience.
664
EXAMPLES
1. Which of the following are polynomial expressions?
(a) 4 - x + 3x 2
(b) 3x 4 - x 2 + 5x - 1
(c) x 2 - 3x + x -1
Solution
(a) and (b) are polynomials but (c) is not, since it has a term x -1 that is
not a positive power of x.
2. For the polynomial P ] x g = x 6 - 2x 4 + 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 3
(a) Find the degree.
(b) Is the polynomial monic?
(c) State the leading term.
(d) What is the constant term?
(e) Find the coefficient of x4.
Solution
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Degree is 6 since x6 is the highest power.

Yes, the polynomial is monic since the coefficient of x6 is 1.
The leading term is x6.
The constant term is -3.
The coefficient of x4 is -2.
Polynomial equation
P ] x g = 0 is a polynomial equation of degree n
The real values of x that satisfy the equation are called the real
roots of the equation or the real zeros of the polynomial.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the zeros of the polynomial P ] x g = x 2 - 5x.
Solution
To find the zeros of the polynomial, we solve P ] x g = 0.
x 2 - 5x = 0
x ]x - 5 g = 0
x = 0, x - 5 = 0
x=5
So the zeros are 0, 5.
2. Find the roots of the polynomial equation x 3 - 2x 2 - 3x = 0.
Solution
x 3 - 2x 2 - 3x = 0
x ^ x 2 - 2x - 3 h = 0
x ]x - 3 g]x + 1 g = 0
x = 0, x - 3 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 3,
x = -1
The roots are x = 0, 3, -1.
3. Show that the polynomial p ] x g = x 2 - x + 4 has no real zeros.
Solution
We look at the polynomial equation p ] x g = 0.
x2 - x + 4 = 0
The discriminant will show whether the polynomial has real zeros.
b 2 - 4ac = ] -1 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= 1 - 16
= -15
10
So the polynomial has no real zeros.
4. For the polynomial P ] x g = ax 5 - 3x 4 + x 3 - 7x + 1
(a) Evaluate a if the polynomial is monic.
(b) Find the degree of the derivative Pl(x) .
Solution
(a) For a monic polynomial, a = 1
(b) P l^ x h = 5ax 4 - 12x 3 + 3x 2 - 7
Pl(x) has degree 4 (highest power).
665
666
12.1
1.
2.
3.
4.
Exercises
Write down the degree of each

polynomial.
(a) 5x 7 - 3x 5 + 2x 3 - 3x + 1
(b) 3 + x + x 2 - x 3 + 2x 4
(c) 3x + 5
(d) x 11 - 5x 8 + 4
(e) 2 - x - 5x 2 + 3x 3
(f) 3
(g) 2x 4 - x
For the polynomial
P(x) = x 3 - 7x 2 + x - 1, find
(a) P(2)
(b) P(-1)
(c) P(0)
Given P (x) = x + 5 and
Q (x) = 2x - 1, find
(a) P (-11)
(b) Q (3)
(c) P (2) + Q (-2)
(d) the degree of P (x) + Q (x)
(e) the degree of P (x) $ Q (x)
For the polynomial
P (x) = x 5 - 3x 4 - 5x + 4, find
(a) the degree of P (x)
(b) the constant term
(c) the coefficient of x 4
(d) the coefficient of x 2
5.
Find the zeros of the following

polynomials.
(a) P (x) = x 2 - 9
(b) p (x) = x + 5
(c) f (x) = x 2 + x - 2
(d) P (x) = x2 - 8x + 16
(e) g (x) = x 3 - 2x 2 + 5x
6.
Find the derivative of each

polynomial P (x) and state the
degree of Pl(x)
(a) P (x) = 3x 4 - 2x 3 - x 2 + 4x - 5
(b) P (x) = 5x 2 + 3
(c) P (x) = 9x 12 - 7x 5 + 8x
(d) P (x) = x 7 - 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 3
(e) P (x) = 8x + 5
7.
Which of the following are not

polynomials?
1
(a) 5x 4 - 3x 2 + x + x
x2 + 3x
x 2 + 3x - 7
3x + 5
0
1
3x 2 - x + 1
2
3
(g) 4x + 7x -2 + 5
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
8.
For the polynomial

P (x) = (a + 1) x 3 + (b - 7) x 2 + c + 5,
find values for a, b or c if
(a) P (x) is monic
(b) the coefficient of x 2 is 3
(c) the constant term is -1
(d) P (x) has degree 2
(e) the leading term has a
coefficient of 5
9.
Given P (x) = 2x + 5,
Q (x) = x 2 - x - 2 and
R (x) = x 3 + 9x, find
(a) any zeros of P (x)
(b) the roots of Q (x) = 0
(c) the degree of P (x) + R (x)
(d) the degree of P (x) $ Q (x)
(e) the leading term of Q (x) $ R (x)
10. Given f (x) = 3x 2 - 2x + 1 and

g (x) = 3x - 3,
(a) show f (x) has no zeros
(b) find the leading term of
f (x) $ g (x)
(c) find the constant term of
f (x) + g (x)
(d) find the coefficient of x in
f (x) $ g (x)
(e) find the roots of
f (x) + g (x) = 0
11. State how many real roots there
are for each polynomial equation
P ] x g = 0.
(a) P ] x g = x 2 - 9
(b) P ] x g = x 2 + 4
(c) P ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 7
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
P ] x g = 2x 2 + x + 3
P ] x g = 3x 2 - 5x - 2
P ]x g = x ]x - 1 g]x + 4 g]x + 6 g
P ]x g = ]x + 1 g]x - 2 g]x - 5 g
12. For the polynomial

P ] x g = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 36x + 17,
find the roots of the derivative
polynomial equation Pl(x) = 0.
13. If P ] x g = 3x 4 - 4x 3 - 1, find the

zeros of Pl(x) .
14. Show that Pl(x) = 0 has no real
roots if P ] x g = x 3 - x 2 + 9x.
15. Show that Ql(x) = 0
has equal roots given
Q ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x + 5.
Division of Polynomials
You would have learned how to do long division in primary school, but have
probably forgotten how to do it! We use this method to divide polynomials.
Class Investigation
Here are two examples of long division.
1. Divide 5715 by 48.
119 r3
48 g 5715
48
91
48
435
432
3
This means
3
5715
= 119 +
48
48
3
5715
# 48 = 119 # 48 +
# 48
48
48
So
5715 = 48 # 119 + 3
(check this on your calculator)
The number 5715 is called the dividend, the 48 is the divisor, 119 is the
quotient and 3 is the remainder.
2. Divide 4871 by 35.
139 r6
35 g 4871
35
137
105
321
315
6
CONTINUED
667
668
This means
4871
6
= 139 +
35
35
or
4871 = 35 #139 + 6
(check this on your calculator)
The number 4871 is called the dividend, the 35 is the divisor, 139 is the
quotient and 6 is the remainder.
Use long division to divide other numbers and write them in the form
above.
For example:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
2048 '
5876 '
3546 '
2992 '
8914 '
15
17
21
33
19
A polynomial P(x) can be written as P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R ] x g

where P(x) is the dividend, A(x) is the divisor, Q(x) is the quotient
and R(x) is the remainder.
Proof
If we divide a polynomial P(x) by A(x), we can write P(x) in the form of
P (x)
R (x)
= Q (x) +
where Q(x) is the quotient and R(x) is the remainder.
A (x)
A (x)
P (x)
R (x )
# A (x ) = Q ( x ) # A ( x ) +
# A ( x)
A (x )
A (x )
P ]x g = A ]x g $ Q ]x g + R ]x g
The division continues until the remainder can no longer be broken down
further by division.
The degree of remainder R(x) is always less than the degree

of the divisor A(x).
Proof
Suppose the degree of R(x) is higher than the degree of A(x).
This means that R(x) can be divided by A(x).
R 1(x)
R (x )
= Q 1 (x) +
A (x )
A (x )
R ] x g = A ] x g $ Q1] x g + R1] x g
So
= R2] x g
This gives P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R 2 ] x g .
669
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Divide P (x) = 3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3 by x - 2.
(b) Hence write P (x) in the form P (x) = A (x) Q (x) + R (x) .
(c) Show that P (2) is equal to the remainder.
Solution
(a) Step 1: Divide the leading term by x.
i.e. 3x 4 ' x = 3x 3
3x 3
x - 2 g 3 x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3
x - 2 is called the divisor.
Step 2: Multiply 3x 3 by (x - 2) and find the remainder by

subtraction.
i.e. 3x 3 (x - 2) = 3x 4 - 6x 3
3x 3
x - 2 g 3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3
3x 4 - 6x 3
5x 3
Step 3: Bring down the 7x 2 and divide 5x 3 by x.
3x 3 + 5x 2
x - 2 g 3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2 x + 3
3x 4 - 6x 3
5x 3 + 7x 2
Step 4: Multiply 5x 2 by (x - 2) and find the remainder by
subtraction.
i.e. 5x 2 ] x - 2 g = 5x 3 - 10x 2
3x 3 + 5x 2
x - 2 g 3x 4 - x 3 + 7 x 2 - 2 x + 3
3x 4 - 6x 3
5x 3 + 7x 2
5x 3 - 10x 2
17x 2
CONTINUED
670
The quotient is
3
2
3x + 5x + 17x + 32.
Continuing this way until we have finished, we will have

3x 3 + 5x 2 + 17x + 32
x - 2 g 3x 4 - x 3 + 7 x 2 - 2 x + 3
3x 4 - 6x 3
5x 3 + 7x 2
5x 3 - 10x 2
17x 2 - 2x
17x 2 - 34x
32x + 3
32x - 64
67
The remainder is 67.
(b) This means that (3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3) ' (x - 2)

= (3x 3 + 5x 2 + 17x + 32), remainder 67
3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3
67
= 3x 3 + 5x 2 + 17x + 32 +
x-2
x-2
or 3x 4 - x 3 + 7x 2 - 2x + 3 = (x - 2) (3x 3 + 5x 2 + 17x + 32) + 67
i.e.
i.e. P (x) = A (x) Q (x) + R (x) where A (x) is the divisor, Q (x) is the quotient
and R (x) is the remainder.
(c) P (2) = 3 (2) 4 - 2 3 + 7 (2) 2 - 2 (2) + 3
= 48 - 8 + 28 - 4 + 3
= 67
` P (2) is equal to the remainder.
2. Divide x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4 by x 2 - x.
Solution
Check this is true by

expanding and
simplifying.
x-2
x 2 - x g x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4
x3 - x2
- 2x 2 + x
- 2x 2 + 2x
-x + 4
This means that
(x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4) ' (x 2 - x) = (x - 2), remainder - x + 4
x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4
-x + 4
=x-2+ 2
i.e.
2
x -x
x -x
or
x 3 - 3x 2 + x + 4 = (x - 2) (x 2 - x) + (- x + 4)
671
3. Divide x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x + 15 by x 2 + 3.
Solution
x 3 - 2x + 5
x + 3 g x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6 x +
x 5 + 3x 3
- 2x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x
- 2x 3
- 6x
2
5x
+
2
5x
+
2
15
15
15
0
R (x) = 0, so there is no
remainder.
This means that

(x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x + 15) ' (x 2 + 3) = (x 3 - 2x + 5)
x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x + 15
i.e.
= x 3 - 2x + 5
x2 + 3
or
x 5 + x 3 + 5x 2 - 6x + 15 = (x 3 - 2x + 5) (x 2 + 3)
12.2
Exercises
Divide the following polynomials

and put them in the form
P (x) = A (x) Q (x) + R (x) .
(3x 2 + 2x + 5) ' (x + 4)
2.
(x 2 - 7x + 4) ' (x - 1)
3.
( x + x + 2 x - 1) ' ( x - 3 )
4.
(4x + 2x - 3) ' (2x + 3)
5.
(x - 5x + x + 2) ' (x + 3x)
6.
(x + x - x - 3) ' (x - 2)
7.
(5x - 2x + 3x + 1) ' (x + x)
8.
(x - x - 2x + x - 3) ' (x + 4)
9.
(2x 4 - 5x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x - 5) '
(x 2 - 2x)
12. (x 4 - 2x 3 - x 2 - 2) ' (x 2 - x)
13. (3x 5 - 2x 4 - 3x 3 + x 2 - x - 1) '
(x + 2 )
1.
11. (6x 2 - 3x + 1) ' (3x - 2)
10. (4x 3 - 2x 2 + 6x - 1) ' (2x + 1)
14. (x 2 + 5x - 2) ' (x + 1)
15. (x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x + 4) ' (x - 3)
16. (2x 4 - x 3 + 5) ' (x 2 - 2x)
17. (x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 1) ' (x 2 + 5)
18. (2x 3 + 4x 2 - x + 8) ' (x 2 + 3x + 2)
19. (x 4 - 2x 3 + 4x 2 + 2x + 5) '
(x 2 + 2x - 1)
20. (3x 5 - 2x 3 + x - 1) ' (x + 1)
Check this by expanding

and simplifying.
672
Remainder and Factor Theorems

Dividing polynomials helps us to factorise them, which in turn makes
sketching their graphs easier.
There are two theorems that will also help us to work with polynomials.
Remainder theorem
If a polynomial P(x) is divided by x - a, then the remainder is P(a)
Proof
The degree of R(x) is less than
the degree of A(x).
P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R ] x g where A ] x g = x - a
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + R ]x g
The degree of A(x) is 1, so the degree of R(x) must be 0.
So
R ] x g = k where k is a constant
`
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + k
Substituting
x = a:
P ]a g = ]a - a gQ ]a g + k
= 0 $ Q ]x g + k
=k
So P ] a g is the remainder.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the remainder when 3x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x + 1 is divided by x - 2.
Solution
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x - a is P(a).
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x - 2 is P(2).
P ] 2 g = 3 ] 2 g4 - 2 ] 2 g2 + 5 ] 2 g + 1
= 51
So the remainder is 51.
2. Evaluate m if the remainder is 4 when dividing 2x 4 + mx + 5 by x + 3.
Solution
x + 3 = x - (- 3) .
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x + 3 is P ^ -3 h .

So
P ] -3 g = 4
4
2 ] - 3 g + m ] -3 g + 5 = 4
162 - 3m + 5 = 4
167 - 3m = 4
167 = 3m + 4
163 = 3m
54
1
= m.
3
Factor theorem
The factor theorem is a direct result of the remainder theorem.
For a polynomial P(x), if P ] a g = 0 then x - a is a factor of the polynomial.
Proof
P ] x g = A ] x g $ Q ] x g + R ] x g where A ] x g = x - a
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + R ]x g
The remainder when P(x) is divided by x - a is P(a).
So P ] x g = ] x - a g Q ] x g + P ] a g
But if P ] a g = 0:
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g + 0
= ]x - a gQ ]x g
So x - a is a factor of P(x).
For a polynomial P(x), if x - a is a factor of the polynomial, then P ] a g = 0
Proof
If x - a is a factor of P(x), then we can write:
P ]x g = ]x - a gQ ]x g
This means that when P(x) is divided by x - a, the quotient is Q(x) and there is
no remainder.
So P ] a g = 0
673
674
EXAMPLE
(a) Show that x - 1 is a factor of P ] x g = x 3 - 7x 2 + 8x - 2.
(b) Divide P(x) by x - 1 and write P(x) in the form P ] x g = ] x - 1 g Q ] x g.
Solution
(a) The remainder when dividing the polynomial by x - 1 is P(1)
P ] 1 g = 1 3 - 7 ] 1 g2 + 8 ] 1 g - 2
=0
So x - 1 is a factor of P(x).
(b)
x 2 - 6x +
x - 1 g x 3 - 7x 2 +
x3 - x2
- 6x 2 +
- 6x 2 +
Notice that x 2 - 6x + 2
wont factorise.
2
8x - 2
8x
6x
2x - 2
2x - 2
0
3
2
]
g
So P x = x - 7x + 8x - 2
= ] x - 1 g ^ x 2 - 6x + 2 h
Further properties of a polynomial

Some properties of polynomials come from the remainder and factor
theorems.
If polynomial P(x) has k distinct zeros a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a k, then

(x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a k) is a factor of P(x)
Proof
If a1 is a zero of P(x) then (x - a 1) is a factor of P(x).
Similarly, if a k is a zero of P(x) then (x - a k) is a factor of P(x).
` P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a k) g ] x g
So (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a k) is a factor of P ] x g .
If polynomial P(x) has degree n and n distinct zeros a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a n,

then P ] x g = p n (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n)
Proof
Since a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a n are zeros of P(x), (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n) is a
factor of the polynomial.
So P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n)Q(x)
But (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n) has degree n and P(x) has degree n so
Q(x) must be a constant.
` P ] x g = p n (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n)
A polynomial of degree n cannot have more than n distinct real zeros.
Proof
P(x) has degree n
So P ] x g = p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 where p n ! 0
Suppose P(x) has more than n distinct zeros, say n + 1
Then (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n + 1) is a factor of P(x).
So P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n + 1) Q ] x g.
But this gives P(x) at least degree n + 1, and P(x) only has degree n.
So the polynomial cannot have more than n distinct real zeros.
This also means that the polynomial equation cannot have more than n real roots.
EXAMPLE
If a polynomial has degree 2, show that it cannot have 3 zeros.
Solution
Let P ] x g = p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 where p 2 ! 0
Assume P(x) has 3 zeros, a1, a2 and a3
Then _ x - a 1 i _ x - a 2 i _ x - a 3 i is a factor of the polynomial.
` P (x) = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) Q (x)
But this polynomial has degree 3 and P(x) only has degree 2.
So P(x) cannot have 3 zeros.
A polynomial of degree n with more than n distinct real zeros is the

zero polynomial P ] x g = 0 ( p 0 = p 1 = p 2 = ... = p n = 0)
Proof
Let P(x) be a polynomial of degree n with zeros a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a n
Then P ] x g = (x - a 1) (x - a 2) (x - a 3) ... (x - a n) k
675
676
Suppose P(x) has another distinct zero a n + 1

Then P _ a n + 1 i = 0
`(a n + 1 - a 1) (a n + 1 - a 2) (a n + 1 - a 3) ... (a n + 1 - a n) k = 0
But a n + 1 ! a 1, a 2, a 3, ... a n since all zeros are distinct.
So k = 0
`P ] x g = 0
If two polynomials of degree n are equal for more than n distinct values
of x, then the coefficients of like powers of x are equal.
That is, if a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n / b 0 + b 1 x + b 2 x 2 + ... + b n x n
then a 0 = b 0, a 1 = b 1, a 2 = b 2, ... a n = b n
Proof
Let A ] x g = a 0 + a 1 x + a 2 x 2 + ... + a n x n
and B ] x g = b 0 + b 1 x + b 2 x 2 + ... + b n x n
where A ] x g = B ] x g for more than n distinct x values.
Let P ] x g = A ] x g - B ] x g
Then P ] x g = (a 0 - b 0) + (a 1 - b 1) x + (a 2 - b 2) x 2 + ... + (a n - b n) x n
and P(x) has degree n.
If A ] x g = B ] x g for more than n distinct x values, then A ] x g - B ] x g = 0 for more
You learned a special case of this result

in Chapter 10 under quadratic identities.
This is a more general result for all
polynomials.
than n distinct x values.

This means P ] x g = 0 for more than n distinct x values.
This means that P(x) has more than n zeros.
` P(x) is the zero polynomial
P ]xg = 0
(a 0 - b 0) + (a 1 - b 1) x + (a 2 - b 2) x 2 + ... + (a n - b n) x n = 0
So a 0 - b 0 = 0, a 1 - b 1 = 0, a 2 - b 2 = 0, ..., a n - b n = 0
` a 0 = b 0, a 1 = b 1, a 2 = b 2, ..., a n = b n
EXAMPLE
Write x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 in the form ax 3 + b ] x + 3 g2 + c ] x + 3 g + d.
Solution
ax 3 + b ] x + 3 g2 + c (x + 3) + d = ax 3 + b ^ x 2 + 6x + 9 h + c ] x + 3 g + d
= ax 3 + bx 2 + 6bx + 9b + cx + 3c + d
= ax 3 + bx 2 + ] 6b + c g x + 9b + 3c + d
For
x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 / ax 3 + b ] x + 3 g2 + c ] x + 3 g + d
677
]1 g
a=1
b = -2
6b + c = 0
9b + 3c + d = 5
]2 g
]3 g
]4 g

6 ] -2 g + c = 0
- 12 + c = 0
c = 12
Substitute b = - 2 and c = 12 into (4):
9 ] - 2 g + 3 ] 12 g + d
-18 + 36 + d
18 + d
d
=5
=5
=5
= -13
` x 3 - 2x 2 + 5 / x 3 - 2 ] x + 3 g2 + 12 ] x + 3 g - 13.
If x - a is a factor of polynomial P(x), then a is a factor of the constant

term of the polynomial.
Proof
Let P ] x g = p n x n + p n - 1 x n - 1 + p n - 2 x n - 2 + f + p 2 x 2 + p 1 x + p 0 where p n ! 0
If x - a is a factor of P(x) we can write
P ] x g = ] x - a g Q ] x g where Q(x) has degree n - 1.
P ] x g = ] x - a g _ q n - 1 x n - 1 + q n - 2 x n - 2 + g + q 2 x 2 + q 1 x + q 0 i where q n - 1 ! 0
= xq n - 1 x n - 1 + xq n - 2 x n - 2 + g + xq 1 x + xq 0
- aq n - 1 x n - 1 - aq n - 2 x n - 2 - g - aq 2 x 2 - aq 1 x - aq 0
= q n - 1 x n + q n - 2 x n - 1 + g + q 1 x 2 + q 0 x - aq n - 1 x n - 1 - aq n - 2 x n - 2 - g
- aq 2 x 2 - aq 1 x - aq 0
= q n - 1 x n + _ q n - 2 - a i x n - 1 + g + _ q 1 - a i x 2 + _ q 0 - a i x - aq 0
` p 0 = - aq 0
So a is a factor of p0.
We already use this when

factorising a trinomial.
This is a more general
result for all polynomials.
678
EXAMPLE
Factorise x 2 + 2x - 15.
Solution
Factors of -15 are - 3# 5, 3# - 5, -1#15, 1# -15.
We choose - 3# 5 since - 3x + 5x = 2x, the middle term.
So x 2 + 2x - 15 = ] x - 3 g ] x + 5 g.
To factorise polynomials in general, we also look for factors of the constant term.
Class Investigation
Why are factors of the polynomial factors of the constant term? Use the
knowledge you have of trinomials to help you in your discussion.
EXAMPLES
1. Find all factors of f (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x - 12.
Solution
Try factors of - 12 (i.e. !1, !2, !3, !4, !6, !12) .
e.g. f (1) = 1 3 + 3 (1) 2 - 4 (1) - 12
= -12
!0
` x - 1 is not a factor of f (x)
x - 2 is called a linear
factor as it has degree 1.
f (2) = 2 3 + 3 (2) 2 - 4 (2) - 12

=0
Since f (2) = 0, the remainder when f (x) is divided by x - 2 is 0.
` x - 2 is a factor of f (x) .
We divide f (x) by x - 2 to nd other factors:
x 2 + 5x + 6
x - 2 g x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x - 12
x 3 - 2x 2
5x 2 - 4x
5x 2 - 10x
6x - 12
6x - 12
0
679
` f (x) = (x - 2) (x 2 + 5x + 6)
= (x - 2) (x + 2) (x + 3)
2. Find all factors of P (x) = x 3 + 3x 2 + 5x + 15.
Solution
Try factors of 15 (i.e.!1, !3, !5, !15) .
e.g. P (- 3) = (- 3) 3 + 3 (- 3) 2 + 5 (- 3) + 15
=0
` x + 3 is a factor of f (x)
We divide P (x) by x + 3 to find other factors:
+5
x2
x + 3 g x + 3x + 5x + 15
x 3 + 3x 2
0 + 5x + 15
5x + 15
3
x 2 + 5 will not factorise for

any real x.
` P (x) = (x + 3) (x + 5)
2
12.3 Exercises
1.
Use the remainder theorem

to find the remainder in each
question.
(a) (x 3 - 2x 2 + x + 5) ' (x - 4)
(c) the remainder is 0 when

2x 5 + 7x 2 + 1 + k is divided by
x + 6.
(d) 2x 4 - kx 3 + 3x 2 + x is divisible
by x - 3.
(e) the remainder is 25 when
2x 4 - 3x 2 + 5 is divided by x - k.
(b) (x 2 + 5x + 3) ' (x + 2)
(c) (2x 3 - 4x - 1) ' (x + 3)
(d) (3x 5 + 2x 2 - x + 4) ' (x - 5)
(e) (5x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x - 9) ' (x - 1)
3.
(a) Find the remainder when

f (x) = x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 6 is divided
by x - 2.
(b) Is x - 2 a factor of f (x) ?
(c) Divide x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 6
by x - 2.
(d) Factorise f (x) fully and write
f (x) as a product of its factors.
4.
(a) Show that x + 3 is a factor of

P (x) = x 4 + 3x 3 - 9x 2 - 27x.
(b) Divide P (x) by x + 3 and
write P (x) as a product of its
factors.
(f) (x - x + 3x - x - 1) ' (x + 2)
4
(g) (2x 2 + 7x - 2) ' (x + 7)

(h) (x 7 + 5x 3 - 1) ' (x - 3)
(i) (2x 6 - 3x 2 + x + 4) ' (x + 5)
(j) (3x 4 - x 3 - x 2 - x - 7) ' (x + 1)
2.
Find the value of k if

(a) the remainder is 3 when
5x 2 - 10x + k is divided by x - 1.
(b) the remainder is - 4 when
x 3 - (k - 1) x 2 + 5kx + 4 is divided
by x + 2.
680
5.
The remainder is 5 when

P (x) = ax 3 - 4bx 2 + x - 4
is divided by x - 3 and the
remainder is 2 when P (x) is
divided by x + 1. Find the values
of a and b.
6.
When f (x) = ax 2 - 3x + 1 and

g (x) = x 3 - 3x 2 + 2 are divided
by x + 1 they leave the same
remainder. Find the value of a.
7.
(a) Show that x - 3 is not a factor

of P (x) = x 5 - 2x 4 + 7x 2 - 3x + 5.
(b) Find a value of k such
that x - 3 is a factor of
Q (x) = 2x 3 - 5x + k.
Linear factors are in the

form x - a.
8.
9.
The polynomial
P (x) = x 3 + ax 2 + bx + 2 has
factors x + 1 and x - 2. Find the
values of a and b.
(a) The remainder, when
f (x) = ax 4 + bx 3 + 15x 2 + 9x + 2
is divided by x - 2, is 216, and
x + 1 is a factor of f (x) . Find a
and b.
(b) Divide f (x) by x + 1 and
write the polynomial in the form
f (x) = (x + 1) g (x) .
(c) Show that x + 1 is a factor
of g (x) .
(d) Write f (x) as a product of its
factors.
10. Write each polynomial as a

product of its factors.
(a) x 2 - 2x - 8
(b) x 3 + x 2 - 2x
(c) x 3 + x 2 - 10x + 8
(d) x 3 + 4x 2 - 11x - 30
(e) x 3 - 11x 2 + 31x - 21
(f) x - 12x + 17x + 90
3
(g) x 3 - 7x 2 + 16x - 12
(h) x 4 + 6x 3 + 9x 2 + 4x
(i) x 3 + 3x 2 - 4
(j) x 3 - 7x - 6
11. (a) Write P (x) = x 3 - 7x + 6 as a

(b) What are the zeros of P (x) ?
(c) Is (x - 2) (x + 3) a factor
of P (x) ?
12. If
f (x) = x 4 + 10x 3 + 23x 2 - 34x - 120
has zeros - 5 and 2
(a) show (x + 5) (x - 2) is a factor
of f (x)
(b) write f (x) as a product of its
linear factors.
13. If
P (x) = x 4 + 3x 3 - 13x 2 - 51x - 36
has zeros - 3 and 4, write P (x) as
a product of its linear factors.
14. (a) Show that
P (x) = x 3 - 3x 2 - 34x + 120 has
zeros - 6 and 5.
(b) Write P (x) as a product of its
linear factors.
15. (a) Write the polynomial
P ] u g = u 3 - 4u 2 + 5u - 2 as a
(b) Hence or otherwise, solve
] x - 1 g3 - 4 ] x - 1 g2 + 5 ] x - 1 g - 2 = 0.
16. (a) Write the polynomial
f ^ p h = p 3 - 2p 2 - 5p + 6 as a
] 2x + 1 g3 - 2 ] 2x + 1 g2 - 5 ] 2x + 1 g + 6 = 0.
17. (a) Write P ] k g = 2k 3 + 3k 2 - 1 as
a product of its factors.
2 sin 3 x + 3 sin 2 x - 1 = 0 for
0c # x # 360c.
18. (a) Write
f ] u g = u 3 - 13u 2 + 39u - 27 as a
3 3x - 13.3 2x + 39.3 x - 27 = 0.
19. Solve
] x + 4 g4 - ] x + 4 g3 - 2 ] x + 4 g2 = 0.
20. Solve 2 cos 3 i - cos 2 i - cos i = 0

for 0c# x # 360c.
21. Evaluate a, b, c and d if
(a) x 3 + 3x 2 - 2x + 1 /
ax 3 + b ] x - 1 g2 + cx + d
(b) x 3 - x 2 + 4x /
ax 3 + b ] x + 2 g2 + c ] x + 2 g + d
(c) 2x 3 - x + 7 /
ax 3 + b ] x + 1 g2 + c ] x + 1 g + d + 2
(d) x 3 + x 2 + 5x - 3 /
ax 3 + b ] x - 3 g2 + cx + d
(e) 4x 3 - x + 3 /
] a + 1 g x 3 + b ] x + 4 g2 +
c ]x + 4 g + d - 1
(f) x 3 + x 2 - 8x - 6 /
ax 3 + b ] x - 2 g2 + cx + d - 3
(g) 3x 3 - 2x 2 + x /
] a - 2 g x 3 + b ] x - 5 g2 +
c ]x - 5g + d - 2
(h) - x 3 + x 2 - 4x - 2 /
a ] x + 1 g3 + bx 2 + cx + d
(i) - 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 1 /
2ax 3 + b ] x - 1 g2 + cx + d
(j) - x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 3 /
a ] x - 2 g3 + b ] x - 2 g2 +
c ]x - 2 g + d + 1
22. A monic polynomial of degree
3 has zeros - 3, 0 and 4. Find the
polynomial.
23. Polynomial
P ] x g = ax 3 - bx 2 + cx - 8 has
zeros 2 and - 1 and P ] 3 g = 28.
24. A polynomial with leading term
2x4 has zeros - 2, 0, 1 and 3. Find
the polynomial.
25. Show that a polynomial of degree
3 cannot have 4 zeros.
Graph of a Polynomial
We can use the graphing techniques that you have learned to sketch the graph
of a polynomial.
Using intercepts
Finding the zeros of a polynomial or the roots of the polynomial equation
helps us to sketch its graph.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Write the polynomial P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x as a product of its factors.
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial.
Solution
(a) P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
= x ^ x2 + x - 6 h
= x ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
(b) For the graph of P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
CONTINUED
681
682
0 = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
= x ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x = 0,
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3,
x=2
So x-intercepts are 0, - 3 and 2.
For y-intercepts: x = 0
P ] 0 g = 0 3 + ] 0 g2 - 6 ] 0 g
=0
So y-intercept is 0.
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
We look at which parts of the graphs are above and which are below the
x-axis between the x-intercepts.
Test x 1 - 3, say x = - 4:
P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 6x
= x ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
P ]-4 g = -4 ]-4 + 3 g]-4 - 2 g
= -4 ]-1 g]-6 g
= - 24
10
So the curve is below the x-axis.
Test - 3 1 x 1 0, say x = - 1:
P ] - 1 g = - 1 ] - 1 + 3 g ] -1 - 2 g
= -1 ]2 g]-3 g
=6
20
So the curve is above the x-axis.
683
Test 0 1 x1 2, say x = 1:
P ]1g = 1]1 + 3g]1 - 2g
= 1]4g]-1g
= -4
10
Test x 2 2, say x = 3:
P ]3g = 3]3 + 3g]3 - 2g
= 3]6g]1g
= 18
20
We can sketch the polynomial as shown.
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
2. (a) Write the polynomial P ] x g = x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3 as a product of its

factors.
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial.
Solution
(a) Factors of - 3 are ! 1 and ! 3.
P ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 - ] -1 g2 - 5 ] -1 g - 3
=0
CONTINUED
Later on, in a class investigation

in this chapter you will learn
how to make the graph
more accurate by finding the
maximum and minimum points.
This is a topic in the HSC Course.
684
So x + 1 is a factor of the polynomial.

x 2 - 2x - 3
x + 1 g x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3
x3 + x2
-2x2 - 5x
-2x2 - 2x
-3x - 3
-3x - 3
0
P ]x g = ]x +
= ]x +
= ]x +
1 g ^ x 2 - 2x - 3 h
1 g]x - 3 g]x + 1 g
1 g2 ] x - 3 g
(b) For the graph of P ] x g = x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3

0 = x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3
= ] x + 1 g2 ] x - 3 g
] x + 1 g2 = 0,
x-3=0
x+1=0
x=3
x = -1
So x-intercepts are - 1 and 3.
For y-intercepts: x = 0
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
P ] 0 g = 0 3 - ] 0 g2 - 5 ] 0 g - 3
= -3
-2
So y-intercept is - 3.
-4
-3
We look at which parts of the graphs are above and which are below the
x-axis between the x-intercepts.
Test x 1 -1, say x = - 2:
P ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2 - x + 3
= ] x + 1 g2 ] x - 3 g
P ] - 2 g = ] - 2 + 1 g2 ] - 2 - 3 g
= ] - 1 g2 ] - 5 g
= -5
10
Test -11 x 1 3, say x = 0:
P ] 0 g = ] 0 + 1 g2 ] 0 - 3 g
= ] 1 g2 ] - 3 g
= -3
10

Test x 2 3, say x = 4:
P ] 4 g = ] 4 + 1 g2 ] 4 - 3 g
= ] 5 g2 ] 1 g
= 25
20
We can sketch the polynomial as shown.
y
4
3
2
1
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-7
12.4 Exercises
1.
Sketch the graph of each

polynomial by nding its zeros
and showing the x- and
y-intercepts.
(a) f ] x g = ] x + 1 g ] x - 2 g ] x - 3 g
(b) P ] x g = x ] x + 4 g ] x - 2 g
2.
(i) Write each polynomial as a

product of its factors
(ii) Sketch the graph of the
polynomial
(a) P ] x g = x 3 - 2x 2 - 8x
(c) p ] x g = - x ] x - 1 g ] x - 3 g
(d) f ] x g = x ] x + 2 g2
(b) f ] x g = - x 3 - 4x 2 + 5x
(c) P ] x g = x 4 + 3x 3 + 2x 2
(d) A ] x g = 2x 3 + x 2 - 15x
(e) g ] x g = ] 5 - x g ] x + 2 g ] x + 5 g
(e) P ] x g = - x 4 + 2x 3 + 3x 2
685
686
3.
4.
5.
(a) Find the x-intercepts of the

polynomial P ] x g = x 4 + 3x 3 - 4x.
(b) Sketch the graph of the
polynomial.
(a) Show that x - 2 is a factor of
P ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2 - 4x + 12.
(b) Write P(x) as a product of its
factors.
(c) Sketch the graph of the
polynomial.
(a) P ] x g = x 3 + 3x 2 - 10x - 24
(b) P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 9x - 9
(c) P ] x g = 12 - 19x + 8x 2 - x 3
(d) P ] x g = x 3 - 13x + 12
(e) P ] x g = - x 3 + 2x 2 + 9x - 18
(f) P ] x g = x 3 + 2x 2 - 4x - 8
(g) P ] x g = x 3 - 5x 2 + 8x - 4
(h) P ] x g = x 3 + x 2 - 5x + 3
(i) f (x) = 16x + 12x 2 - x 4
(j) P ] x g = x 4 - 2x 2 + 1
Sketch the graph of each

polynomial, showing all x- and
y-intercepts.
Class Investigation
The graphs in the examples above are not very accurate, as we dont know
where they turn around. We can use calculus to help find these points.
You will look at the
applications of calculus in
sketching graphs in the HSC
Course.
You used the axis of symmetry to find the minimum and maximum
values of quadratic functions in Chapter 10. You can also use calculus to
find the minimum or maximum turning points of functions.
You looked at the gradient

of tangents to a curve in
Chapter 8.
Notice that the graph below has both a maximum and minimum turning
point. We can find these by looking at the gradient of the tangents
dy
around the curve, or
.
dx
y
Maximum turning point
Minimum turning point
Notice that at both these turning points,
dy
dx
= 0.
We can also examine each type of turning point more closely.

Maximum turning point:
The maximum turning point has a zero gradient at the point itself but
notice that it has a positive gradient on the left-hand side and a negative
gradient on the right-hand side.
dy
dy
So
2 0 on the LHS and
1 0 on the RHS.
dx
dx
Minimum turning point:
The minimum turning point has a zero gradient at the point itself but it
has a negative gradient on the left-hand side and a positive gradient on
the right-hand side.
dy
dy
So
1 0 on the LHS and
2 0 on the RHS.
dx
dx
CONTINUED
687
688
There is also another type of point that you see in graphs such as f ] x g = x 3.
This is called a point of inexion and has
dy
dx
= 0.
However, the gradient has the same sign on both the LHS and RHS.
These three types of points are called stationary points.
We can use them to sketch the graph of a polynomial. Here is an example.
Sketch the polynomial P ] x g = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 12x - 7 showing any stationary
points.
dy
dx
= 6x 2 + 6x - 12
For stationary points
dy
dx
= 0:
6x 2 + 6x - 12 = 0
6 ^ x2 + x - 2 h = 0
6 ]x - 1 g]x + 2 g = 0
x - 1 = 0, x + 2 = 0
x = 1,
x = -2
So there are two stationary points when x = 1, - 2.
] 1 g When x = 1
P ] 1 g = 2 ] 1 g3 + 3 ] 1 g2 - 12 ] 1 g - 7
= -14
So there is a stationary point at ^ 1, -14 h.
We can check the gradient on the LHS and RHS of this point to determine
if it is a maximum or minimum turning point.
When x = 0
dy
= 6 (0) 2 + 6 (0) - 12
dx
= -12
When x = 2
dy
= 6 (2) 2 + 6 (2) - 12
dx
= 24
dy
-12
24
dx
Since
dy
1 0 on the LHS and
dx
turning point.
dy
dx
2 0 on the RHS, ^ 1, -14 h is a minimum
] 2 g When x = - 2
P ] - 2 g = 2 ] - 2 g3 + 3 ] - 2 g2 - 12 ] - 2 g - 7
= 13
So there is a stationary point at ^ - 2, 13 h.
Check the gradient on the LHS and RHS of this point.
When x = - 3
dy
= 6 (- 3) 2 + 6 (- 3) - 12
dx
= 24
When x = -1
dy
= 6 (-1) 2 + 6 (-1) - 12
dx
= -12
x
dy
dx
Since
dy
dx
-3
-2
-1
24
-2
2 0 on the LHS and
dy
dx
1 0 on the RHS, ^ - 2, 13 h is a maximum
turning point.
Now we look for intercepts.
0 = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 12x - 7
The expression 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 12x - 7 will not factorise so we cannot find
the x-intercepts.
P ] x g = 2 ] 0 g3 + 3 ] 0 g2 - 12 ] 0 g - 7
= -7
So the y-intercept is - 7.
CONTINUED
Factors of - 7 are !1
and !7 and none of
these factors will satisfy
the polynomial equation.
689
690
We sketch the polynomial using the stationary points and y-intercept.

y
(-2, 13)
x
-7
(1, -14)
Can you sketch the following polynomials using calculus to find their
stationary points?
1. P ] x g = x 2 + 6x - 3
2. P ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 1
3. p ] x g = x 3 - 5
4. f ] x g = x 4 + 2
5. g ] x g = 2x 3 + 3x 2 - 1
6. P ] x g = 2x 3 - 21x 2 + 72x - 12
7. f ] x g = - 2x 3 + 9x 2 - 12x + 4
8. P ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 5
9. A ] x g = x 4 + 8x 3 - 18x 2 - 7
10. Q ] x g = - 3x 4 + 20x 3 - 48x 2 + 48x - 3
You may have noticed some of these properties while sketching the graphs of
polynomials.
Limiting behaviour of polynomials

The limiting behaviour of a function describes what happens to the function as
x " !3.
For very large x , P (x) . p n x n
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to explore the
behaviour of polynomials as x becomes large (both negative and positive
values).
For example, sketch f ] x g = 2x 5 + 3x 2 - 7x - 1 and f ] x g = 2x 5 together.
What do you notice at both ends of the graphs where x is large? Zoom
out on these graphs and watch the graph of the polynomial and the
graph of the leading term come together.
Try sketching other polynomials along with their leading term as
different graphs. Do you find the same results?
So the leading term shows us what its limiting behaviour will be.
If the degree of a polynomial P(x) is even and the leading coefficient is
positive, then the polynomial will be positive as x becomes large.
This means that for any polynomial with a positive leading coefficient
and even degree, P ] x g " 3 as x " !3.
On the graph, both ends of the graph will go up as shown by the
examples below.
y
All positive or negative

values of x to an even
power will always be
positive.
691
692
If the degree of a polynomial P(x) is even and the leading coefficient is

negative, then the polynomial will be negative as x becomes large.
This means that for any polynomial with a negative leading coefficient
and even degree, P ] x g " - 3 as x " ! 3.
On the graph, both ends of the graph will go down as shown by the
examples below.
y
If P(x) is an odd degree polynomial with positive leading coefficient, then

as x becomes a very large positive value, P(x) will also be positive. As x becomes
a very large negative value, P(x) will also be negative.
This means that P ] x g " - 3 as x " - 3 and P ] x g " 3 as x " 3.
On the graph, the end of the graph on the LHS will go down and the end
on the RHS will go up as shown in the examples.
y
693
694
If P(x) is an odd degree polynomial with negative leading coefficient, then

as x becomes a very large positive value, P(x) will be negative. As x becomes
a very large negative value, P(x) will be positive.
This means that P ] x g " 3 as x " - 3 and P ] x g " - 3 as x " 3.
On the graph, the end of the graph on the LHS will go up and the end on
the RHS will go down as shown in the examples.
y
695
696
If P(x) has even degree, the ends of the graph both go the same way.
y
Leading coefficient 2 0
y
If P(x) has odd degree, the ends of the graph both go different ways.
y
A polynomial of odd degree always has at least one real zero.
This comes from the results above. A polynomial with odd degree will go
up at one end and down the other as x becomes large. This means that it must
cross the x-axis at least once.
` the polynomial must have at least one real zero.
At least one maximum or minimum value of P(x) occurs

between any two distinct real zeros.
You can see this on a graph. If there are two distinct real zeros of a
polynomial, then they will show up on the graph as two x-intercepts since the
zeros make P ] x g = 0.
When the graph passes through one x-intercept, say x1, it must turn
around again to pass through the other x-intercept x2 as shown in the
examples below. So there must be at least one maximum or minimum value
between the zeros.
y
x1
x2
x1
x2
x1
x2
Multiple roots
In quadratic functions, you saw that if a quadratic expression is a perfect
square, it has equal roots (and the discriminant is zero).
697
698
EXAMPLE
Solve x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0.
Solution
x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
]x - 1g]x - 1g = 0
] x - 1 g2 = 0
x - 1 = 0,
x = 1,
x -1= 0
x =1
The solution is x = 1 but we say that there are two equal roots.
If P(x) has two equal roots at x = a then we can write P ] x g = ] x - a g2 Q ] x g

We say that the polynomial has a double root at x = a.
If P ] x g = ] x - a g3 Q ] x g, the polynomial has a triple root at x = a. There are
three equal roots at x = a.
If P ] x g = ] x - a gn Q ] x g, the polynomial has a multiple root at

x=a
It has n equal roots at x = a
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = ] x + 2 g2.
Solution
This graph is f ] x g = x 2 translated 2 units to the left.
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0
-1
-2
-3
-4
See class investigations
on pages 686690.
Notice that there is a minimum turning point at the root x = - 2.
699
2. Sketch the graph of F ] x g = ] x - 1 g3.
Solution
This is the graph of F ] x g = x 3 translated 1 unit to the right.
y
8
6
4
2
-4
-3
-2
-1 0
-2
-4
-6
-8
See class investigations
on pages 686690.
Notice that there is a point of inflexion at the root x = 1.
Generally, a graph cuts the x-axis at a single root but touches the x-axis at
a multiple root in a special way.
EXAMPLE
(a) Examine the polynomial P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g close to the roots.
(b) Describe the behaviour of the polynomial as x becomes very large.
(c) Draw a sketch of the polynomial showing its roots.
Solution
(a) P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g has roots when P ] x g = 0.
] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g = 0
x + 2 = 0, x - 1 = 0
x = - 2,
x=1
Notice that there is a double root at x = - 2.

Look at the sign of P(x) close to x = 1:
When x = 0.9
P ] 0.9 g = ] 0.9 + 2 g2 ] 0.9 - 1 g
= +#=So the curve is below the x-axis on the LHS.
CONTINUED
700
When x = 1.1
P ] 1.1 g = ] 1.1 + 2 g2 ] 1.1 - 1 g
= +#+
=+
So the curve is above the x-axis on the RHS.
Look at the sign of P(x) close to x = - 2:
When x = - 2.1
P ] - 2.1 g = ] - 2.1 + 2 g2 ] - 2.1 - 1 g
= +#=So the curve is below the x-axis on the LHS.
When x = - 1.9
P ] - 1.9 g = ] - 1.9 + 2 g2 ] - 1.9 - 1 g
= +#=So the curve is below the x-axis on the RHS.
At the single root x = 1, the curve passes through the root from
below the x-axis to above the x-axis.
At the double root x = - 2, the curve touches the x-axis from below
and turns around and continues to be below the x-axis.
(b) Expanding P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g gives x3 as the leading term.
P ] x g = ] x + 2 g2 ] x - 1 g
= ^ x 2 + 4x + 4 h ] x - 1 g
There is no need to expand
the brackets fully as we only
need the leading term.
= x 3 - x 2 + 4x 2 - 4x + 4 x - 4
So the polynomial has degree 3 since the highest power is x3.
Also the leading coefficient is 1.
Since P(x) has odd degree and a positive leading coefficient, as x becomes
a larger positive number, P ] x g "3 and as x becomes a larger negative
number, P ] x g " -3.
(c)
-2
701
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or graphing computer software to draw graphs
with multiple roots.
(a) Examine values close to the roots.
(b) Look at the relationship between the degree of the polynomial, the
leading coefficient and its graph.
Here are some examples of polynomials but you could choose others to
examine.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
P ]xg = ]x + 1g]x - 3g
P ]xg = ]x + 1g2]x - 3g
P ]xg = -]x + 1g3]x - 3g
P ]xg = -]x + 1g4]x - 3g
P ]xg = ]x + 1g]x - 3g2
P ]xg = ]x + 1g]x - 3g3
P ]xg = -]x + 1g]x - 3g4
P ]xg = -]x + 1g2]x - 3g2
P ]xg = -]x + 1g2]x - 3g3
P ]xg = ]x + 1g3]x - 3g2
Where there is a multiple root, there is always a stationary point

(maximum, minimum or point of inflexion).
This means that
dy
dx
= 0 at that point.
If the root is at x = a, then we can write this as Pl(a) = 0 .
If P ] x g = ] x - a gn Q ] x g has a multiple root at x = a then P (a) = P l(a) = 0

There is a stationary point at x = a:
If n is even, there is a maximum or minimum turning point at x = a
If n is odd, there is a point of inflexion at x = a
Proof
P ] x g = ] x - a gn Q ] x g
P ] a g = ] a - a gn Q ] a g
= 0n $ Q ] x g
=0
See class
investigation on
pages 686690.
702
P l (x) = u lv + v lu
= n (x - a) n - 1 $ 1 $ Q (x) + Ql(x) $ (x - a) n
= n (x - a) n - 1 Q (x) + (x - a) n Ql(x)
P l (a) = n (a - a) n - 1 Q (a) + (a - a) n Ql(a)
= n $ 0 n - 1 $ Q (a) + 0 n $ Ql(a)
=0
` P (a) = P l (a) = 0
EXAMPLES
1. Draw a sketch of P ] x g = - x ] x - 3 g3 .
Solution
Roots of the polynomial equation P ] x g = 0:
- x ] x - 3 g3 = 0
x = 0, x - 3 = 0
x=3
There is a single root at x = 0 so the curve crosses the x-axis at this point.
There is a triple root at x = 3. Since n is odd, there is a point of inflexion
at x = 3.
P ] x g = - x ] x - 3 g3
There is no need to fully expand
the polynomial as we only want
to find the leading term.
= - x ^ x 3 - 9x 2 + 27x - 27 h
= - x4 f
Since x 4 is the leading term, P(x) has degree 4 and the leading coefficient
is negative.
So as x becomes large (both negative and positive) the value of
P ] x g " -3.
y
703
2. A polynomial has a double root at x = 5.

(a) Write an expression for the polynomial.
(b) Prove that P ] 5 g = P l (5) = 0.
Solution
(a) If P(x) has a double root at x = 5, then ] x - 5 g 2 is a factor
So P ] x g = ] x - 5 g 2Q ] x g
(b) P ] x g = ] x - 5 g 2Q ] x g
P ] 5 g = ] 5 - 5 g 2Q ] 5 g
= 02 #Q ] 5 g
=0
To find P l (5), first we differentiate P(x) using the product rule.
P l (x) = u lv + v lu
= 2 (x - 5) 1 $ 1 $ Q (x) + Q l (x) $ (x - 5) 2
= 2 ( x - 5 ) Q ( x ) + ( x - 5 ) 2 Q l (x )
2
P l ( 5 ) = 2 (5 - 5 ) Q ( 5 ) + (5 - 5 ) Q l ( 5 )
2
= 2 # 0 # Q (5 ) + 0 # Q l ( 5 )
=0
3. A monic polynomial has degree 5 and has a double root at a1 and a
triple root at a2. Draw a sketch of the polynomial where a 1 1 a 2 .
Solution
Since P(x) is monic and has degree 5, the leading term is x5.
We could write P ] x g = _ x - a 1 i 2 _ x - a 2 i 3.
Since the polynomial has odd degree and a positive leading coefficient, as
x becomes a positive large value, P ] x g " 3 and as x becomes a negative
large value, P ] x g " - 3.
The double root at x = a 1 gives a maximum or minimum turning point
and the triple root at x = a 2 means a point of inflexion.
Putting all this information together gives the graph below.
y
a1
a2
You learned this

rule in Chapter 4.
704
12.5 Exercises
1.
Find the roots of each polynomial

equation P (x) = 0 and state if
they are multiple roots.
(a) P ] x g = x 2 - 6x + 9
(b) P ] x g = x 3 - 9x 2 + 14x
(c) P ] x g = x 3 - 3x 2
(d) f ] x g = x 3 - 2x 2 - 4x + 8
(e) P ] x g = x 3 - 6x 2 + 12x - 8
(f) A ] x g = x 4 - 4x 3 + 5x 2 - 2x
(g) P ] x g = x 4 - 4x 3 - 2x 2 +
12x + 9
(h) Q ] x g = x 5 - 8x 4 + 16x 3
(i) P ] x g = x 4 + 2x 3 - 12x 2 +
14x - 5
(j) f ] x g = 8x 3 - 36x 2 + 54x - 27
(c)
(d)
2.
For each graph, state if

(i) the leading coefficient is
positive or negative and
(ii) the degree of the polynomial
is even or odd.
(a)
(e)
(b)
(f)
x
x
(g)
(b) If P ] 2 g = 5, write the

expression for the polynomial.
5.
Polynomial
P ] x g = x 3 - 7x 2 + 8x + 16 has a
double root at x = 4.
(a) Show that ] x - 4 g 2 is a factor
of P(x).
(b) Write P(x) as a product of its
factors.
(c) Prove P ] 4 g = P l(4) = 0.
6.
Polynomial
f ] x g = x 4 + 7x 3 + 9x 2 - 27x - 54
has a triple root at x = - 3.
(a) Show that ] x + 3 g3 is a factor
of f(x).
(b) Write f (x) as a product of its
factors.
(c) Prove f ] - 3 g = f l(- 3) = 0 .
7.
A polynomial has a triple root at

x = k and degree n.
(a) Write an expression for the
polynomial.
(b) Prove that P (k) = P l (k) = 0.
8.
Draw an example of a polynomial

with leading term
(a) x3
(b) - 2x 5
(c) 3x2
(d) - x 4
(e) - 2x 3
9.
Draw an example of a polynomial

with a double root at x = 2 and a
leading term of 2x3.
(h)
(i)
(j)
3.
4.
A monic polynomial of degree

2 has a double root at x = - 4.
Write down an expression for the
polynomial P(x). Is this a unique
expression?
A polynomial of degree 3 has a
triple root at x = 1.
(a) Write down an expression for
the polynomial. Is this unique?
10. Draw an example of a polynomial

with a double root at x = -1 and
leading term - x 3.
11. Sketch an example of a
polynomial with a double root at
x = 2 and a leading term of x4.
12. Draw an example of a polynomial
with a double root at x = - 3 and
leading term x 6 .
705
706
13. A polynomial has a triple root at

x = 1 and it has a leading term of
x3. Draw an example of a graph
showing this information.
14. Given a polynomial with a triple
root at x = 0 and leading term
- x 4, sketch a polynomial on
a number plane that fits this
information.
15. If a polynomial has a triple root
at x = - 2 and a leading term of
x8 sketch a polynomial fitting this
information.
16. A polynomial has a triple root
at x = 4 and its leading term is
- 4x 3 . Show this on a number
plane.
18. A polynomial with leading term

- x 8 has a triple root at x = - 2.
Show by a sketch that the
polynomial has at least one other
root in the domain x 2 - 2.
19. A polynomial has a double root
at x = 2 and a double root at
x = - 3. Its leading term is 2x5. By
drawing a sketch, show that the
polynomial has another root in
the domain x 2 2.
20. Show that a polynomial with
leading term - x 3 and a double
root at x = 1 has another root at a
point where x 21.
17. A monic polynomial has degree

3 and a double root at x = -1.
Show on a sketch that the
polynomial has another root in
the domain x 2 -1.
Roots and Coefficients of

Polynomial Equations
In Chapter 10, you studied the relationship between the roots and coefficients
of the quadratic equation. In this section you will revise this and also study
this relationship for cubic and quartic equations.
Quadratic equation
The quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 can be written in monic form as
c
b
x2 + a x + a = 0
If the quadratic equation has roots a and b, then the equation can be
written in monic form as
( x - a ) (x - b ) = 0
x 2 - bx - a x + ab = 0
x 2 - (a + b ) x + ab = 0
i.e.
c
b
x 2 + a x + a / x 2 - (a + b) x + ab
This gives the results below:
For the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0:

Sum of roots:
b
a + b = -a
Product of roots:
c
ab = a
Cubic equation
The cubic equation ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 can be written in monic form as
d
c
b
x 3 + a x 2 + a x + a = 0.
If the cubic equation has roots a, b and c then the equation can be
(x - a ) (x - b ) (x - c) = 0
(x 2 - bx - a x + ab ) (x - c) = 0
x 3 - cx 2 - bx 2 + bcx - a x 2 + acx + abx - abc = 0
x 3 - (a + b + c) x 2 + (ab + bc + ac) x - abc = 0
d
c
b
x 3 + a x 2 + a x + a / x 3 - (a + b + c) x 2 + (ab + bc + ac) x - abc
For the cubic equation ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0:

Sum of roots 1 at a time:
b
a + b + c = -a
c
ab + ac + bc = a
Product of roots (sum of roots 3 at a time)
d
abc = - a
Quartic equation
The quartic equation ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0 can be written in monic form
d
c
e
b
as x 4 + a x 3 + a x 2 + a x + a = 0.
707
708
If the quartic equation has roots a, b, c and d then the equation can be
(x - a ) (x - b) (x - c) (x - d) = 0
[x - (a + b + c) x + (ab + bc + ac) x - abc] (x - d) = 0
x - dx - (a + b + c) x 3 + d (a + b + c) x 2 +
(ab + bc + ac) x 2 - d (ab + bc + ac) x - abcx + abcd = 0
x 4 - (a + b + c + d) x 3 + (ad + db + dc + ab + bc + ac) x 2 (abd + bdc + adc + abc) x + abcd = 0
e
b 3 c 2 d
4
` x + ax + ax + ax + a
3
/ x 4 - (a + b + c + d) x 3 + (ad + db + dc + ab + bc + ac) x 2
- (abd + bdc + adc + abc) x + abcd
For the quartic equation ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0:

b
a + b + c + d = -a
c
ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd = a
d
abc + abd + acd + bcd = - a
Product of roots (sum of roots 4 at a time):
e
abcd = a
This pattern extends to polynomials of any degree.
Class Investigation
Can you find results for sums and products of roots for equations of
degree 5, 6 and so on?
EXAMPLES
1. If a, b, c are the roots of 2x 3 - 5x 2 + x - 1 = 0, find
(a ) (a + b + c) 2
(b) (a + 1) ( b + 1) (c + 1)
(c)
1 1 1
+ + .
a b c
Solution
b
a + b + c = -a
=-
(- 5)
2
5
2
c
ab + ac + bc = a
1
=
2
=
d
abc = - a
==
(-1)
2
1
2
5 2
1
(a) (a + b + c) 2 = c m = 6
4
2
(b) (a + 1) ( b + 1) (c + 1)
= (a + 1) ( bc + b + c + 1)
= abc + ab + ac + a + bc + b + c + 1
= abc + (ab + ac + bc) + (a + b + c) + 1
5
1
1
= + + +1
2
2
2
1
=4
2
bc + ac + ab
(c) 1
1
1
+ + =
a
c
b
abc
1
2
=
1
2
=1
CONTINUED
709
710
2. If one root of x 3 - x 2 + 2x - 3 = 0 is 4, find the sum and product of

the other two roots.
Solution
Roots are a, b, c where, say, c = 4.
b
a + b + c = -a
`
a+b+4 =1
a + b = -3
d
abc = - a
ab (4) = 3
3
ab =
4
3. Solve 12x 3 + 32x 3 + 15x - 9 = 0, given that 2 roots are equal.
Solution
Let the roots be a, a and b.
b
a + a + b = -a
`
2a + b = -
32
12
(1)
c
aa + ab + ab = a
15
`
a 2 + 2ab =
12
d
aab = - a
9
`
a2 b =
12
(2)
(3)
From (1):
b=-
32
- 2a
12
Substitute in (2):
32
15
a 2 + 2a c - 2a m =
12
12
32
2
12a + 24a c - 2a m = 15
12
12a 2 - 64a - 48a 2 = 15
0 = 36a 2 + 64a + 15
= (2a + 3) (18a + 5)
2a + 3 = 0
18a + 5 = 0
2a = - 3
18a = - 5
-5
1
a = -1
a=
2
18
(4)
Substitute in (4):
32
1
1
a = -1 : b = - 2 c -1 m
12
2
2
1
=
3
32
5
5
a=- :b=- 2cm
12
18
18
1
= -2
9
Substitute in (3):
9
1
1
1 2 1
a = - 1 , b = : c- 1 m c m =
2
3
2
3
12
3
3
=
4
4
5
5 2
9
1
1
a = - , b = - 2 : cm c- 2 m =
18
9
18
9
12
This is impossible as LHS is negative and RHS is positive.
` the roots are -1
1
1
and
2
3
12.6 Exercises
1.
Given that a and b are the roots

of the equation, find
(i) a + b and
(ii) ab for the following quadratic
equations.
(a) x 2 - 2x + 8 = 0
(b) 3x 2 + 6x - 2 = 0
(c) x 2 + 7x + 1 = 0
(d) 4x 2 - 9x - 12 = 0
(e) 5x 2 + 15x = 0
2.
Find
(i) a + b + c,
(ii) ab + ac + bc, and
(iii) abc, where a, b and c are
the roots of the equation, for the
following cubic equations.
(a) x 3 + x 2 - 2x + 8 = 0
(b) x 3 - 3x 2 + 5x - 2 = 0
(c) 2x 3 - x 2 + 6x + 2 = 0
(d) - x 3 - 3x 2 - 11 = 0
(e) x 3 + 7x - 3 = 0
3.
For the following quartic

equations, where a, b, c and d are
the roots of the equation, find
(i) a + b + c + d,
(ii) ab + ac + ad + bc + bd + cd,
(iii) abc + abd + acd + bcd and
(iv) abcd
(a) x 4 + 2x 3 - x 2 - x + 5 = 0
(b) x 4 - x 3 - 3x 2 + 2x - 7 = 0
(c) - x 4 + x 3 + 3x 2 - 2x + 4 = 0
(d) 2x 4 - 2x 3 - 4x 2 + 3x - 2 = 0
(e) 2x 4 - 12x 3 + 7 = 0
4.
If a and b are the roots of

x 2 - 5x - 5 = 0, find
(a) a + b
(b) ab
1 1
(c)
+
a b
(d) a2 + b2
(e) a3 + b3
711
712
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
If a , b and c are the roots of

2x 3 + 5x 2 - x - 3 = 0, nd
(a) abc
(b) ab + ac + bc
(c) a + b + c
1 1 1
(d) + +
a b c
(e) (a + 1) ( b + 1) (c + 1)
If a, b, c and d are the roots of
x 4 - 2x 3 + 5x - 3 = 0, nd
(a) abcd
(b) abc + abd + acd + bcd
1 1 1 1
(c)
+ + +
a b c d
One root of x 2 - 3x + k - 2 = 0
is - 4. Find the value of k.
One root of x 3 - 5x 2 - x + 21 = 0
is 3. Find the sum a + b and
the product ab of the other
two roots.
Given P (x) = 2x 3 - 7x 2 + 4x + 1,
if the equation P (x) = 0 has a
root at x = 1, nd the sum and
product of its other roots.
10. Find the value(s) of k if

x 2 - (k + 2) x + k + 1 = 0 has
(a) equal roots
(b) one root equal to 5
(c) consecutive roots
(d) one root double the other
(e) reciprocal roots
11. Two roots of
x 3 + mx 2 + 15x - 7 = 0 are equal
and rational. Find m.
12. Two roots of

x 3 + ax 2 + bx - 5 = 0 are equal
to 4 and - 2. Find the values of
a and b.
13. (a) Show that 1 is a
zero of the polynomial
P (x) = x 4 - 2x 3 + 7x - 6.
(b) If a, b and c are the other
3 zeros, nd the value of
a + b + c and abc.
14. If x = 2 is a double root of
ax 4 - 2x 3 - 8x + 16 = 0, nd the
value of a and the sum of the
other two roots.
15. Two of the roots of
x 3 - px 2 - qx - 4 = 0 are 3 and 5.
(a) Find the other root.
(b) Find p and q.
16. The product of two of the roots
of x 4 + 2x 3 - 18x - 5 = 0 is - 5.
Find the product of the other
two roots.
17. The sum of two of the roots of
x 4 + x 3 + 7x 2 + 14x - 1 = 0 is
4. Find the sum of the other
two roots.
18. Find the roots of
8x 3 - 20x 2 + 6x + 9 = 0, given
that two of the roots are equal.
19. Solve 12x 3 - 4x 3 - 3x + 1 = 0 if
the sum of two of its roots is 0.
20. Solve
6x 4 + 5x 3 - 24x 2 - 15x + 18 = 0
if the sum of two of its roots
is zero.
Test Yourself 12
1.
Write p (x) = x 4 + 4x 3 - 14x 2 - 36x + 45

as a product of its factors.
11. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the curve

y = x 3 - 3x 2 - 10x + 24.
2.
If a, b and c are the roots of

x 3 - 3x 2 + x - 9 = 0, find
(a) a + b + c
(b) abc
(c) ab + ac + bc
1 1 1
(d) + +
a b c
12. Divide p (x) = 3x 5 - 7x 3 + 8x 2 - 5

by x - 2, and write p (x) in the form
p (x) = (x - 2) a (x) + b (x) .
3.
4.
5.
A monic polynomial P (x) of degree 3

has zeros - 2,1 and 6. Write down the
polynomial.
(a) Divide
P (x) = x 4 + x 3 - 19x 2 - 49x - 30 by
x 2 - 2x - 15.
(b) Hence, write P (x) as a product of its
factors.
For the polynomial P (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 - 3x,
find
(a) the degree
(b) the coefficient of x
(c) the zeros
(d) the leading term.
6.
Sketch f (x) = (x - 2) (x + 3)2 showing the

intercepts.
7.
If ax 4 + 3x 3 - 48x 2 + 60x = 0 has a

double root at x = 2, find
(a) the value of a
(b) the sum of the other two roots.
8.
Show that x + 7 is not a factor of

x 3 - 7x 2 + 5x - 4.
9.
If the sum of two roots of

x 4 + 2x 3 - 8x 2 - 18x - 9 = 0 is 0, find
the roots of the equation.
10. The polynomial f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c has

zeros 4 and 5, and f (-1) = 60. Evaluate
a, b and c.
13. Solve 2 cos 3 x + cos 2 x - cos x = 0 for

0c# x # 360c.
14. When 8x 3 - 5kx + 9 is divided by x - 2,
the remainder is -1. Evaluate k.
15. Find the zeros of g (x) = - x 2 + 9x - 20.
16. Sketch P (x) = 2x (x - 3) (x + 5), showing
intercepts.
17. Find the value of k if the remainder is
- 4 when x 3 + 2x 2 - 3x + k is divided by
x - 2.
18. The sum of 2 roots of
x 4 - 7x 3 + 5x 2 - x + 3 = 0 is 3. Find the
sum of the other 2 roots.
19. A polynomial is given by
P (x) = A (x) (x - a) 3 . Show that
P (a) = Pl(a) = 0.
20. Show that x - 5 is a factor of
f (x) = x 3 - 6x 2 + 12x - 35.
21. (a) Show that x - 5 is a factor of
f ] x g = x 3 - 7x 2 - 5x + 75.
(b) Show that f ] 5 g = f l(5) = 0 .
(c) What can you say about the root
at x = 5?
(d) Write f (x) as a product of its factors.
22. The leading term of a polynomial is 3x 3
and there is a double root at x = 3.
Draw an example of a graph of the
polynomial.
713
714
23. A polynomial P(x) has a triple root at

x = - 6.
(a) Write an expression for P(x).
(b) If P(x) has leading coefcient 3 and
degree 4, draw a sketch showing this
information.
24. Draw an example of a polynomial with

leading term 3x 5 .
25. If P ] x g = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d has a
remainder of 8 when divided by
x - 1, P ] 2 g = 17, P ] -1 g = - 4 and
P ] 0 g = 5, evaluate a, b, c and d.
1.
Write P (x) = x 5 + 2x 4 + x 3 - x 2 - 2x - 1
as a product of its factors.
8.
Find the value of a if (x + 1) (x - 2) is a

factor of 2x 3 - x 2 + ax - 2.
2.
A polynomial P (x) = (x - b) 7 Q (x) .

(a) Show that P (b) = P l(b) = 0.
(b) Hence nd a and b, if (x - 1) 7 is a
factor of
P (x) = x 7 + 3x 6 + ax 5 + x 4 + 3x 3 + bx 2 x +1.
9.
Prove that if x - a is a factor of

polynomial P (x), then P (a) = 0.
Solve
tan 4 i - tan 3 i - 3 tan 2 i + 3 tan i = 0
for 0c# i # 360c.
11. Write down an example of a polynomial

with the graph below.
3.
4.
(a) Find the equation of the tangent to

the curve y = x 3 at the point where x = 1.
(b) Find the point where this tangent
cuts the curve again.
5.
(a) Find the remainder when

p (x) = 2x 4 - 7x 3 + ax 2 + 3x - 9 is
divided by 2x - 1.
(b) If the remainder, when p (x) is
divided by x + 2, is 17, nd the value
of a.
6.
If a, b and c are roots of the cubic

equation 2x 3 + 8x 2 - x + 6 = 0, nd
(a) abc
(b) a2 + b2 + c2
7.
Solve 4 sin 3 i - 3 sin i - 1 = 0 for

0c# i # 360c.
10. Find the points of intersection between

the polynomial P ] x g = x 3 + 5x 2 + 4x - 1
and the line 3x + y + 4 = 0.
-1
12. Sketch an example of a polynomial with

a double root at x = a 1 and a double root
at x = a 2, if the polynomial is monic and
has even degree _ a 2 2 a 1 i .
13
Permutations and
Combinations
TERMINOLOGY
Arrangements: Different ways of organising objects
Combinations: Arrangements of objects without
replacement or repetition when order is not important.
The notation used is nC r for selecting r objects from n
where order doesnt matter
Factorial: A factorial is the product of n consecutive
positive integers from n down to one. For example
6! = 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
Fundamental counting principle: If one event can occur in
p ways and a second independent event can occur in q
ways, then the two successive events can occur in p x q
different ways
Ordered selections: Selections that are taken in a
particular position
Permutations: The arrangement of objects without

replacement or repetition when order is important. The
notation used is nPr for selecting r objects from n where
order matters
Random experiments: Experiments that are made with no
pattern or order where each outcome is equally likely to
occur
Sample space: The set of all possible outcomes in an event
or series of events
Unordered selections: Selections that are made when
the order of arrangements is not important or relevant
Chapter 13 Permutations and Combinations
INTRODUCTION
THIS CHAPTER IS AN introduction to some of the concepts you will meet in
probability in the HSC Course. Probability is the study of how likely it is
that something will happen. It is used to make predictions in different areas,
ranging from games of chance to business decision-making.
In this chapter you will study general counting techniques based on
the fundamental counting principle. These will lead on to the study of
permutations and combinations. These have applications in finding the size
of the sample space, or the ways that certain events can happen in probability.
It can also tell us the number of postcodes a state can have, the number of
telephone numbers that is possible in a city and the number of combinations
making up serial numbers for appliances.
Fundamental Counting Principle

Simple probability
You have studied probability in
earlier stages of mathematics. We
can measure probability in theory.
However, probability only gives us an
approximate idea of the likelihood
of certain events happening.
For example, in Lotto draws,
there is a machine that draws out
the balls at random and a panel of
supervisors checks that this happens
properly. Each ball is independent of
the others and is equally likely to be drawn out.
In a horse race, it is difficult to measure probability as the horses are not
all equally likely to win. Other factors such as ability, training, experience and
weight of the jockey all affect it. The likelihood of any one horse winning is
not random.
The probability of an event E happening, P(E), is given by the number

of ways the event can occur, n(E), compared with the total number of
outcomes possible n(S) (the size of the sample space).
n (E )
P ]Eg =
n (S)
If P ] E g = 0 the event is impossible.
If P ] E g = 1 the event is certain (it has to happen).
0 # P ]Eg # 1
717
718
The sum of all probabilities is 1.

Complementary events:
P ] not E g = 1 P ] E g
or
P^L
E h = 1 - P (E) where L
E is the complement of E
P ]Eg + P ^ L
Eh = 1
EXAMPLES
1. Alison buys 5 raffle tickets and 100 are sold altogether. What is the
probability that Alison (a) wins (b) doesnt win first prize in the raffle?
Solution
(a) The size of the sample space, or total number of outcomes is 100,
since there are 100 tickets altogether.
Alison has 5 tickets so has 5 different ways of winning the raffle.
5
100
1
=
20
(b) There are 100 - 5 or 95 other tickets that could win if Alison loses.
P (Win) =
95
100
19
=
20
Or, if we know that the sum of all probabilities is 1, we could say
P (Loss) =
P (Loss) = 1 - P (Win)
=1=
1
20
19
20
2. There are 56 books on music at the school library and there are
2000 books altogether. If Anthony selects a book at random, find the
probability that it will be a book on music.
Solution
The size of the sample space is 2000 and there are 56 ways that Anthony
could select a music book.
56
P (Music book) =
2000
7
=
250
13.1 Exercises
1.
A lottery is held in which 20 000

tickets are sold. If I buy 2 tickets,
what is the probability of my
winning the prize in the lottery?
2.
The probability of a bus arriving

17
on time is estimated at
. What
33
is the probability that the bus will
not arrive on time?
3.
7.
A shoe shop orders in 20 pairs

of black, 14 pairs of navy and
3 pairs of brown school shoes.
If the boxes are all mixed up,
find the probability that one box
selected at random will contain
brown shoes.
8.
A biased coin is weighted so that

heads comes up twice as often
as tails. Find the probability of
tossing a tail.
9.
A die has the centre dot painted

white on the 5 so that it appears
as a 4. Find the probability of
rolling
(a) a 2
(b) a 4
(c) a number less than 5.
The probability of a seed

7
.
9
Find the probability that the seed
will produce a different coloured
flower.
producing a pink flower is
4.
In a lottery, 200 000 tickets are

sold. If Lucia buys 10 tickets,
what is the probability of her
winning first prize?
5.
A machine has a 1.5% chance of

breaking down at any given time.
What is the probability of the
machine not breaking down?
6.
A bag contains 6 red balls and

8 white balls. If one ball is
drawn out at random, find the
probability that it will be
(a) white
(b) red.
10. A book has 124 pages. If the book

is opened at any page at random,
find the probability of the page
number being
(a) either 80 or 90
(b) a multiple of 10
(c) an odd number
(d) less than 100.
11. In the game of pool, there are
15 balls, each with the number
1 to 15 on it. In Kelly Pool, each
person chooses a number at
random from a container and
has to try and sink the ball with
the corresponding number. If
Tracey chooses a number, find the
probability that her ball will be
(a) the eight ball
(b) an odd number
(c) a number less than 10.
A multiple of 10 is
a number that is
divisible by 10.
719
720
12. A box containing a light globe

1
has a
probability of holding
20
a defective globe. If 160 boxes are
checked, how many globes would
be expected to be defective?
13. There are 29 red, 17 blue,
21 yellow and 19 green jelly
beans in a packet. If Kate
chooses one at random, find the
probability that it will be
(a) red
(b) blue or yellow
(c) not green.
14. The probability of breeding a
2
white budgie is
. If Mr Seed
15
breeds 240 budgies over the year,
how many would be expected to
be white?
15. A die is rolled. Calculate the
probability of rolling
(a) a 6
(b) an even number
(c) a number less than 3
(d) 4 or more
(e) a multiple of 2.
16. The probability that an arrow will
13
.
hit a target is
18
(a) Find the probability that it
will miss the target.
(b) If 126 arrows are fired, how
many would be expected to hit
a target?
17. A dog can catch a ball in its
mouth 8 times out of 10.
(a) What is the probability of the
dog catching a ball?
(b) If the ball is thrown to the
dog 45 times, how many times
would the dog be expected to
catch it?
18. In a bag there are 21 lollies with

pink wrappers and 23 with blue
wrappers. If Leila chooses a lolly
at random from the bag, find the
probability that she selects a lolly
with
(a) a blue wrapper
(b) a pink wrapper.
19. In a survey, it was found that 18
people preferred Brand A of soft
drink while 39 people preferred
Brand B. What is the probability
that a person chosen at random
prefers Brand A?
20. A school has 653 junior and
329 senior students. If a student
is chosen at random, what is the
probability that it will be a senior
student?
21. A class has 12 girls and 19 boys.
Eight of the girls and 12 of the
boys play a sport. If a student
is chosen at random, find the
probability that the person
chosen
(a) is a boy
(b) plays a sport
(c) is a girl who doesnt play
a sport
(d) doesnt play a sport.
22. Amies CD collection includes
21 R&B, 14 rock and 24 jazz
albums. If she selects one CD
to play at random, find the
probability that the CD is
(a) rock
(b) R&B or rock
(c) jazz
(d) not R&B.
23. The probability of winning a

3
game of chance is and the
8
5
probability of losing is
. What
12
is the probability of a draw?
What percentage would vote for

Greens?
25. An arrow has a 0.37 probability
of hitting a target outside
the bullseye zone and
0.12 probability of missing the
target altogether. What is the
probability of the arrow hitting
the bullseye area?
24. In a poll, 39% said they

would vote Labor, 34% said
they would vote Liberal and
8% said they would vote for
independents or small parties.
Counting techniques
In the HSC Course you will learn about multi-stage events (events where
there are two or more events such as rolling two dice or tossing two coins).
The counting can become quite difficult, which is why we introduce counting
techniques in the Preliminary Course.
Class Discussion
Break up into pairs and try these experiments with one doing the activity
and one recording the results.
1. Toss two coins as many times as you can in a 5-minute period and
record the results in the table:
Result
Two heads
One head and one tail
Two tails
Tally
Compare your results with others in the class. What do you notice? Is this
surprising?
2. Roll two dice as many times as you can in a 5-minute period, find
the total of the two uppermost numbers on the dice and record the
results in the table:
Total
10
11
12
Tally
Compare your results with others in the class. What do you notice? Is this
surprising?
Why dont these results appear to be equally likely?
721
722
There are many examples of where counting techniques are useful,

in probability and in areas such as manufacturing, business, biology and
economics. For example, in genetics, the number of molecules on DNA strands
can be difficult to find.
Investigation
1. To travel to work, Cassie needs to catch a bus and a train. She lives
near a bus stop and there are three different buses she could catch
into town. When she arrives in town, she needs to catch one of four
trains to work.
If there are three buses and four trains possible for Cassie to catch, in
how many ways is it possible for her to travel to work?
Buses
Cassies
house
Trains
A
B
C
1
2
3
4
2. At a restaurant, there are three entrees, four main meals and two
desserts. Every time Rick eats at the restaurant he chooses to eat a
different combination of courses. How many times would he need to
go to the restaurant to cover all possible combinations?
FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE

If one event can happen in a different ways, a second event can happen
in b different ways, a third in c different ways and so on, then these
successive events can happen in abc different ways.
EXAMPLES
1. A personal identification number (PIN) has 4 letters followed by
3 numbers. How many different PINs of this type are possible?
Solution
There are 26 letters and 10 numbers (0 9) possible for the positions in
the PIN.
723
Total number = 26 # 26 # 26 # 26 #10 #10 #10

= 26 4 #10 3
= 456 976 000
So 456 976 000 PINs are possible.
2. A restaurant serves 5 different types of entree, 12 main courses and
6 desserts.
(a) If I order any combination of entree, main course and dessert at
random, how many different combinations are possible?
(b) If my friend makes 3 guesses at which combination I will order, what
is the probability that she will guess correctly?
Solution
(a) Total number of combinations = 5#12 # 6
= 360
3
360
1
=
120
(b) P ^ correct guess h =
Here are some examples of counting when there is no repetition or

replacement.
EXAMPLES
1. To win a trifecta in a race, a person has to pick the horses that come
first, second and third in the race. If a race has 9 horses, how many
different combinations could be a trifecta?
Solution
The probabilities will
be different for where
each horse will come
in the race, but the
number of possible
different trifecta
combinations will be
the same.
Any of the 9 horses could come first.

Any of the remaining 8 could come second.
Any of the remaining 7 horses could come third.
Total ways = 9 # 8 # 7
= 504
CONTINUED
724
2. A group of 15 people attend a concert and 3 of them are randomly

given a free backstage pass. The first person receives a gold pass, the
second one a silver pass and the third one a bronze pass. In how many
different ways can the passes be given out?
Solution
Any of the 15 people can receive the first pass.
There are 14 people left who could receive the second pass.
Similarly there are 13 people that could receive the third pass.
Total number of possibilities = 15#14 #13
= 2 730
3. In Lotto, a machine contains 45 balls, each with a different number
from 1 to 45.
(a) In how many ways can 6 balls be randomly drawn?
(b) To win first prize in Lotto, a person must choose all 6 numbers
correctly. Lisa has 3 tickets in the same draw of Lotto. What is the
probability that she will win first prize?
Solution
(a) The first ball could be any of the 45 balls.
The second could be any of the remaining 44 balls and so on.
The number of ways = 45# 44 # 43# 42 # 41# 40
= 5 864 443 200
3
(b) P ^ first prize h =
5 864 443 200
1
=
1 954 814 400
13.2 Exercises
1.
A password has 4 letters. How

many combinations are possible?
2.
A motorcycle numberplate is
made up of 2 letters followed
by 2 numbers. How many
numberplates of this type are
available?
3.
A password can have up to

5 letters followed by 4 numbers
on it. If I could use any letter of
the alphabet or number, how
many different passwords could
be formed? Leave your answer in
index form.
4.
A witness saw most of the

numberplate on a getaway car
except for the first letter and the
last number. How many different
cars do the police need to check
in order to find this car?
5.
A certain brand of computer

has a serial number made up of
10 letters then 15 numbers. How
many computers with this type
of serial number can be made?
Leave your answer in index form.
6.
Victoria has postcodes starting

with 3. How many different
postcodes are available in
Victoria?
7.
8.
9.
A country town has telephone

numbers starting with 63
followed by any 6 other
numbers from 0 to 9. How many
telephone numbers are possible
in this town?
Yasmin has 12 tops, 5 pairs of
jeans and 5 pairs of shoes in
her wardrobe. If she randomly
chooses a top, pair of jeans and
shoes, how many combinations
are possible?
A car manufacturer produces
cars in 8 different colours, with
either manual or automatic gear
transmission, and 4 different types
of wheels. How many different
combinations can it produce?
10. A PIN has 4 numbers. If I forget

my PIN I am allowed 3 tries to get
it right. Find the probability that
I get it within the 3 tries.
11. A restaurant offers 7 main
courses and 4 desserts, as well as
3 different types of coffee.
(a) How many different
combinations of main
course, dessert and coffee are

possible?
(b) Find the probability that
I randomly pick the combination
voted most favourite.
12. A telephone number in a capital
city can start with a 9 and has
8 digits altogether.
(a) How many telephone
numbers are possible?
(b) If I forget the last 3 digits of
my friends telephone number,
how many numbers would
I have to try for the correct
number?
13. A company manufactures
20 000 000 computer chips. If it
uses a serial number on each one
consisting of 10 letters, will there
be enough combinations for all
these chips?
14. A password consists of 2 letters
followed by 5 numbers. What is
the probability that I randomly
guess the correct password?
15. A city has a population of
3 500 000. How many digits
should its telephone numbers
have so that every person can
have one?
16. A manufacturer of computer
parts puts a serial number on
each part, consisting of 3 letters,
4 numbers then 4 letters. The
number of parts sold is estimated
as 5 million. Will there be enough
combinations on this serial
number to cope with these sales?
17. A bridal shop carries 12 different
types of bridal dresses, 18 types
of veils and 24 different types
of shoes. If Kate chooses a
combination of dress, veil and
725
726
shoes at random, what is the

probability that she chooses
the same combination as her
friend Jane?
18. Kate chooses a different
coloured dress for each of her
3 bridesmaids. If the colours
are randomly given to each
bridesmaid, how many different
possibilities are there?
3 free haircuts randomly given

away, in how many ways could
this be done?
23. A ock of 28 pelicans is fed
6 sh carcasses. If each carcass
is given to a different pelican,
in how many ways can this
happen?
19. In a computer car race game,

the cars that come rst, second
and third are randomly awarded.
If there are 20 cars, how many
possible combinations of rst,
second and third are there?
20. Jacquie only has 4 chocolates left
and decides to randomly choose
which of her 6 friends will receive
one each. How many possible
ways are there in which can she
give the chocolates away?
21. Three prizes are given away
at a concert by taping them
underneath random seats. If there
are 200 people in the audience, in
how many ways can these prizes
be won?
22. There are 7 clients at a
hairdressing salon. If there are
24. A set of cards is numbered 1 to

100 and 2 chosen at random.
(a) How many different
arrangements of ordered pairs are
possible?
(b) What is the probability that
a particular ordered pair is chosen?
25. Each of 10 cards has a letter
written on it from A to J. If
3 cards are selected in order at
random, nd the probability that
they spell out CAB.
Factorial notation
Counting outcomes when repetition or replacement is allowed is quite
straightforward, even when the numbers become very large.
EXAMPLE
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in
turn and then replaced before the next is selected. How many possible
outcomes are there if 25 cards are chosen this way? Answer in scientic
notation, correct to 3 signicant gures.
727
Solution
Each time there is a card drawn, there are 25 possibilities.
Total number = 25# 25# 25#. . .# 25
] 25 times g
= 25
= 8.88 #10 34
25
When there is no repetition or replacement, the calculations can be quite

long.
EXAMPLE
A card is drawn randomly from a set of 25 cards numbered 1 to 25 in
turn without replacing it before the next is drawn. How many possible
outcomes are there if all 25 cards are drawn out? Answer in scientific
notation, correct to 3 significant figures.
Solution
First card: there are 25 possibilities.
Second card: there are only 24 possibilities since one card has already
been drawn out.
Third card: there are 23 possibilities and so on.
Total number = 25# 24 # 23## 3# 2 #1
= 1.55#10 25
This calculation is
quite tedious!
Factorial notation allows us to easily calculate the number of possible

outcomes when selecting all objects in order with no replacement or
repetition.
You can nd a x!
n! = n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ] n - 3 g ] n - 4 g . . . 3# 2 #1
key on most scientic

calculators.
Since the sequence of numbers multiplied doesnt go further than 1, then

by convention we say that
0! = 1
Check 0! on your
calculator.
728
EXAMPLES
1. Evaluate
(a) 4!
(b) 7!
(c) 25! (answer in scientific notation correct to 3 significant figures.)
Solution
4! = 4 # 3 # 2 #1
= 24
(b) 7! = 7 # 6 # 5 # 4 # 3 # 2 # 1
= 5040
(c) 25! = 1.55#10 25
(a)
It is much easier to use the

x! key on a calculator to
nd this.
2. A group of 9 teenagers is waiting to be served in a caf. They are each

randomly assigned a number from 1 to 9.
(a) In how many ways is it possible for the numbers to be assigned?
(b) One of the group needs to be served quickly as he has to leave.
If he is given the first number, in how many ways is it possible for the
numbers to be assigned?
Solution
(a) The first number could be assigned 9 ways.
The second number could be assigned 8 ways and so on.
Total ways = 9!
= 362 880
(b) One of the group is given the first ticket (this can only happen in one
way)
The second number could be assigned 8 ways and so on.
Total ways = 1# 8!
= 40 320
13.3 Exercises
1.
Evaluate
(a) 6!
(b) 10!
(c) 0!
(d) 8! - 7!
(e) 5# 4!
7!
(f)
4!
12!
5!
13!
(h)
4!9!
8!
(i)
3!5!
11!
(j)
4!7!
(g)
2.
A group of 9 jockeys are each given

a set of riding colours to wear.
If these are given out in order
randomly, how many different
arrangements are possible?
8.
A group of 7 people line up to do

karaoke. If they are each randomly
given a song to sing, how many
possible outcomes are there?
9.
A kindergarten class has a rabbit,

a mouse and a parrot. Three
children are selected to take these
pets home for the holidays. If
the pets are randomly given out
to these children, how many
different ways are possible?
10. A PIN consists of 6 numbers, with

no repetition of any numbers
allowed. How many different
PINs are possible?
3.
Each of 6 people at a restaurant is

given a different coloured glass.
How many possible combinations
are there?
4.
A mountain trail only has

room for one person at a time.
If 12 people are waiting at the
bottom of the trail and are
randomly picked to start out, in
how many ways can this happen?
5.
6.
7.
A dog walker has 5 dogs and

5 leashes. In how many different
ways is it possible to put a leash
on each dog?
There are 11 people in a choir
and each receives a musical
score.
(a) In how many different ways
could the scores be handed out?
(b) Russell, the musical director,
also needs a musical score. In
how many ways could the scores
be handed out for the choir and
the musical director?
A row of seats in a theatre seats 8
people. In how many ways could
a group of 8 friends be randomly
seated in this row?
11. In a chorus for a school musical,

7 students each wear a different
mask. In how many different
ways can the masks be worn by
these students?
12. If 15 people play a game of Kelly
pool, each person in turn chooses
a number at random between
1 and 15. In how many different
ways can this occur? Answer in
scientific notation, correct to one
decimal place.
13. (a) A school talent quest has
11 performers and each one
is randomly given the order
in which to perform. In how
many ways can the order of
performances be arranged?
(b) If one performer is chosen to
perform first, in how many ways
can the others be arranged?
14. A group of 6 friends sit in the
same row at a concert.
can they arrange themselves?
(b) If one friend must sit on the
aisle, in how many ways can they
be arranged?
729
730
15. A group of 8 friends go to a

restaurant and sit at a round
table. If the first person can sit
anywhere, in how many ways can
the others be arranged around
the table?
16. In a pack of cards, the 4 aces are
taken out and shuffled.
(a) What is the probability of
picking out the Ace of Hearts at
random?
(b) If all the aces are arranged in
order, what is the probability of
guessing the correct order?
(b) What is the probability that

the bride will have a pink rose at
her table?
18. In a maths exam, a student has to
arrange 5 decimals in the correct
order. If he has no idea how to do
this and arranges them randomly,
what is the probability that he
makes the right guess for all the
decimals?
19. In a car race, the fastest car is
given pole position and the other
cars are randomly given their
starting positions. If there are
14 cars altogether, in how many
ways can this be arranged?
20. Show that
8!
(a)
= 8 #7 # 6 # 5
4!
(b)
11!
= 11#10 # 9 # 8 #7
6!
n!
r!
= n ]n - 1 g]n - 2 g]n - 3 g
(c)
17. At a wedding, each of the

12 tables is to have a centrepiece
with a different coloured rose.
can the roses be arranged at
random?
... ] r + 1 g where n 2 r
n!
(n - r) !
= n ]n - 1 g]n - 2 g]n - 3 g
... ] n - r + 1 g where n 2 r
(d)
Permutations
Factorial notation is useful for finding the number of possible outcomes when
arranging all objects in order without replacement. However, sometimes we
need to find the number of possible outcomes when arranging only some of
the objects in order without replacement.
It is easy to arrange objects with replacement.
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 cards be selected from a total of 20 cards if each
one is replaced before selecting the next one?
Solution
Each selection can be made in 20 possible ways.
Total = 20 # 20 # 20 # 20 # 20
= 20 5
= 3 200 000 ways.
For r selections from n objects (with repetitions), the number

of possible outcomes is n # n # n # n f (r times) or nr
However, when arranging r objects from n objects in order without

replacement, it is not so easy.
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 cards be selected from a total of 20 cards if there
is no replacement?
Solution
The 1st card can be selected in 20 different ways.
The 2nd card can be selected in 19 different ways as the first card is no
longer being used.
The 3rd card can be selected in 18 different ways, and so on.
Total = 20 #19 #18 #17 #16
= 1 860 480 ways
The calculations can become tedious if we select a larger number of

objects.
731
732
EXAMPLE
If there are 20 cards and 13 cards are chosen in order at random without
replacement, find the possible number of ways the cards can be chosen in
scientific notation correct to 1 decimal place.
Solution
The first card can be any of the 20 numbers.
The second card can be any of the remaining 19 numbers.
The third can be any of the remaining 18 numbers.
The number of ways the cards can be chosen = 20 #19 #18 #17 #f# 8
= 4.8 #1014
For r ordered selections from n objects without replacement, the number

of possible outcomes is n # ] n - 1 g # ] n - 2 g # ] n - 3 g f ] r times g or
n ]n - 1 g]n - 2 g]n - 3 g f ]n - r + 1 g
A permutation describes an arrangement of r objects from a total of

n objects in a certain order without replacement or repetition.
Permutation n Pr is the number of ways of making ordered selections

of r objects from a total of n objects.
n!
n
Pr =
]n - r g!
You can nd a
n
Pr key on most
scientic calculators.
Proof
n
Pr = n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ] n - 3 g f ] n - r + 1 g
]n - r g]n - r - 1g]n - r - 2gf 3 $ 2 $ 1

]n - r g]n - r - 1g]n - r - 2g f 3 $ 2 $ 1
n ]n - 1g]n - 2g]n - 3g f ]n - r + 1g]n - r g]n - r - 1g]n - r - 2g f 3 $ 2 $ 1
=
]n - r g]n - r - 1g]n - r - 2g f 3 $ 2 $ 1
= n ]n - 1g]n - 2g]n - 3g f ]n - r + 1g #
n!
]n - r g!
A special case of this result is:
Pn = n!
733
Proof
n!
]n - r g!
n!
` n Pn =
]n - n g!
n!
=
0!
n!
=
1
= n!
n
Pr =
EXAMPLES
You can evaluate this on a
calculator.
1. Evaluate 9 P4
Solution
9
9!
]9 - 4 g!
9!
=
5!
9$8$7$6$5$4$3$2$1
=
5$4$3$2$1
=9$8$7$6
P4 =
= 3024
2. (a) Find the number of arrangements of 3 digits that can be formed
using the digits 0 to 9 if each digit can only be used once.
(b) How many 3 digit numbers greater than 700 can be formed?
Solution
(a) There are 10 digits from 0 to 9.
The 1st digit can be any of the 10 digits.
The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits.
The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits.
Total permutations = 10 # 9 # 8
= 720
10!
or 10P3 =
] 10 - 3 g !
10!
=
7!
= 720
CONTINUED
734
(b) The 1st digit must be 7 or 8 or 9 (3 possible digits).

The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 9 digits.
The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 8 digits.
Total arrangements = 3# 9#8
= 216
Another method:
There are 3 ways to get the 1st digit.
The possible arrangements of the remaining 2 digits is 9 P2
Total arrangements = 3# 9 P2
= 3#72
= 216
There are some special examples that need very careful counting, such
as arrangements around a circle. Others involve counting when there are
identical objects.
EXAMPLES
1. (a) In how many ways can 6 people sit around a circular table?
(b) If seating is random, find the probability that 3 particular people
will sit together.
Solution
(a) The 1st person can sit anywhere around the table so we only need to
arrange the other 5 people.
The 2nd person can sit in any of the 5 remaining seats.

The 3rd person can sit in any of the remaining 4 seats and so on.
Total arrangements = 5!
= 120
(b) The 3 people can sit anywhere around the table together in 3# 2 #1
or 3! ways.
The remaining 3 people can sit together in 3! ways.
Total arrangements = 3!# 3!
= 36
36
P (3 sit together) =
120
3
.
=
10
2. In how many ways can the letters of the word EXCEPTIONAL be
arranged?
Solution
EXCEPTIONAL has 11 letters with the letter E repeated.
If each E was different, i.e. E1 and E2, then there would be 11!
arrangements.
However, we cannot tell the difference between the 2 Es. Since there are
2! ways of arranging the Es, then there are 2! arrangements of the word
EXCEPTIONAL that are identical. We need to divide by 2! to eliminate
these identical arrangements.
11!
Total arrangements =
2!
= 19 958 400.
The number of different ways of arranging n objects in which

a of the objects are of one kind, b objects are of another
n!
kind, c of another kind and so on, is given by
where
a!b!c!f
a + b + c +f# n
EXAMPLE
Find the number of ways that the word ANAETHEMA can be arranged.
Solution
There are 9 letters, including 3 As and 2 Es. There are 9! ways of arranging
the letters, with 3! ways of arranging the As and 2! ways of arranging the Es.
9!
3!2!
= 30 240
735
736
Some questions involving counting need different approaches and

sometimes it is just a matter of logically working it out.
EXAMPLES
A bag contains 5 balls of different coloursred, yellow, blue, green and
white. In how many ways can these 5 balls be arranged
(a) with no restrictions
(b) if the yellow ball must be first
(c) if the first ball must not be red or white
(d) if blue and green must be together
(e) if red, blue and green must be together?
Solution
(a) The 1st can be any of the 5 balls.
The 2nd can be any of the remaining 4 balls and so on.
= 120
(b) The 1st ball must be yellow, so there is only 1 way of arranging this.
The 2nd ball can be any of the remaining 4 balls.
The 3rd ball can be any of the remaining 3 balls and so on.
= 24
(c) The 1st ball could be yellow, blue or green so there are 3 possible
arrangements.
The 2nd ball could be any of the remaining 4 balls and so on.
Total arrangements = 3# 4!
= 72
(d) When two objects must be together, we treat them as a single object
with 2! possible arrangements.
So we arrange 4 balls in 4! ways: R, Y, BG and W.
But there are 2! ways in which to arrange the blue and green balls.
= 48
(e) When three objects are together, we treat them as a single object with
3! possible arrangements.
We are then arranging 3 balls in 3! ways: RBG, Y, W.
But there are 3! ways in which to arrange the red, blue and green balls.
= 36
737
13.4 Exercises
1.
Write each permutation in factorial

notation and then evaluate.
(a) 6 P3
(b) 5 P2
(c) of odd numbers

(d) of even numbers.
5.
(a) How many arrangements

of the letters A, B, C and D are
possible if no letter can be used
twice?
(b) How many arrangements of
any 3 of these letters are possible?
6.
A 4 digit number is to be selected

at random from the numbers 0
to 9 with no repetition of digits.
(a) How many arrangements can
there be?
(b) How many arrangements of
numbers over 6000 are there?
(c) How many arrangements
of numbers less than 8000 are
there?
(c) 8 P3
(d)
10
P7
(e) P6
(f)
P5
(g) P6
2.
3.
4.
(h)
11
(i)
P1
(j)
P6
P8
A set of 26 cards, each with a

different letter of the alphabet, is
placed into a hat and cards drawn
out at random. Find the number
of words possible if selecting
(a) 2 cards
(b) 3 cards
(c) 4 cards
(d) 5 cards.
A 3 digit number is randomly
made from cards containing the
numbers 0 to 9.
(a) In how many ways can this
be done if the cards cannot be
used more than once and zero
cannot be the first number?
(b) How many numbers over
400 can be made?
(c) How many numbers less than
300 can be made?
A set of 5 cards, each with a
number from 1 to 5 on it, is
placed in a box and 2 drawn out
at random. Find the possible
number of combinations
(a) altogether
(b) of numbers greater than
50 possible
7.
The numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and

5 are arranged in a line. How
many arrangements are possible if
(a) there is no restriction
(b) the number is less than
30 000
(c) the number is greater than
20 000
(d) the number is odd
(e) any 3 numbers are selected at
random?
8.
There are 12 swimmers in a race.

(a) In how many ways could they
finish?
(b) In how many ways could they
come in first, second and third?
9.
How many different ordered

arrangements can be made from
the word COMPUTER with
(a) 2 letters
(b) 3 letters
(c) 4 letters?
The rst number

cannot be zero.
The rst number

is not zero.
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10. How many different ordered

these words?
(a) CENTIPEDE
(b) ALGEBRA
(c) TELEVISION
(d) ANTARCTICA
(e) DONOR
(f) BASKETBALL
(g) GREEDY
(h) DUTIFUL
(i) MANUFACTURER
(j) AEROPLANE
11. A group of friends queue outside
a restaurant in a straight line.
Find how many ways the friends
can be arranged if there are
(a) 4 friends
(b) 7 friends
(c) 8 friends
(d) 10 friends
(e) 11 friends.
12. A group of friends go into a
restaurant and are seated around
a circular table. Find how many
arrangements are possible if
there are
(a) 4 friends
(b) 7 friends
(c) 8 friends
(d) 10 friends
(e) 11 friends.
All beads are

different from each
other.
13. A string of beads looks the same

if turned over. Find the number
of different arrangements
possible with
(a) 10 beads
(b) 12 beads
(c) 9 beads
(d) 11 beads
(e) 13 beads.
14. In how many ways can a group of
6 people be arranged
(a) in a line
(b) in a circle?
15. Find how many different ways

a group of 9 people can be
arranged in
(a) a line
(b) a circle.
16. In how many ways can a set of
10 beads be arranged
(a) in a line
(b) in a circle around the edge of
a poster
(c) on a bracelet?
17. (a) How many different
the playing cards Jack, Queen,
King and Ace?
(b) If I choose 2 of these cards
arrangements could I make?
(c) If I choose 3 of these cards
arrangements could I make?
18. A group of 7 people sit around
a table. In how many ways can
they be arranged
(b) if 2 people want to sit
together
(c) if 2 people cannot sit
together
(d) if 3 people sit together?
19. A group of 5 boys and 5 girls
line up outside a cinema. In how
many ways can they be arranged
(a) with no restriction?
(b) If a particular girl stands in
line first?
(c) If they alternate between boys
and girls (with either a girl or boy
in first place)?
20. Find the probability that if
10 people sit around a table,
2 particular people will be seated
together at random.
21. A bookshelf is to hold

5 mathematics books, 8 novels
and 7 cookbooks.
could they be arranged? (Leave
answer in factorial notation.)
(b) If the books are grouped in
categories, in how many ways
can they be arranged? (Answer in
factorial notation.)
(c) If one book is chosen at
random, find the probability that
it is a cookbook.
25. A minbus has 6 forward facing

and 2 backward facing seats.
If 8 people use the bus, in how
many ways can they be seated
(b) if one person must sit in a
forward facing seat
(c) if 2 people must sit in a
forward facing seat?
26. If 3 letters of the word VALUED
are selected at random, find the
number of possible arrangements if
(a) the first letter is D.
(b) the first letter is a vowel.
27. The letters of the word THEORY
are arranged randomly. Find the
number of arrangements.
(a) with no restrictions.
(b) if the E is at the beginning.
(c) if the first letter is a
consonant and the last letter is
a vowel.
22. (a) How many different

the numbers 3, 4, 4, 5 and 6?
(b) How many arrangements
form numbers greater than 4000?
(c) How many form numbers less
than 5000?
(d) If an arrangement is made at
random, find the probability that
it is less than 4000.
28. Find the number of arrangements

possible if x people are
(a) in a straight line
(b) in a circle
(c) in a circle with 2 people
together
(d) in a straight line with
3 people together
(e) in a circle with 2 people not
together.
23. Find the probability that an

arrangement of the word LAPTOP
will start with T.
29. (a) Use factorial notation to

8
8
P3
P5
show that
=
3!
5!
n
n
Pn - r
Pr
(b) Prove that
=
]
r!
n - r g!
24. What is the probability that

if a 3 letter word is formed
randomly from the letters of
PHYSICAL, it will be CAL?
30. Prove that n + 1 Pr = n Pr + r nPr - 1
Vowels are letters

a, e, i, o and u while
consonants are all
other letters.
739
740
Combinations
The permutation n Pr is the number of arrangements possible for an ordered
selection of r objects from a total of n objects.
When the order is not important, for example when AB is the same as BA,
the number of arrangements is called a combination.
EXAMPLES
1. A committee of 2 is chosen from Scott, Rachel and Kate. In how many
ways can this be done?
Solution
Number of ordered arrangements = 3 P2
=6
However, a committee of Scott and Rachel is the same as a committee
of Rachel and Scott. This is the same for all other arrangements of the
committee. There are 2! ways of arranging each committee of two people.
To get the number of unordered arrangements, we divide the number of
ordered arrangements by 2!
3
P2
2!
=3
2. There are 3 vacancies on a school council and 8 people who are
available. If the vacancies are filled randomly, in how many ways can this
happen?
Solution
Number of orderedarrangements = 8 P3
However, order is not necessary here, since the 3 vacancies filled by, say,
Hamish, Amie and Marcus, would be the same in any order.
There are 3! different ways of arranging Hamish, Amie and Marcus.
8
P3
So total arrangements =
3!
= 56
The number of ways of making unordered selections of r

n
objects from n is
Pr
r!
which is the same as
n!
] n - r g ! r!
741
Proof
n
Pr is the ordered selection of r objects from n objects.

There are r! ways of arranging r objects.
If order is unimportant, the unordered selection of r objects from n is given
n
Pr
by
.
r!
n!
n
Pr
]n - r g!
=
r!
r!
n!
1
#
=
] n - r g!
r!
n!
=
] n - r g !r !
n
Combination n Cr or a r k is the number of ways of making
unordered selections of r objects from a total of n objects.
n!
n
Cr =
] n - r! g r !
EXAMPLES
1. A bag contains 3 white and 2 black counters labelled W1, W2, W3 and
B1, B2. If two counters are drawn out of the bag, in how many ways can
this happen if order is not important?
Solution
Possible arrangements (unordered) are:
W1 W2
W1 W3
W1 B1
W1 B2
W2 W3
W2 B1
W2 B2
W3 B1
W3 B2
B1 B2
There are 10 different combinations.

Using combinations, the number of different arrangements of choosing
2 counters from 5 is 5 C 2 .
5!
5
C2 =
(5 - 2)!2!
5!
=
3!2!
= 10
CONTINUED
We can call this choose

notation.
742
2. If 12 coins are tossed, find the number of ways of tossing 7 tails.
Solution
The order is not important.
There are 12 C7 ways of tossing 7 tails from 12 coins
12
12!
(12 - 7)!7!
12!
=
5!7!
= 792
C7 =
3. (a) A committee of 5 people is formed randomly from a group of

15 students. In how many different ways can the committee be
formed?
(b) If the group consists of 9 senior and 6 junior students, in how
many ways can the committee be formed if it is to have 3 senior and
2 junior students in it?
Solution
(a) The order of the committee is not important.
l
Number of arrangements = b 15
5
= 3003
l
(b) 3 senior students can be chosen in b 9
3 or 84 ways.
l
2 junior students can be chosen in b 6
2 or 15 ways.
9
6
Total number of arrangements = c m # c m
3
2
= 84 #15
= 1260
4. A team of 6 men and 5 women is chosen at random from a group of
10 men and 9 women. If Kaye and Greg both hope to be chosen in the
team, find the probability that
(a) both will be chosen
(b) neither will be chosen.
Solution
The number of possible teams = 10 C 6 # 9 C 5
= 210 #126
= 26 460
(a) For Kaye to be chosen, then 4 out of the other 8 women will be chosen
i.e. 8 C 4
For Greg to be chosen, 5 out of the other 9 men will be chosen i.e. 9 C5
743
Number of combinations = 8 C4 # 9 C5
= 70 # 126
= 8820
8820
26 460
1
=
3
Probability =
(b) For Kaye and Greg not to be included, then 5 out of the other
8 women and 6 out of the other 9 men will be chosen.
Number of combinations = 8 C5 # 9 C6
= 56 #84
= 4704
4704
Probability =
26 460
8
=
45
13.5 Exercises
1.
2.
Write in factorial notation and

evaluate.
l
(a) b 9
5
l
(b) b 12
7
l
(c) b 8
3
(d)
10
C4
(e)
11
C5
people can be made randomly

from a group of
(a) 8 people
(b) 9 people
(c) 11 people
(d) 15 people
(e) 20 people.
4.
(a) Evaluate
(i) 10 C 0
(ii)
C0
l
(iii) b 14
0
(iv)
C9
11
m
11
(b) Hence complete
(i) n C 0 =
(v)
(ii)
3.
Cn =
Find the number of different

ways that a committee of 6
5.
(a) A set of 3 red cards and 3 blue

cards are placed in a box. By
naming the red cards R1, R2 and
R3 and the blue cards B1, B2 and
B3, list the number of different
arrangements possible when
2 cards are drawn out at random,
with order not important. How
many arrangements are possible?
(b) If there are 10 red and 10 blue
cards and 7 are drawn out at
random, how many different
combinations are possible?
A coin is tossed 20 times. How
many different arrangements are
there for tossing 5 heads?
The cards are

all distinct from
each other.
744
6.
A set of 10 marbles are placed in

a bag and 6 selected at random.
In how many different ways can
this happen?
7.
In poker, 5 cards are dealt from

a pack of 52 playing cards. How
possible?
8.
Three cards are drawn randomly

from a set of 10 cards with the
numbers 0 to 9 on them. How
possible if order is
(a) important
(b) unimportant?
9.
A debating team of 3 is chosen

from a class of 14 students. In
how many ways can the team be
selected if order is
(a) important
(b) unimportant?
10. A bag contains 12 different

lollies with blue wrappers and
15 different lollies with red
wrappers. If I take 6 lollies out
of the bag, how many different
combinations are possible?
11. A team of 4 players is chosen
at random from a group of
20 tennis players to play an
exhibition match. In how many
ways could the team be chosen?
12. A group of 3 students to go on a
student representative council is
chosen at random from a class of
27. In how many different ways
could this be done?
13. A board of 8 people is chosen
from a membership of 35. How
many different combinations are
possible?
14. A basketball team of 5 players is
selected at random from a group
of 12 PE students.
(a) In how many ways can the
team be selected?
(b) Find the probability that Erik

is selected as one of the team
members.
(c) Find the probability that Erik
and Jens are both selected.
15. A committee of 6 people is to be
selected randomly from a group of
11 men and 12 women. Find the
number of possible committees if
(a) there is no restriction on who
is on the committee
(b) all committee members are to
be male
(c) all members are to be female
(d) there are to be 3 men and
3 women
(e) a particular woman is
included
(f) a particular man is not
included
(g) there are to be 4 women and
2 men.
16. A horse race has 15 horses
competing and at the TAB, a
quinella pays out on the horses
that come in first and second, in
either order. Ryan decides to bet
on all possible combinations of
quinellas. If it costs him $1 a bet,
how much does he pay?
17. A group of 25 students consist
of 11 who play a musical
instrument and 14 who dont.
Find the number of different
arrangements possible if a group
of 9 students is selected at
random
(a) with no restriction
(b) who all play musical
instruments
(c) where 5 play musical
instruments
(d) where 2 dont play musical
instruments.
18. A set of cards consists of 8 yellow

and 7 red cards.
(a) If 10 cards are selected at
random, find the number of
different arrangements possible.
(b) If 8 cards are selected, find
the number of arrangements of
selecting
(i) 4 yellow cards
(ii) 6 yellow cards
(iii) 7 yellow cards
(iv) 5 red cards.
19. Ten cards are selected randomly
from a set of 52 playing cards.
Find the number of combinations
selected if
(a) there are no restrictions
(answer in scientific notation
correct to 3 significant figures)
(b) they are all hearts
(c) there are 7 hearts
(d) they are all red cards
(e) there are 4 aces.
20. An animal refuge has 17 dogs and
21 cats. If a nursing home orders
12 animals at random, find the
number of ways that the order
would have
(a) 7 dogs
(b) 9 dogs
(c) 10 dogs
(d) 4 cats
(e) 6 cats.
21. There are 8 white, 9 red and
5 blue marbles in a bag and 7 are
drawn out at random. Find the
number of arrangements possible
(a) with no restriction
(b) if all marbles are red
(c) if there are 3 white and 2 red
marbles
(d) if there are 4 red and 1 blue
marbles
(e) if there are 4 white and 2 blue
marbles.
22. Out of a group of 25 students,

7 walk to school, 12 catch a train
and 6 catch a bus. If 6 students
are selected, find the number of
combinations if
(a) all walk to school
(b) none catch a bus
(c) 3 walk to school and
1 catches a bus
(d) 1 walks to school and 4 catch
a train
(e) 3 catch a train and 1 catches
a bus.
745
The cards are all

distinct from each
other.
23. At a karaoke night, a group of

14 friends decide that 4 of them
will sing a song together. Of the
friends, 5 have previously sung
this song before. In how many
ways can they do this if they
select
(a) friends who have all sung the
song previously
(b) 2 of the friends who sang the
song previously
(c) none of the friends who sang
the song previously?
24. (a) Evaluate 12 C 5
(b) Evaluate 12 C 7
(c) By using factorial notation,
show why 12 C 5 = 12 C 7
25. By evaluating both sides, show
that 9 C 6 = 8 C 6 + 8 C 5
k a 13 k
26. Show that a 13
7 = 6
l b9 l b9 l
27. Show that b 10
4 = 4 + 3
n
n l
28. Prove that b l = b n r
r
29. Prove that n Pr = r! nC r
n
- 1 l bn - 1 l
30. Prove that b l = b n
k -1 + k
k
All marbles are

distinct.
746
Test yourself 13
1.
Find the number of ways of arranging

7 people
(a) in a straight line
(b) in a circle.
8.
A set of cards numbered from 1 to 20 is

arranged randomly. In how many ways
can this be done? (Answer in scientific
notation, to 2 significant figures.)
2.
A bag contains 8 red, 5 green and

9 yellow marbles. If a marble is chosen at
random, find the probability that it is
(a) red
(b) green or red
(c) not green.
9.
The probability of a missile hitting a

8
target is . What is the probability of the
9
missile missing the target?
3.
A carriage has 2 seats facing forwards

and 2 seats facing backwards. Find the
number of ways of seating 4 people in
the carriage if
(a) there are no restrictions
(b) one person must sit facing forwards.
4.
A set of 10 cards, numbered 1 to 10,

is placed into a box and 3 drawn
out at random. Find the number of
arrangements possible if order is
(a) important
(b) unimportant.
5.
A group of 10 boys and 16 girls are on

a school excursion. Five of them are
chosen at random to help the teacher
check the rolls. Find the number of ways
these students could be selected if
(b) 3 are girls
(c) all are boys.
6.
The probability of winning a game of

chance is 59% and the probability of a
draw is 12%. What is the probability of
losing?
7.
In how many ways can 3 letter words

be selected at random from the word
RANDOM?
10. A 5 person committee is selected from a

class of 30 students. In how many ways
can the committee be selected?
11. In a horse race, a person bets at the TAB
on a trifecta. To win, the person must
pick the first 3 horses in order. In how
many ways is it possible to win if there
are 11 horses in the race?
12. (a) A group of 9 friends go out to dinner
and sit at a round table. In how many
ways can this be done?
(b) The 9 friends then go to a nightclub
and randomly queue up to get in. How
many arrangements are there?
(c) If Jack and Jill queue up together, in
how many ways can the friends line up?
(d) Once they get into the nightclub,
there is only a table for 3 available, and
the others will have to stand up. If the
friends randomly assign who sits at the
table, in how many different ways can
they be seated?
13. How many different arrangements are
there of the word
(a) PERMUTATION
(b) COMBINATION
(c) FACTORIAL
(d) PROBABILITY
(e) SELECTION
14. A set of n coins are tossed. Find the

number of ways if tossing k tails.
15. A set of 20 cards is numbered 1 to 20 and
6 selected at random. Find the number of
arrangements of selecting
(a) all odd numbers
(b) the last 2 numbers less than 5.
16. In Australian Idyll, there are 12 singers
who must choose a song to sing from a
list of 32 songs. Each singer takes turns
in order to randomly choose a song.
In how many ways could these choices
be made? Answer in scientific notation
correct to 2 decimal places.
ballet exam. If 8 students are chosen at

random, find the number of ways that
(a) 5 are practising for the exam
(b) all are practising for the exam
(c) 3 are practising for the exam.
18. Evaluate
k
(a) a 6
4
(b) 9 P7
19. A serial number is made up of 4 letters
and 2 numbers. If zero is not allowed,
find how many serial numbers are
possible.
20. (a) Evaluate 0!
n
n
(b) Show that a k = a k
n
0
17. A ballet class has 30 students in it. Of

these students, 21 are practising for a
1.
2.
3.
4.
Numbers are formed from the digits

1, 2, 3, 3, and 7 at random.
(a) In how many ways can they be
arranged with no restrictions?
(b) In how many ways can they be
arranged to form a number greater than
30 000?
A charm bracelet has 6 charms on it.
In how many ways can the charms be
arranged if the bracelet
(a) has a clasp
(b) has no clasp?
n
n - 1l bn - 1 l
Show that b l = b +
for
k
k
k 1
1 # k # n - 1.
A group of n people sit around a circular
table.
(a) In how many ways can they be
arranged?
(b) How many arrangements are possible

if k people sit together?
5.
(a) How many different arrangements of

the word CHALLENGE are there?
(b) How many different arrangements
are possible if 3 letters are randomly
selected from the word CHALLENGE and
arranged into words?
6.
A subcommittee of 5 people is formed

from the 12 members of a board.
(a) If this is a random selection, in how
many different ways can the committee
be formed?
(b) If there are 4 NSW members and
3 Queensland members on the board,
what is the probability that 2 NSW and
2 Queensland members will be on the
committee?
747
748
7.
Prove that n Pr = r! nC r
8.
A management committee is made up

of 5 athletes and 3 managers. If the
committee is formed randomly from a
group of 20 athletes and 10 managers,
find
(a) the number of different ways in
which the committee could be formed
(b) the probability that Marcus, an
athlete, is included
(c) the probability that both Marcus and
his girlfriend, Rachel who is a manager,
are included
(d) the probability that Marcus and
Rachel are excluded from the committee.
9.
A set of 100 counters, numbered from

1 to 100, is placed in a bag and 4 drawn
out at random in order. Find the number

of different possible arrangements if
(b) all the numbers are 90 or more
(c) all numbers are even
(d) all numbers are less than 20
(e) the first number is greater than 60
(f) the first 2 numbers are odd.
10. In a group of 35 students, 18 play soccer
and 21 play basketball. All students play
at least one of these sports. If one of
these students is selected at random, find
the probability that this student
(a) plays both soccer and basketball
(b) plays basketball but not soccer.

SET 4
1.
Find the zeros of f ^ x h = ^ 2x - 1 h5 .
2.
Write P ^ x h = x 3 + 4x 2 - x - 4 as a
3.
For the polynomial

f ^ x h = 3x 4 - 2x 3 - x + 8, what graph
does the polynomial approach as x
becomes very large?
4.
Find the number of ways of seating

10 people around a table
(a) randomly
(b) if three people are to sit together
(c) if two people must not sit together.
5.
Find the zeros of the polynomial

f (x) = x 4 - x 3 + x 2 - 3x - 6.
6.
Find the coordinates of the point that

divides the interval between (3, 4) and
(-5, 1) in the external ratio of 2:3.
7.
8.
9.
If a , b and c are the roots of

x 3 + 2x 2 - 3x + 4 = 0, find
(a) abc
(b) a + b + c
1 1 1
(c)
+ +
a b c
(d) a2 + b2 + c2
A and B are the points (-4, 0) and (4, 0)
respectively. Point P (x, y) moves so
that PA 2 + PB 2 = 36. Find the equation
of the locus of P and describe it
geometrically.
Find the sum of the interior angles of
a regular polygon with 19 sides. How
large is each angle (in degrees and
minutes)?
10. Prove that the line 6x - 8y + 40 = 0 is

a tangent to the circle with centre the
origin and radius 4 units.
(k -1) x 2 - 5x + 3k + 4 = 0, the roots are
reciprocals of each other. Find the value
of k.
12. Find x and y, giving reasons.
13. Evaluate 10 C 3.
14. Solve x 2 - 4 2 0.
15. A polynomial P (x) has a double root at
x = 2. Show that P (2) = Pl(2) = 0.
16. If a , b, c and d are the roots of the
equation x 4 - 3x 3 + 2x + 1 = 0, find
(a) a bcd
(b) a + b + c + d
(c) ab and a + b
if c = -2 and d = 5.
17. In how many different ways can a
committee of 4 people be selected from a
group of 9 people?
18. Find the remainder if
P ^ x h = 3x 5 - 4x 3 + 2x 2 - 7x - 3 is
divided by x + 1.
749
750
19.
29. The angle of elevation from a point

A to the top of a tower BC is 38c 54l .
A is 10 m due south of the tower.
CD is a tangent to the circle and

AB = 5.6 m, BC = 4.8 m. Find the length
of CD, correct to 1 decimal place.
20. Find the obtuse angle between the
lines 2x - y = 0 and 5x + 2y - 3 = 0.
21. (a) Write P ] x g = x 3 - 7x 2 + 15x - 9 as a
(b) Sketch the graph of the polynomial
on a number plane.
x
.
x2 - 4
23. Show that the remainder, on dividing
P (x) = 2x 3 - 7x 2 + x - 9 by (x + 2), is
P ( - 2) .
22. Sketch y =
24. If a , b, c and d are the roots of

x4 - x3 + x2 - 1 = 0
(a) show that
abc + acd + bcd + abd = 0
(b) nd (a + b + c + d) 2
(c) nd a 2 + b2 + c2 + d2.
(a) Find the height of the tower, to

1 decimal place.
(b) If point D is 11.2 m due east of the
tower, nd the angle of elevation from D
to the tower.
30. If P (x) = (x 2 - 1)3 (x 2 + 5)
(a) nd all zeros of P (x)
(b) show P (1) = P l(1) = 0.
31. What is the domain and range of
y = x 2 - 3?
32. Prove that TABC is congruent to TCDE.
33. Find the area of the gure below.
25. Show that if the polynomial P(x) has a

double root at x = 3, P ] 3 g = Pl(3) = 0.
26. A team of 3 boys and 5 girls is chosen at
random from a class of 12 boys and 18
girls. In how many ways can this be done?
27. A circle with centre at the origin O passes
through the point (2, 5 ). Find the
radius of the circle, and hence its
equation.
28. Find values of a, b and c for which
3x 2 - 2x - 7 / a (x + 2) 2 + b (x + 2) + c.

through the midpoint of (-5, 7) and
(1, 3) and making an angle of 135c with
the x-axis.
35. Complete the square on x 2 - 12x.

3x - y - 4 = 0 and 7x + 3y + 1 = 0.
37. Solve 2y + 4 $ 9.
3
38. Sketch y = 2
.
x -1
39. Find the point P that divides the
interval AB in the ratio 4:3, given that
A has coordinates (3, 6) and B has
coordinates (-5, 8) .

tan 75c - tan 15c
.
1 + tan 75c tan 15c
3
46. Solve
1 5.
x-1
47. Solve sin x - 3 cos x = 2 for
0c # x # 360c.
48. (a) Find the equation of the normal to
the curve y = x 2 - 6x + 9 at the point
where x = -1.
(b) This normal cuts the curve again at
point R. Find the coordinates of R.
40. (a) Find the equation of the tangent

to the curve y = x 3 - 3x at the point
P (-2, -2).
(b) Find the equation of the normal to
y = x 3 - 3x at P.
(c) Find the point Q where this normal
cuts the x-axis.
(d) The curve y = x 3 - 3x meets the line
3x - 2y + 2 = 0 at P. Find the angle
between the line and the curve at P.
50. Show that x - 3 is a factor of

f ] x g = 3x 3 - 7x 2 - 5x - 3.
41. What is the domain and range of the

x
function f (x) = 2
?
x -4
42. Simplify
(a) sin a cos b - cos a sin b
(b) cos 15c cos 30c - sin 15c sin 30c
(c) 1 - sin 2 15c
52. Find two possible equations for the

straight line passing through (1, 2) that
intersects the line x - 2y + 5 = 0 at an
angle of 45c .
43. Jason measures the angle of elevation

of a tower as 38c 52l at a point A,
185 m due west of the tower. He then
walks to a point B, 140 m due south of
the tower.
(a) What is the height of the tower,
correct to 1 decimal place?
(b) What is the angle of elevation of the
tower from point B?
44. Point X divides AB externally in the ratio
3:5, given A (3, 4) and B (0, -5). Find the
coordinates of X.
49. Write sin i + cos 2i in terms of t where

i
t = tan .
2
51. The function f (x) = ax 2 + bx + c has a

tangent at (1, -3) with a gradient of -1.
It also passes through (4, 3) . Find the
values of a, b and c.
53. In the cone below, the vertical angle

is 54c and the perpendicular height is
20 cm. Find the volume and surface area
of the cone, correct to the nearest whole
number.
54. Solve y 1
-2
y+3
751
752
3
12
and tan y =
, express
5
5
cos (x - y) as a fraction.
55. If sin x =
64. How many committees of 5 people could

be formed randomly from a meeting of
20 people?
56. Solve for 0c # x # 360c

(a) sin 2 x = 3 cos 2 x
(b) sin x + cos x - 1 = 0
(c) cos 2 x + sin x + 1 = 0
65. Write the polynomial

P ] x g = - x 3 + 3x 2 + 9x + 5 as a product of
its factors.
x-1
.
x2 - 5
x-1
(b) Sketch y = 2
.
x -5
66. A string of beads is made up of 5 orange

and 5 black beads. If they are randomly
arranged around the necklace, how many
possible combinations are there?
57. (a) Find xlim

"3
58. Find the general solution of sin 2i = -1.

59. Find the angle between the curves y = x
and y = x 2 at (1, 1) .
67. An example of a polynomial with leading

coefficient -3 and degree 4 is
(a)
y
60. The point P (1, 2) divides the interval

A (x, 3) and B ^ -5, y h in the external ratio
of 5:4. Find the values of x and y.
61. For the polynomial
f ] x g = - x 4 + x 3 - 2x 2 + x - 2 , what
graph does the polynomial approach as
x becomes very large?
62. If a , b, and c are the roots of the cubic
equation x 3 - 4x 2 - 3x + 2 , evaluate
(a) a + b + c
(b) abc
(c) ab + bc + ac
1 1 1
(d) + +
a b c
(b)
(e) a 2 + b2 + c2
63. By dividing the polynomial
P ] x g = x 3 - 2x 2 + x + 3 by
x - 2 , write P(x) in the form
P ]x g = ]x - 2 gQ ]x g + R ]x g.
(c)
69. The graph of the polynomial

P ^ x h = x 3 ^ x + 3 h 2 is
(a)
(d)
(b)
68. What is the number of possible outcomes

when arranging the letters of the word
LITERATURE?
10!
(a)
2! 2!
10!
(b)
2! 2! 2!
(c) 10!
10!
(d)
3!
753
754
72. The number of possible seating

positions for 12 people sitting at a round
table is
(c)
(a)
12
C 11
(b) 11!
(c) 12!
x
-3
(d)
12
P11
73. The graph below is of the polynomial

(a) P ^ x h = x ^ x - 2 h 2
(b) P ^ x h = x ^ x + 2 h 2
(c) P ^ x h = x 2 ^ x + 2 h
(d) P ^ x h = x 2 ^ x - 2 h
(d)
70. The polynomial P ^ x h = x 3 - 5x 2 + 3x - 8

(a) is monic
(b) has degree 3
(c) has leading coefficient - 8
(d) has constant term - 8.
(there may be more than one answer)
74. Combination nCr is equal to

(a) ] n - r g ! n Pr
-3
71. The number of possible different PINs

with a combination of 4 numbers and
2 letters is
(a) 4 435 236
(b) 6 760 000
(c) 1 000 000
(d) 10 676
(b)
Pr
(n - r) !
(c) r! n Pr
n
(d)
Pr
r!
75. The graph below could have a leading

term of
(a) x 6
(b) x 5
(c) - x 4
(d) - x 3
y
755
756
Answers
Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic
8.
o (b) 0.07
oo (c) 0.13
oo (d) 0.16
o
(a) 0.83
o
oo
o
(g) 0.142857 or 0. 142857 (h) 1.18
oo
(f) 0.15
o
(e) 0.6
Problem
9.
Exercises 1.1
1.
2.
(a) Rational (b) Rational

(e) Rational (f) Irrational
(i) Rational (j) Irrational
(e) - 4.3
(a) 18 (b) 11 (c) 6 (d) 11

(h) 1
3.
(c) Rational
(g) Irrational
19
20
(i) 2
(j) 3
(d) Irrational
(h) Rational
(f) 1
(g) 2
7
15
1
3
(f) 0.17 (g) 0.36 (h) 1.20 (i) - 4.27

1300
8.
600
5. 950
16. 1.7
6. 3000
(j) 8.16
(i)
5
8
24. (a) 7.95 (b) 30.03 (c) 0.37 (d) 5.74 (e) 0.52 25. 0.2
(b) 2
6.
- 1.2
10. - 2
15. 5
3. - 56
8.
8. - 35.52
9. 6.57
(a)
11. - 7
12. 23
13. 10
16. 3
16
25
(b)
17. 1
14. 1
18. 60 19. 20 20. 9
51
1000
(c) 5
1
20
(d) 11
4
5
7
20
3
(e)
5
o
(a) 0.4 (b) 1.875 (c) 0.416
3.
(a)
4.
(a) 0.27 (b) 1.09 (c) 0.003 (d) 0.0623
5.
1
(a) 35% (b) 33 %
3
6.
(a) 124% (b) 70%
7.
(a) 0.52;
(b)
13
25
(d) 1.09; 1
(e)
o
(c) 0.73
oo
(d) 0.68
8
11
7
18
(c)
67
99
(f)
6
11
(g)
7
45
(d) 2
oo
(e) 1.72
4
45
(e)
14. 17.5%
15. 41.7%
1
20
7
4. $547.56 5. 714.3 g 6.
24
2.
3
28
17
20
3. (a)
(b)
7
10
(c) 1
7. $65
179 cm 9. (a) 11.9 (b) 5.3 (c) 19 (d) 3.2 (e) 3.5
(f) 0.24 (g) 0.000 18 (h) 5720 (i) 0.0874 (j) 0.376
14. 5.9%
15. 402.5 g
19. 573
12. 1152.125 g
16. 41.175 m
13. $10.71
17. $30.92
20. $2898
3
8
(c)
1
1000
Exercises 1.5
(d) 1
(a) 500
(b) 145
(c)
2.
(a) 13.7
(b) 1.1
(c) 0.8
3.
(a) a 17
(e) 0.434;
(c) 0.168;
217
500
(h) x 21
4.
21
125
(f) 0.1225;
(h) p - 1
5.
49
400
(a) x14
(a) p5q15
(f) x4y10
(d) 3
(d) 2.7
(c) a - 4
(i) 4x 10
(d) w
(j) 81y - 8
(o) x -3
(n) p 5
(q) x - 5 y 2 or
(c) 40.5% (d) 127.94%

7
100
(b) y 0 = 1
(m) w 10
97
1000
(d) 0.1%
1
64
1.
oo
(d) 0.63
2
(c) 226 %
3
(b) 0.07;
9
100
5
minutes after 1 oclock.
11
(g) y 6
2.
1
50
7
9
37
495
11. 54.925 mL
Exercises 1.3
1.
(j) 1
10. $52.50
5. - 4
4. 10
7. - 7.51
4
15
(d) 3
Problem
2. - 11
1.
1
8
5
9
13. 77.5%
18. 3.2 m
Exercises 1.2
217
990
(b) 7.4
3
20
(d)
23. $3.20
(c) 1
Exercises 1.4
17. 79 cents 18. 2.73 19. 1.1 20. 3.6 m

22. 1.8 g
13
60
11. (a)
1.
7. 11 000
12. 0.73 13. 33 14. 3.248 15. 4.21
21. $281.93
(h)
2
9
(b)
o
10. (a) 0.5
9. $8 000 000 10. $34 600 000
11. 844 km
8
9
12. 74%
(a) 16.36 (b) 21.87 (c) 8.80 (d) 22.71 (e) - 13.20
4.
(a)
(e) 2
(e) - 2.6
(e) x 5
(k) a
(p) a - 2 b 3 or
(f) 0.5
(f) p 10
(l)
x 10
b3
y 45
a2
x5
(b) a -7
(c) m4 (d) k10 (e) a -8
(f) x
(g) mn2
(i) 9x22 (j) x21

(b)
a8
8
b
2k 23
(g)
27
(c)
64a 3
b 12
(d) 49a10b2 (e) 8m17
(h) 16y47 (i) a3 (j) 125x - 21 y 18
ANSWERS
6.
1
2
7. 324
8. 2
10
27
9. (a) a3b
1
25
(b)
1
2
5.
(a) x 2
6.
(a) x + x 2 + 2x 2
(b) x
(c) x 3
(d) x 3
(e) x 4
7
(b)
32
2 2
10. (a) pq r
14.
1
81
4
11.
9
1
108
15.
1
12.
18
1
12
16.
4
13.
27
5 22
17.
49
3888
18.
2 58
(d) x + x - 1 + 2
7.
Exercises 1.6
1.
2.
3.
(d)
1
1
1
1
1
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f) 1
4
27
343
10 000
256
1
1
1
1
1
1
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m) 1
7
64
9
32
81
81
1
1
1
1
(n)
(o)
(p)
(q)
(r) 1
36
125
100 000
128
1
1
(s)
(t)
64
64
1.
(e) x
1
2
- 3x
^ y - 3 h2
(e)
3 4 ^ x + y h5
(b)
a - 2b
3
2
+x
(c)
5
2
4
7
] 6a + 1 g4
6
7 9 ] 3x + 8 g2
(a) m - 3
(b) x - 1
-4
(h) 3y
(c) p - 7
2
2.
(d) d 9 (e) d 5 (f) x - 2

3t - 8
(j)
5
1
z- 6
(i) z - 6 or
2
2
2x - 1
(k)
7
2y - 7
5m
(m)
(n) ] 3x + 4 g- 2 (o) ] a + b g- 8
2
3
(p) ] x - 2 g- 1 (q) ^ 5p + 1 h- 3 (r) 2 ] 4t - 9 g- 5
]x + 1g
4
(a)
(h)
1
5
t
5
x7
(m)
(t)
1
(b)
(c)
x
1
(i)
5 ] a + 3b g
9
1
y
1
n
(e)
1
w
(k)
2
x
(f)
10
(g)
1
(l)
8y + z
] x + 1 g6
(n)
]k - 3g
(d)
1
(j)
4n
8x 3
(o) x5 (p) y10 (q)
^ 3x + 2y h
x-y
3x + y 7
o
(s)
(t) e
x+y
2w - z
(r) ] a + b g2
3
m
(a) 2.19 (b) 2.60 (c) 1.53 (d) 0.60 (e) 0.90 (f) 0.29
3.
(a) 3 y
(b) 3 y 2 or _ 3 y i
(c)
(f) 3 6q + r
(g)
1
x
(d)
1
] x + 7 g2
2x + 5
or
(b) y 5
(c) x 2
(d) ] 9 - x g 3
(e) ] 4s + 1 g 2
(i) ] x - 2 g
2
3
1
2
(g) ^ 5x - y h
3
2
(j)
1
(l)
(f) 4.16 # 10 5
(h) 1.376 # 10
(a) 5.7 # 10 - 2
-4
-6
(i) 2 # 10 7
(b) 5.5 # 10 - 5
(e) 2 #10
-6
(h) 2.3#10
(j) 8 #10 4
(c) 4 # 10 - 3
(f) 8#10 - 8
-1
(i) 8.5#10 - 3
(j) 7#10 - 11
(a) 36 000 (b) 27 800 000 (c) 9 250 (d) 6 330 000
(e) 400 000 (f) 0.072 3 (g) 0.000 097
(h) 0.000 000 038 (i) 0.000 007 (j) 0.000 5
4.
(a) 240 000 (b) 9 200 000 (c) 11 000 (d) 0.36
(e) 1.3 (f) 9.0 (g) 16 (h) 320 (i) 2900 (j) 9.1
5.
(a) 6.61
6.
1.305 # 10 10
(b) 0.686
(c) 8.25
(d) 1.30
7. 6.51 # 10 - 10
Exercises 1.9
1.
(a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 0 (e) 2 (f) 11 (g) 6 (h) 24

(i) 25 (j) 125 2. (a) 5 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 14 (e) 4
(f) 67 (g) 7 (h) 12 (i) 6 (j) 10 3. (a) 3 (b) 3
(c) 1 (d) 3 (e) 1 4. (a) a (b) - a (c) 0 (d) 3a
(e) 3a (f) 0 (g) a + 1 (h) -a - 1 (i) x - 2
(j) 2 - x
5.
(a) | a + b | = 6
(b) | a + b | = 3
(c) | a + b | = 1
(d) | a + b | = 1
(e) | a + b | = 10
6.
(a)
x2 = | x | = 5
(b)
x2 = | x | = 2
(d)
x2 = | x | = 4
(e)
x2 = | x | = 9
2a 2
2
y - 1k
3
|a | + | b |= 6 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
|a | + | b |= 3 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
|a | + | b |= 5 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
|a | + | b |= 9 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
| a | + | b | = 10 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
(c)
x2 = | x | = 3
7.
(a) x + 5 for x 2 - 5 and - x - 5 for x 1 - 5

(b) b - 3 for b 2 3 and 3 - b for x 1 3
(c) a + 4 for a 2 - 4 and - a - 4 for a 1 - 4
(d) 2y - 6 for y 2 3 and 6 - 2y for y 1 3
(e) 3x + 9 for x 2 - 3 and - 3x - 9 for x 1 - 3
(f) 4 - x for x 1 4 and x - 4 for x 2 4
1
1
(g) 2k + 1 for k 2 - and - 2k - 1 for k 1 2
2
2
2
(h) 5x - 2 for x 2 and - 5x + 2 for x 1
5
5
(i) a + b for a 2 - b and - a - b for a 1 - b
(j) p - q for p 2 q and q - p for p 1 q
8.
x = !3
1
^ 5 x + 7 h2
(a) t 2
(f) ] 2t + 3 g
(e) 8.67 # 10 9
3.
2.
(d) 1.2 #10 7
(g) 7.6#10
(a) 9 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 2 (e) 7 (f) 10 (g) 2 (h) 8

(i) 4 (j) 1 (k) 3 (l) 2 (m) 0 (n) 5 (o) 7 (p) 2
1
1
(q) 4 (r) 27 (s)
(t)
2
16
3x - 1
(c) 6.19 # 10 4
(d) 6.2 #10
Exercises 1.7
(e)
(b) 1.23#10 6
-7
- 11
(s)
(a) 3.8 # 10 3
(g) 9 #10
(l)
4.
(c) p 2 + p - 1 + 2p 2
Exercises 1.8
1
11
1
(a) 1 (b) 16 (c) 1
(d) 1
(e) 1 (f) 125 (g) 1
2
25
3
3
13
19
1
(h) 49 (i) 3
(j) 32 (k) 2
(l) 1 (m) 1
(n) 1
8
3
36
81
5
16
7
(o) 1 (p) 16 (q) - 15
(r) (s) 1 (t)
8
23
25
-6
1.
1
3
(a)
(g) 2x
4.
(a)
(b) a 3 - b 3
(h) ] 3x + 1 g 2
1
1
^ y + 7 h 2 (k) 5 ] x + 4 g 3
2
3
3
4
(m) _ x 2 + 2 i
5
9. !1
10. !1, x ! 2
757
758
Test yourself 1
1.
(a)
9
20
(b) 0.14 (c) 0.625
(f) 73.3%
3.
Chapter 2: Algebra and surds
2. (a)
1
49
(b)
157
200
1
(c)
3
(d)
1
5
Exercises 2.1
(e) 1.2%
(a) 8.83 (b) 1.55 (c) 1.12 (d) 342 (e) 0.303 4. (a) 1
(e) - 10 (f) - 1 (g) 4 5. (a) x 9
8x 18
29
(b) 25y 6 (c) a 11 b 6 (d)
(e) 1 6. (a)
27
40
1
1
1
(b) 3
(c) 12 (d) 2
(e) 12
7. (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 19
7
2
2
1
1
(d)
(e) 4 (f) 3 (g)
(h) 2 (i) 1 (j) 4
7
64
(b) 1 (c) 39 (d) 2
8.
30 18
(a) a
(b) x y
(c) p
(g)
1 -3
x
2
36
11
(d) 16b
(d) ] x + 1 g
(b) x - 5 (c) ^ x + y h- 1
(f) 2x - 1
(e) 8x y
1
4
9. (a) n
1
(i) ] 5x + 3 g 7
3
4
1
] 4t - 7 g4
1
1
(f) 5 a + b (g)
(h) 4 b 3 (i) 3 ] 2x + 3 g4 (j)
3
x
x3
11. | a + b | = 2 | a | +| b | = 8 ` | a + b | # | a | + | b |
10. (a)
a5
(b) 4 n
1
13.
192
12. 1
(c)
(d)
(c) ] x + 3 g 6
(b) y - 1
(b) 1.23 # 10 11
b 5
(c) c m
a
1
(c)
8
7
(d) ] 2x - 3 g- 11
20. (a) 1.3 # 10 - 5

3
(e)
7
14. 689 mL 15. (a) 6 h (b)
12
22. (a)
(b)
1
2a + 5
21. (a)
7
9
(e) y 3
(b)
41
330
23. 14 500
24. LHS = | -2 + - 5 | = 7, RHS = | -2 | + | -5 | = 7.

So | a + b | # | a | +| b | since 7 # 7.
1.
4.
1
1
53 % 5.
3
16
9.
18 h
11.
2. 1
11
18
3. 0.502, 51%,
6. 3.04 # 10
14
51
o
, 0. 5
99
3271
7. 83% 8. 1
9990
10. 1.98
LHS = 2 ^ 2 k - 1 h + 2 k + 1
= 2k+1 - 2 + 2k+1
= 2:2 k + 1 - 2
= 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h
= RHS
` 2 ^ 2k - 1 h + 2k+1 = 2 ^ 2k+1 - 1 h
o , 0,
12. 24 35 13. - 0.34, 2, 1. 5
3
7
2
14. 6 %
3
1
1
15.
when x 2 - 1,
when x 1 - 1 16. 0.73
x-1
1-x
17. 0.6%
7.
-y
3. z
8. 5x
13. - m
9. 0
14. - x
19. 6x - 6y
4. 6a
10. 3k
15. 0
20. a - 3b
23. m 2 - 6m + 12
26. - 2ab + 10b
5. 3b
6. 3r
11. 9t
16. 5b
12. 10w
17. 11b
21. 4xy + 2y
24. p 2 - 2p - 6
27. 2bc - ac
29. x 3 - 2xy 2 + 3x 2 y + 2y 3
18. - 10x
22. - 6ab 2
25. 8x + 3y
28. 2a 5 - 9x 3 + 1
30. 3x 3 + x 2 - 7x - 6
4. - 6wz
3. 10p 2
1.
10b
2. 8xy
5.
15ab 6. 14xyz 7. 48abc 8. 12d 2
9.
12a3
10. - 27y3
13. - 10a 3 b 2
12. 6a 2 b 3
14. 21p 3 q 4
16. - 8n 10 17. k 3 p 3
15. 5a 3 b 3
19. - 14m
11. 32x10
11
20. 24x y
18. 81t 12
Exercises 2.3
1.
6x
3. 4a 2
2. 2
4. 8a
5. 4a
6.
7. 3p
ab
4
1
-2
9.
10. - 3x 3 11. 3a 12.
13.
qs
3y
2
3ab 2
4 7
6
2
a b
2
z
b
14.
15.
16. 6p 4 q 17.
18.
4c
2a
3c 2 d
2x 2
8.
19. -
x3 z3
3y
a 13
20.
2b 6
Exercises 2.4
Challenge exercise 1
278
303
2. 3a
16. $38 640 17. 70% 18. 6.3 # 10 23
(d) 33.3%
19. (a) x 2
x+1
1
x-y
(j) m
7x
Exercises 2.2
(e) ] a + b g 7
(h) x 3
1
2
1.
18 4.54 19. 4.14 # 10 - 20
20. | a + b | = | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 2 0 or a 1 0, b 1 0;
| a + b | 1 | a | + | b | when a 2 0, b 1 0 or a 1 0, b 2 0;
` | a + b | # | a + b | for all a, b
1.
2x - 8
5.
x 2 - 2x 6. 6a 2 - 16ab 7. 2a 2 b + ab 2 8. 5n 2 - 20n
2. 6h + 9
3. - 5a + 10
9.
3x3 y2 + 6x2 y3
10. 4k + 7
11. 2t - 17
12. 4y + 11y
13. - 5b - 6
15. - 3m + 1
16. 8h - 19 17. d - 6
19. 3x - 9x - 5
2
22. - 7y + 4
14. 8 - 2x
20. 2ab - 2a b + b
2
23. 2 b
4. 2xy + 3x
24. 5t - 6
18. a 2 - 2a + 4
21. 4x - 1
25. 2a + 26
Exercises 2.5
1.
a 2 + 7a + 10
2. x 2 + 2x - 3
4.
m 2 - 6m + 8
5. x 2 + 7x + 12
7.
2x 2 + x - 6
8. h 2 - 10h + 21
3. 2y 2 + 7y - 15
6. y 2 - 3y - 10
9. x 2 - 25
10. 15a 2 - 17a + 4 11. 8y 2 + 6y - 9 12. xy + 7x - 4y - 28

13. x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x - 6
16. 16 - 49y 2
20. y 2 - 36
14. n 2 - 4
17. a 2 - 4b 2
21. 9a 2 - 1
15. 4x 2 - 9
18. 9x 2 - 16y 2
22. 4z 2 - 49
19. x 2 - 9
ANSWERS
23. x 2 - 2xy + 11x - 18y + 18 24. 2ab + 2b 2 - 7b - 6a + 3
Exercises 2.8
25. x + 8
1.
]x + 4g]2 + bg
4.
]m - 2g]m + 3g
5. ] d - c g ] a + b g 6. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 + 3 h
7.
] 5a - 3 g ] b + 2 g
8. ^ 2y - x h ^ x + y h
26. a - 27
27. a + 18a + 81
28. k - 8k + 16
29. x + 4x + 4
33. 9a + 24ab + 16b

35. 4a + 4ab + b
2
32. 4t 2 - 4t + 1
38. a - 2ab + b
30. y - 14y + 49
31. 4x 2 + 12x + 9
34. x - 10xy + 25y
36. a - b
39. a + b
10. ] x + 5 g ] x - 1 g
37. a + 2ab + b
40. a - b
3
2. ^ y - 3 h ] a + b g
9. ^ y + 1 h ] a + 1 g
11. (y + 3) (1 + a)
13. ^ x + 5y h ^ 2x - 3y h
3. ] x + 5 g ] x + 2 g
12. (m - 2) (1 - 2y)
14. ^ a + b h ] ab - 4 g
2
15. ] 5 - x g ] x + 3 g 16. (x + 7) (x 3 - 4)
17. ] x - 3 g ^ 7 - y h
18. ] d + 3 g ] 4 - e g 19. ] x - 4 g ^ 3 + y h
Exercises 2.6
1.
t + 8t + 16
4.
y 2 + 16y + 64
7.
n 2 + 2n + 1
2. z - 12z + 36
3. x - 2x + 1
23. ] x - 2 g ^ 3x 2 - 5 h
5. q 2 + 6q + 9
6. k 2 - 14k + 49
25. ^ y + 7 h ] x - 4 g
8. 4b 2 + 20b + 25
9. 9 - 6x + x 2
10. 9y - 6y + 1
11. x + 2xy + y
13. 16d + 40de + 25e

2
16. p 2 - 1
27. a 2 -
15. x 2 - 9
28. x 2 - ^ y - 2 h2 = x 2 - y 2 + 4y - 4
a2
29. 5 (y - 3) (1 + 2x)
30. ] r + 2 g ] rr - 3 g
23. x 4 - 4
4
26. x + 4 + 2
x
28. 3 (a + 2b) (a + 3)
19. 4a 2 - 9
22. 49 - 9x 2
25. 9a b - 16c
26. (x - 4) (x 3 - 5)
27. (2x - 3) (2x + 4) = 2 (2x - 3) (x 2 + 2)
18. x 2 - 100
24. ] a - 3b g ] 4 + c g
12. 9a - 6ab + b
21. 16a 2 - 1
24. x + 10x + 25
4
14. t - 16
17. r 2 - 36
20. x 2 - 25y 2
22. ^ q - 3 h ^ p + q h
21. (x - 3) (x 2 + 6)
20. ] a + 3 g ] 2 - b g
Exercises 2.9
1.
]x + 3g]x + 1g
4.
] t + 4 g2
7.
]v - 3g]v - 5g
2. ^ y + 4 h ^ y + 3 h
5. ] z + 3 g ] z - 2 g
8. ] t - 3 g
3. ] m + 1 g2
6. ] x + 1 g ] x - 6 g
9. ] x + 10 g ] x - 1 g
29. ] a + b g2 + 2 ] a + b g c + c 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 + 2ac + 2bc + c 2
10. ^ y - 7 h ^ y - 3 h
11. ] m - 6 g ] m - 3 g
30. ] x + 1 g2 - 2 ] x + 1 g y + y 2 = x 2 + 2x + 1 - 2xy - 2y + y 2
12. ^ y + 12 h ^ y - 3 h
13. ] x - 8 g ] x + 3 g
32. 32 - z
31. 12a
34. x 2 + 3xy + y 2 - 2x
33. 9x + 8x - 3
2
36. x - 12x + 48x - 64

3
14. ] a - 2 g
35. 14n 2 - 4
37. x
38. x - 2x y + y
4
15. ] x - 2 g ] x + 16 g
16. ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 9 h
17. ] n - 6 g ] n - 4 g 18. ] x - 5 g 2
19. ^ p + 9 h ^ p - 1 h
20. ] k - 2 g ] k - 5 g 21. ] x + 4 g ] x - 3 g
39. 8a + 60a + 150a + 125
22. ] m - 7 g ] m + 1 g 23. ^ q + 10 h ^ q + 2 h
40. 4x + 16x + 15x - 4x - 4
24. ] d - 5 g ] d + 1 g 25. ] l - 9 g ] l - 2 g
Problem
Exercises 2.10
a = 2, b = 7, c = 9, d = 4, e = 3, f = 8, g = 0, h = 6, i = 1
1.
(2a + 1) (a + 5) 2. ^ 5y + 2 h ^ y + 1 h
3.
(3x + 7) (x + 1) 4. (3x + 2) (x + 2) 5. (2b - 3) (b - 1)
6.
(7x - 2) (x - 1) 7. ^ 3y - 1 h ^ y + 2 h
9.
^ 5p - 2 h ^ p + 3 h 10. ] 3x + 5 g ] 2x + 1 g
Exercises 2.7
2. 5 ] x - 2 g 3. 3 ] m - 3 g 4. 2 ] 4x + 1 g
1.
2^y + 3h
5.
6 ^ 4 - 3y h
9.
3a ] 5 - a g 10. ab ] b + 1 g 11. 2xy ] 2x - 1 g
6. x ] x + 2 g 7. m ] m - 3 g 8. 2y ^ y + 2 h
12. 3mn ^ n 2 + 3 h
13. 2xy ] 4x - z g 14. a ] 6b + 3 - 2a g

17. 5b 2 ] b + 3 g
16. q 2 _ 3q 3 - 2 i
15. x ^ 5x - 2 + y h
18. 3a b ] 2b - a g 19. (m + 5) (x + 7)
2
20. ^ y - 1 h ^ 2 - y h
21. (7 + y) (4 - 3x)
22. ] a - 2 g ] 6x + 5 g
23. ] 2t + 1 g ^ x - y h
24. ] 3x - 2 g ] a + 2b - 3c g
25. 3x ] 2x + 3 g
2
28. 4x 2 ] x - 6 g
26. 3q _ pq 2 - 2 i
3
29. 5m 2 n ^ 7mn 3 - 5 h
31. 2rr ] r + h g 32. ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g

34. - ] a + 1 g
27. 3ab ^ 5a 3 b 2 + 1 h
35. (a 2 + 1) (4ab - 3)
30. 4ab 2 ^ 6ab 3 + 4 h
33. (x + 4) (y 2 + 2)
8. ] 2x + 3 g ] x + 4 g
11. (2y + 1) (y - 6)
12. ] 5x - 1 g ] 2x + 1 g
13. (4t - 1) (2t - 3)
14. (3x + 4) (2x - 3)
15. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y + 8 h
16. ] 4n - 3 g ] n - 2 g
17. ] 4t - 1 g ] 2t + 5 g 18. ^ 3q + 2 h ^ 4q + 5 h
19. ] 4r - 1 g ] 2r + 6 g = 2 ] 4r - 1 g ] r + 3 g
20. ] 2x - 5 g ] 2x + 3 g
21. ^ 6y - 1 h ^ y - 2 h
22. ^ 2p - 3 h ^ 3p + 2 h
23. (8x + 7) (x + 3)
24. ] 3b - 4 g ] 4b - 9 g
25. (6x + 1) (x - 9)
26. ] 3x + 5 g2
27. ^ 4y + 3 h2
29. ] 6a - 1 g2
30. ] 7m + 6 g2
28. ] 5k - 2 g2
759
760
Exercises 2.11
1.
^y - 1h
5.
(x - 6)
9.
] 5x - 4 g2
Exercises 2.14
2. (x + 3)
3. (m + 5)
6. ] 2x + 3 g
8. ] 3a + 2 g
7. ] 4b - 1 g
10. ^ 7y + 1 h2
2
13. ] 5x + 1 g
14. ] 9a - 2 g
12. ] 4k - 3 g
11. ^ 3y - 5 h
15. ] 7m + 6 g2
1 2
19. c x + m
x
4. (t - 2)
16. d t +
1
n
2
17. d x -
2
n
3
18. d 3y +
1
n
5
2 2
20. d 5k - n
k
(a + 2) (a - 2)
2. (x + 3) (x - 3)
4.
]x + 5g]x - 5g
5. (2x + 7) (2x - 7)
7.
(1 + 2z) (1 - 2z) 8. ] 5t + 1 g ] 5t - 1 g 9. ] 3t + 2 g ] 3t - 2 g
3. (y + 1) (y - 1)
6. (4y + 3) (4y - 3)
10. ] 3 + 4x g ] 3 - 4x g
11. (x + 2y) (x - 2y)
12. ^ 6x + y h ^ 6x - y h
13. ] 2a + 3b g ] 2a - 3b g
18. ] z + w + 1 g ] z - w - 1 g
1
1
19. d x + n d x - n
2
2
+ 1oe
5 ] a - 1 g2 6. - ] 2x - 3 g ] x - 4 g 7. 3z ] z + 5 g ] z + 4 g
8.
ab ] 3 + 2ab g ] 3 - 2ab g 9. x ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g
10. 2 ] 3x - 2 g ] x + 2 g 11. ] m - 5 g ] 3 + n g
12. - 7 ] 2x + 1 g
14. ] x - 1 g ] x + 2 g ^ x 2 - 2x + 4 h
13. ^ y + 5 h ^ y + 4 h ^ y - 4 h
19. 3 ] 2 - b g ^ 4 + 2b + b 2 h
18. y (2xy + 1) (2xy - 1)
20. 3 ] 3x - 2 g ] 2x + 5 g 21. 3 ] x - 1 g2
23. z ] z + 3 g2
22. (x + 2) (x + 5) (x - 5)
24. ] x + 1 g ] x - 1 g ] 2x + 3 g ] 2x - 3 g
27. 5x ] 2 - x g ^ 4 + 2x + x 2 h
28. (a + 2) (a - 2) (a + 3) (a - 3)
29. 4k (k + 5) 2
30. 3 (x + 1) (x - 1) (x + 3)
Exercises 2.15
- 1 o 21. ^ x + 2y + 3 h ^ x - 2y + 1 h
22. (x 2 + 1) (x 2 - 1) = (x 2 + 1) (x + 1) (x - 1)
23. _ 3x 3 + 2y i _ 3x 3 - 2y i 24. _ x 2 + 4y 2 i ^ x + 2y h ^ x - 2y h
25. (a 4 + 1) (a 2 + 1) (a + 1) (a - 1)
1.
x 2 + 4x + 4 = ] x + 2 g2
2. b 2 - 6b + 9 = ] b - 3 g2
3.
x 2 - 10x + 25 = ] x - 5 g2
5.
m - 14m + 49 = ] m - 7 g
7.
x 2 + 2x + 1 = ] x + 1 g2
9.
x 2 - 20x + 100 = ] x - 10 g2
4. y 2 + 8y + 16 = ^ y + 4 h2
6. q 2 + 18x + 81 = ^ q + 9 h2
8. t 2 - 16t + 64 = ] t - 8 g2
10. w 2 + 44w + 484 = ] w + 22 g2
Exercises 2.13
2. ] x + 3 g ^ x 2 - 3x + 9 h
1.
(b - 2) (b 2 + 2b + 4)
3.
]t + 1g^t - t + 1h
5.
(1 - x) (1 + x + x )
7.
(y + 2z) (y 2 - 2yz + 4z 2)
9.
^ 2x + 3y h _ 4x 2 - 6xy + 9y 2 i 10. ] ab - 1 g ^ a 2 b 2 + ab + 1 h
11. x 2 - 32x + 256 = ] x - 16 g2
6. ^ 2 + 3y h _ 4 - 6y + 9y 2 i
12. d
x
x 2 3x
- 3ne +
+ 9o
4
2
2
10 1 100 10
1
13. d
+ ne 2 + o
a
b
ab b 2
a
15. ^ 5xy + 6z h _ 25x y - 30xyz + 36z i
2
14. a 2 + a +
15. x 2 + 9x +
81
9 2
= dx + n
4
2
16. y 2 -
17. k 2 -
11k 121
11
n
+
= dk 4
2
16
5y
2
1
1 2
= da + n
4
2
25
5 2
= dy - n
4
16
20. p 2 - 8pq + 16q 2 = ^ p - 4q h2
16. - 9 ^ a - a + 1 h
2
Exercises 2.16
x
x x
ne1 + + o
9
3
3
18. ^ x + y + 3 h _ y 2 - 3y - xy + 9 + 6x + x 2 i
19. ^ x + y - 1 h _ x 2 + 4x - xy + y 2 - 5y + 7 i
20. (2a + 6 - b) (4a + 24a + 2ab + 6b + b + 36)
2
49
7 2
= dx - n
4
2
3 2
9
= dy + n
4
2
18. x 2 + 6xy + 9y 2 = ^ x + 3y h2 19. a 2 - 4ab + 4b 2 = ] a - 2b g2
14. ^ x + 1 - y h _ x 2 + 2x + 1 + xy + y + y 2 i
2
13. x 2 - 7x +
8. (x - 5y) (x 2 + 5xy + 25y 2)
11. (10 + 2t) (100 - 20t + 4t 2)
12. y 2 + 3y +
4. (a - 4) (a + 4a + 16)
17. d 1 -
5.
26. 4a (a + 3) (a - 3)
15. ] 2a + 9b g ] 2a - 9b g
17. (a + b - 3) (a - b + 1)
20. e
5 ^ y - 1 h _ y 2 + y + 1 i 4. 2ab ^ a + 2b) (2a - 1 h
25. 2 ] x + 2 g ] x - 2 g ^ x + y h _ x 2 - xy + y 2 i
16. ^ x + 2 + y h ^ x + 2 - y h
3.
16. x ] x + 2 g ] x - 5 g 17. ] x + 3 g (x - 3) 2
1.
2 ] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g 2. 3 ^ p + 3 h ^ p - 4 h
15. ] x + 1 g ^ x 2 - x + 1 h ] x - 1 g ^ x 2 + x + 1 h
Exercises 2.12
14. ^ x + 10y h ^ x - 10y h
1.
1.
a+2
2. 2t - 1
6.
1
y-4
7.
10.
14.
p+5
3
2 ] b - 2a g
a-3
11.
a+1
a+3
p-2
4p - 2p + 1
2
3.
15.
4y + 1
3
s-1
s+3
8.
12.
4.
4
2d - 1
9.
3+y
x + 2x + 4
a+b
2a - b
5.
x
5x - 2
b2 + b + 1
b+1
13. x - 3
ANSWERS
Exercises 2.17
1.
2.
(a)
(a)
(d)
3.
5x
4
(b)
Exercises 2.20
13y + 3
b
2a - 1
(b)
a+8
12
(d)
^ p - 2 h _ q2 - q + 1 i
4p + 3
ab
(a)
^y + 2h^y + 3h^y - 1h
x2 ] x + 2 g
(b)
8 _ y 2 - 3y + 9 i
(e)
3p 2 + 5pq - 2q 2
pq ^ p + q h ^ p - q h
10. 4 5
13. - 3
14.
15. 5 7
16.
10 ] 2b - 1 g
18. - 9 10
23. 7 6 + 3 5
- ] 5x + 22 g
(j)
]x + 4g]x - 4g]x + 3g
1.
21
2.
15
7. - 12 55
3. 3 6
8. 14
15y
7-5 2
21.
24. - 2 - 2 3
11. 2 48 = 8 3
12. 15 28 = 30 7
14. - 84
16. 28
18. - 2 105
17.
30
30.
a 2 - 2ab - b 2 + 1
]a + bg]a - bg
3 10
3
31.
2 2
27.
32.
6. 30
15. 2
19. 18
21. 2 6
26.
5. - 6 6
12 = 2 3
10.
13. 2 20 = 4 5
25. 2 3
22. 4 3
28.
2 5
9
2 5
33.
23. 1
29.
3 5
5
34.
2 2
24.
1
2
2
3
35.
5
7
Exercises 2.22
1.
(a)
10 + 6
(b) 2 6 - 15
(c) 12 + 8 15
(d) 5 14 - 2 21
(e) - 6 + 4 18 = - 6 + 12 2
^x + yh^x - yh
(f) 5 33 + 3 21
(g) - 6 - 12 6
(i) 6 + 30
(a) - 7.1
(b) - 6.9
5.5 7. 377
3. - 7
2. 47
3
4
(m) 10 6 - 120
5. - 196
4. 375
10. 51.935 11. - 1
8. 284 9. - 40
14.
(e) 0.6
3
4
2.
(h) - 1
(f) 15 - 15 + 18 10 - 6 6
(i) - 12
Exercises 2.19
(g) 4
1.
(e) 6 2
(m) - 6
(j) 3 6
(q) 57 + 12 15
(b) 3 7
(c) 2 6
(d) 5 2
(f) 10 2
(g) 4 3
(h) 5 3
(i) 4 2
(k) 4 7
(l) 10 3
(m) 8 2
(n) 9 3
(p) 6 3
(q) 3 11
(r) 5 5
(a) 6 3
(b) 20 5
(c) 28 2
(f) 8 14
(a)
18
(f)
160
(g) 72 5
(b)
(g)
20
117
(d) 4 7
(h) 30 2
(c)
176
(h)
98
(i) 14 10
128
(e)
75
(i)
363
(j)
1008
(a) x = 45 (b) x = 12 (c) x = 63 (d) x = 50

(e) x = 44 (f) x = 147 (g) x = 304 (h) x = 828
(i) x = 775 (j) x = 960
(j) 43
(k) 3
(o) 11 - 4 6
(l) - 241
(p) 25 + 6 14
(r) 27 - 4 35
(t) 53 + 12 10
3.
(a) 18
(d) 19 + 6 2
4.
(a) a = 21, b = 80
5.
(a) a - 1
6.
k = 25
9.
a = 107, b = - 42
(j) 24 5
(d)
(n) 7 + 2 10
(s) 77 - 12 40 = 77 - 24 10
(o) 7 5
(e) 16 5
(o) 4 3 - 12
(a) 10 + 3 6 + 3 5 + 9 3
(b) 10 - 35 - 2 + 14
(e) 52 - 13 10
(a) 2 3
(l) 210 - 14 15
(n) - 10 - 2 2
(c) 2 10 - 6 + 10 15 - 15 6
(d) 12 20 + 18 60 - 8 10 - 12 30 =
24 5 + 36 15 - 8 10 - 12 30
15. 15 16. 10
18. 23.987 19. 352.47 20. 93 21. 4
(h) 5 - 5 15
(j) 2 54 + 6 = 6 6 + 6
(k) - 8 + 12 12 = - 8 + 24 3
(d) - 37.7
(c) 48.1
17. 2 3
4.
17. 13 6
4. 10 14
9. 60
20. 30 50 = 150 2
13. 1838.8
3.
12. 5 3
Exercise 2.21
2]x - 1g
(f)
]x + 1g]x - 3g
12. 22.4
2.
20. 5 2 - 2 3
19. 47 3
y ^x + y + 1h
(f) 2.3 (g) - 5.3

6.
11.
6. 3 6
25. - 17 5 + 10 2
2x
(d)
x+2
Exercises 2.18
1.
5. - 3 5
4. 3 3
9. - 4 2
^y + 2h^y + 1h
(d)
3. 6 3
8. 8 5
x 2 + 10x - 24
3b 2 - 5b - 10
(d)
(e) x
2 ]x - 3g]x - 4g
2b ] b + 1 g
3x - 13
3 - 5x
(a)
(b)
]x - 5g]x - 2g]x + 3g
]x + 2g]x - 2g
(c)
7. - 7 2
(c)
5.
2.
b 2 ^ x + 2y h
a+2
(h)
] a + 1 g2
2 _ 3y 2 + 14y + 13 i
1. 3 5
22. - 2 3 - 4 5
a+b+3
(c)
a+b
-x + 2
(b)
x ]x - 1g
- 3x + 8
(g)
]x + 2g]x - 2g
4.
x - 13
6
]x - 3g]x - 1g
(e)
]x - 5g]x - 2g
^ p + qh^ p - qh + 1
p2 - q2 + 1
=
(e)
p+q
p+q
(i)
(e)
6
(c)
q+1
x 2 - xy + y 2
5
(a)
x
(c)
15
(b) 108 2
(c) 432 2
(e) 9
(b) a = 19, b = - 7
(b) 2p - 1 - 2 p ^ p - 1 h
7. 2x - 3y - 5 xy
8. a = 17, b = 240
10. 9 + 5 units 2
761
762
Exercises 2.23
1.
(a)
(e)
(h)
2.
7
7
8.
6
4
(b)
3+ 6
3
(f)
3 14 - 4 7
14
(c)
2 15
5
(d)
12 - 5 2
2
(i)
6 14
3 14
=
5
10
(g)
(a) 4 3 - 4 2 = 4 ^ 3 - 2 h
(b)
(j)
4 15 - 2 10
35
6 15 - 9 6 + 2 10 - 6
2
3.
So rational
9.
1.
2.
(j)
(l)
4.
(i)
2-1
28 - 2 6 - 7 3
13
(b) a = 1, b = 8
8
5
(d) a = - 1 , b = 9
9
(k)
2 15 + 2 10 - 2 6 - 3 - 5
2
(a) a = 45, b = 10
5.
4 6+9 3
21
15 30 - 30 5 - 4 3
30
+
2+1
2-1
2
2-1
2+1
2-1
^ 2 - 1h^ 2 - 1h
+
+
4
2
(a) 4 (b) 14
7.
3 5 - 2 - 15 - 3
3
4 2
2
^ 2 h2 - 1 2
2- 2- 2+1
=
+2 2
2-1
3-2 2
=
+2 2
1
=3-2 2+2 2
=3
So rational
6.
1
1
(c) a = - , b =
2
2
(e) a = 5, b = 32
x = -^ 3 + 2h
10.
b+4 b+4
b-4
2
2
(a) - 2y
(b) a + 4
(f) 6 2
(g) 4 5
(c) - 6k 5
(d)
5x + 3y
(e) 3a - 8b
15
(a) ] x + 6 g ] x - 6 g
(b) ] a + 3 g ] a - 1 g (c) 4ab ] b - 2 g
(d) (y - 3) (5 + x)
(e) 2 ^ 2n - p + 3 h
(f) (2 - x) (4 + 2x + x 2)
3.
20 12 + 19 6 + 25 3 - 6
19 6 + 65 3 - 6
(g)
=
15
15
6+9 2+2 3
6
Test yourself 2
(a) 2 2
(b) - ^ 2 + 6 - 3 2 + 3 3 h = - 2 - 6 + 3 2 - 3 3
22 5 + 14 2
(c)
39
^
(d) - 6 6 - 16 - 3 84 + 8 14 h
10
- 3 6 + 8 + 3 21 - 4 14
=
5
(e) - 4 (f) 4 2
(h)
6-4 2
+4 2
9-4#2
6-4 2
=
+4 2
1
=6-4 2+4 2
=6
(c)
(f)
2
3-2 2
8
=
#
+
#
3+2 2
3-2 2
2
2^3 - 2 2 h 8 2
+
=
2
2
32 - ^ 2 2 h
=
-^ 6 + 7 3 h
47
- ^ 2 15 - 4 18 h
- 2 ^ 15 - 6 2 h
=
19
19
- ^ 19 - 8 3 h
8 3 - 19
=
(d)
(e) 6 + 2 + 5 3 + 5 2
13
13
5 + 2 10
5
8 5 + 3 10
20
2
3+2 2
(b) 2x 2 + 5x - 3
(a) 4b - 6
(d) 16x - 24x + 9

(g) 2 6 - 5 3
(a)
5.
V = 157.464
(f) - 1 - 7a
(h) 3 3 - 6 + 21 - 2 7
4.
(c) 4m + 17
(e) p 2 - 25
(b)
b 2 ^ a 2 + 3a + 9 h
6. (a) 17
15
] m - 2 g2
(b)
6 15 - 9
17
4x + 5
8. (a) 36 (b) - 2
]x + 3g]x - 2g
1
9. (a)
(b) 8 10. d = 11.25
5
2 3
2+ 6
11. (a)
(b)
15
2
7.
12. (a) 3 6 - 6 - 4 3 + 4 2
(c) 2
(d) 216
(b) 11 + 4 7
(b) 6 ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
13. (a) 3 (x - 3) (x + 3)
(c) 5 ^ y + 2 h _ y 2 - 2y + 4 i
14. (a)
x3
(b)
3y 4
15. (a) 99
1
3x - 1
(b) 24 3
16. (a) a 2 - b 2
(b) a 2 + 2ab + b 2
17. (a) ] a - b g2
(b) ] a - b g ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 h
18.
3 3+1
2
20.
21 5 - 46 - 2
7
(c) 16
19. (a)
4b + 3a
ab
(c) a 2 - 2ab + b 2
(b)
3x - 11
10
(e) 2
ANSWERS
(b) - 8 6
21. (a) 6 2
(f)
24. (a)
(d)
3 7
7
6
15
5+1
2
(c)
(e)
x + 10
10
17a - 15
21
1
k-1
(b)
(e)
20 + 3 15 + 4 10 + 3 6
53
(c)
3 - 2x
(x + 1) (x - 1)
15 - 6 - 15 3 - 15 2
3
(b) n = 175
(d) n = 5547
(c) n = 392
(e) n = 1445
27. (b), (c)
32. (b)
28. (d)
33. (a)
29. (a), (d)
34. (d)
30. (c)
35. (b)
4.
x2 +
(b) y 4 - 4
2
3.
or
4
2 2
b
b2
b 2
n
x + 2 = dx +
a
a
2
4a
4x 2 + 12x + 9 = ] 2x + 3 g2
]a + 1g
a2 - a + 1
12. t = 30
15. x = - 0.4
13. x = 14
16. p = 3
5. k = 5
5
8
24. y = 1
14. x = - 1
17. t = 8.2
20. x = - 3
10. d
1.
t = 8.5
6.
r = 6.68
21. b = 0.8
2
25. t = - 1
3
18. x = - 9.5
22. a = - 0.375
7.
y+1
2]x - 1g
2x 1
1 2
+ = dx + n
9
3
3
21. s = 2 + 6 3
3
4 r
3 r
4r
12. r = 0.072
20. r = 3.3
9. y 1 = 3
2
3
(b) w = 69.66
13. x 1 = - 9
17. r = 10.46
14. t = 2.14
18. x = 1.19
1.
(a) x 2 3
(b) a =
-3
-2
-1
-2
-1
(b) y # 4
2.
16. x = 2
71
121
8. n = 15
11. (a) BMI = 25.39
19. x = 5.5
-4
(a) 3
7. x = 6.44
16. r = 2.12
-4
- 66 6 + 4 2 - 15 + 4 5 - 65 3
13
20. r =
5. y = 4
Exercises 3.4
8. 2 5
13. x 3 - 7x 2 + 15x - 9
18.
4. a = 41
(d) ] b - 2 g ] a + 2 g ] a - 2 g
3x + 4
(b)
] 2x - 1 g2
400 - 59 5
10
3. b = 8
15. x = ! 2
2 a 2 a
+ nd - n
x b x b
12. (a) 8x - 12x + 6x - 1

3
2. l = 122
(c) h = 1.94
]x - 3g]x + 3g]x - 2g
1
2
9
35
x = 36 7. t = 0.6 8. x = - 3 9. y = - 1.2 10. x = 69
3x 3 - 6x 2 + 3x + 4xy - 6y
19. i = 1
4. x = 1
6.
10. h = 3.7
(c) ] 5x + 7 g ^ 25x 2 - 35x + 49 h
17.
2. x = 35 3. y = 4
4
9
b =3
(a) ] x + 4 g ] x + 9 g
15. x 2 +
1
3
1.
Exercises 3.3
(b) _ x 2 - 3y i _ x 2 + 2y i = (x + 3 y) (x - 3 y) _ x 2 + 2y i
14.
30. x Z 4.41
2.
11.
29. p = 5
23. x = 3
(a) 2a 2 b - 8ab 2 + 6a 3
17 3 + 2 5 + 20
17
9.
16. x = 20 17. m = 20 18. x = 4 19. a = - 7 20. y = 3

2
21. b = - 4 22. x = 3 23. a = - 1
24. t = - 4
3
1
25. x = 1.2 26. a = 1.6 27. b =
28. t = 39
8
19. q = 22
(c) 8x - 60x + 150x - 125
6.
t = -5
11. w = 13
71
121
5.
2. z = - 5.6 3. y = 1 4. w = 6.7 5. x = 12
1
8. b = 35 9. n = - 16 10. r = 4
6. x = 4 7. y =
15
11. y = 9 12. k = 6 13. d = 2 14. x = 5 15. y = 15
1.
Exercises 3.2
1.
Exercises 3.1
12 - 2 6
15
31. (c)
(e) 30a 2 b
(b) 10 14 - 5 21 - 6 10 + 3 15
(b)
25. (a) n = 48
26. 3
(d) 43 (e) 65 - 6 14
(c) 7
(d)
(d)
(g) 2x - 3y
3n 4
22. (a) 2 6 + 4
23. (a)
(c) 2 3
17
14
, b=23
23
-3
(a) t 2 7 (b) x $ 3 (c) p 2 - 1 (d) x $ - 2 (e) y 2 - 9

1
2
(f) a $ - 1
(g) y $ - 2
(j) y 1 12
(k) b 1 - 18
(l) x 2 30
(n) m 2 14
2
3
1
4
(o) b $ 16
(h) x 1 - 2
(i) a # - 6
(m) x # 3
(p) r # - 9
3
4
(q) z 2 8
763
764
(r) w 1 2
4
5
(s) x $ 35
2
3
(v) x 2 - 1
(t) t $ - 9
(w) b # - 11
(u) q 2 - 6
(e) y = 1.89 (f) d = ! 2.55 (g) k = ! 4.47 (h) x = 2.22
2
5
(i) y = ! 3.81
1
4
3.
(a) 1 1 x 1 7
3.
4.
(b) - 2 # p 1 5
-3
-2
-1
(c) 1 1 x 1 4
-3
-2
-1
-3
-2
-1
1
2
(e) 1 y 1 1
6
3
-1
-2
5
6.
Exercises 3.5
1.
2.
(a) x = ! 5
(b) y = ! 8
(c) - 4 1 a 1 4
(d) k $ 1, k # - 1
(e) x 2 6, x 1 - 6
(f) - 10 # p # 10
(g) x = 0
(i) - 12 1 y 1 12
(j) b $ 20, b # - 20
(a) x = 5, - 9
(g) - 3
8.
(c) a 2 2, a 1 - 2
5
(f) x = 5, -4
7
(e) x = 3, -6
1
1y 12
2
(a) x = 1
1
4
(h) x $ 9, x # - 6
(i) x = ! 12
9.
(b) a = 3, -
1
3
(c) b = 2
(d) No solutions (e) y = - 2

3
1
(h) d = 2 , -1
4
2
4.
(a) x = 2, -
1
2
(d) x = 4, -7
5.
1
3
2
(a) t = 3, -1
5
-3
-2
-1
2
7
(b) y = 3, 2
1
3
2
3
(j) No solutions
(c) a = - 10, 1
2.
(a) x = 3
(e) n =
2
3
(f) a = 2 (g) x = ! 2 (h) b = 9

2
3
(b) y = ! 8
(e) p = 10
(f) x = ! 5
(i) n = ! 4
(j) q = - 2
(c) n = ! 2
(g) y = ! 3
(c) y =
(j) b = ! 1
(d) x = !
1
7
1
2
1
1
1
1
(b) x = 6
(c) a =
(d) k =
4
512
81
625
19
1
(e) x =
(f) x = 4 (g) y = 8 (h) n = 7
8
32
127
(i) b = 8 (j) m = 1
216
(a) x =
(a) n = 4
(b) y = 5
(c) m = 9
(f) x = 3
(g) x = 2
(h) x = 2
(a) x = 2
(b) x = 1 (c) x = - 2 (d) n = 2 (e) x = 0

1
(g) y =
(h) x = 2 (i) x = 2 (j) a = 0
3
1
2
(a) m =
(b) x =
1
3
2
3
(f) n =
(i) k = -
1
6
(j) x = 1
(a) x = - 1
(c) x =
3
4
(e) k = -
(d) x = 5
(i) x = 1
1
3
(g) x = 1
(d) k = -
1
2
(h) n =
2
3
1
2
(b) x = - 1
1
3
(c) k = - 4
(f) x = -
2
3
(g) x = - 4
1
2
10. (a) m =
1
4
(b) k = - 2
(e) n =
1
18
(f) n = 1
7
(e) m = 0
(j) k = 2
2
3
(j) x = 18
(i) x = - 1
1
2
(h) y = 27
(b) a =
4
5
(e) d = 4, -5
(g) b = 216
1
5
(i) x = 1
3
5
2
(b) - 1 1 t 1 3
5
1
2
(d) t = 8
(a) x =
(e) x = - 2
(f) x = 7 (g) m = 5, 1
4
, -2
5
(i) y =
1
3
3
4
1
2
(c) x = 2
(g) x =
4
5
3
8
(d) n = 3
1
2
(h) x = - 1
(d) k = 1
1
2
(h) b = - 3
1
6
7
11
(j) m = 5
Puzzle
3
Exercises 3.6
1.
(j) t = 81
(f) x = 6
(j) 2 # a # 10
3.
(i) a = 128
(h) a 2 14, a 1 - 14
(b) n = 4, -2
(d) 4 # x # 6
7.
(c) x = 32
(f) m = 625
5
5.
(b) t = 16
(e) p = 243
(i) x = !
(d) - 3 # y # 5
-3
(a) n = 27
(j) y = 3.01
(d) x = ! 2 5
(h) w = 2
(a) p = ! 6.71 (b) x = 4.64 (c) n = 2.99 (d) x = ! 5.92
1.
All months have 28 days. Some months have more days

as well. 2. 10 3. Bottle $1.05; cork 5 cents
4.
16 each time
5. Friday
Exercises 3.7
1.
y = 0, -1
5.
x = -2, -7
2. b = 2, -1
6. q = !3
3. p = 3, -5
7. x = !1
4. t = 0, 5
8. a = 0, -3
ANSWERS
9.
x = 0, - 4
12. y = 1, -1
16. x = 1, 2
10. x = !
1
2
20. x = 3, 4
11. x = -1, -1
3 1
,
4 2
13. b =
1
2
1
2
17. x = 0, 5
10. x 1 2, x 2 2
14. x = 5, -2 15. x = 0,
18. y = - 1, 2
21. m = - 6, 1
23. y = 1, -5, -2
1
3
2
3
19. n = 3, 5
22. x = 0, -1, -2
24. x = 5, -7
12. 1
14.
1
6
5
1
1x 1
9
2
15. y 1 - 2, y 2 - 1
7
16. x # - , x 2 4
8
25. m = 8, -1
Exercises 3.8
(a) x = ! 5 - 2
(b) a = ! 7 + 3
(d) x = ! 13 - 1
(c) y = ! 23 + 4
(e) p = ! 44 - 7 = ! 2 11 - 7
(f) x = ! 28 + 5 = ! 2 7 + 5
(g) y = ! 88 - 10 = ! 2 22 - 10 = 2 ^ ! 22 - 5 h
(h) x = ! 2 + 1
(j) y =
2.
(i) n = ! 137 - 12
! 5+3
2
(a) x = 3.45, -1.45
(b) x = - 4.59, -7.41
(c) q = 0.0554, -18.1
(d) x = 4.45, - 0.449
(e) b = - 4.26, -11.7
(f) x = 17.7, 6.34
(g) r = 22.3, - 0.314
(h) x = - 0.683, -7.32
(i) a = 0.162, - 6.16
(j) y = 40.1, - 0.0749
(a) y = - 0.354, - 5.65

(c) b = 3.54, - 2.54
(g) m = - 2, - 5
(f) n = 0.243, -8.24
- 1 ! 17
2
(c) q =
4 ! 28
= 2! 7
2
(b) x =
(e) s =
8 ! 40
4 ! 10
=
6
3
(f) x =
- 11 ! 133
2
(j) x =
(i) x = 1, - 6
5 ! 13
6
(g) d =
2 ! 32
=1!2 2
2
4.
01m #
7.
11x 11
2
7
1
4
-3 1 x 1 0
4.
x # - 2, x $ 2
- 5 ! 73
12
1
2
7.
c 1 - 1, c 2 2
3
5. x 1 - , x > 0
5
8. - 3
1
2
9. 2 1 x # 2
3
4
3. n # 0, n $ 1
6. - 5 # n # 3
8. - 4 # x # - 2
1
2
2
5
9. 4 1 x 1 5
11. a 1 - 1, a 2
13. x #
15. - 1
1
3
2
,x $1
3
1
1
#x #2
3
17. x 1 - 4, x 2 4
18. - 1 # a # 1
19. - 2 1 x 1 3
20. x # - 1, x $ 3
21. 0 1 x 1 2
1
2
23. y # - 2, y $
1
2
4
5
4
5
25. 1 # x # 1
27. x 1 0, x $
28. y 1 - 1, y 2 -
6. - 2 # b 1 0
1
1 z 1 -3
5
2
4
1x 17
3
16. - 4 # y # 3
26. 0 1 x 1
1! 5
2
3. x 1 0, x 2 1
29. x 1 - 4, -
5. n 1 - 1, n 2 1
30. x # - 8, x 2 - 5
2. 0 1 x 1
27. x $ 3, - 1 # x 1 2
2. 0 1 y 1 4
2
1
24. m 1 - 1 , m 2 1
3
2
Exercises 3.10
y 2 1, y 1 0
1.
22. 1 # a # 1
(i) t =
25. x # - 1, 3 1 x # 4
1
,11x #7
2
14. b 1 - 3, b 2
7 ! 41
4
1.
1
2
#x 1
2
3
10. b # - 2, b $ -
- 12 ! 128
-3 ! 2 2
(d) h =
=
8
2
(h) x =
24. m # - 2, - 1 1 m # 6
1
12. y 1 - 1 , y 2 2
2
(a) x =
23. x 2 5, - 3 1 x 1 0
Exercises 3.11
(j) y = 2.62, 0.382

2.
22. 0 1 n # 2, n $ 4
30. x #
(b) x = 1, 1.5
(h) x = 0, 7
1
1 p 1 26
2
1
2
2
19. t # , t 2 2
5
5
3
28. n 1 - 1, 3 1 n 1 5
(d) x = 1, - 0.5
(e) x = - 0.553, 0.678
17. 4
8
1 m 1 0 21. x 1 - 5, 0 1 x 1 1
9
26. x # - 2,
Exercises 3.9
1.
20. -
5
# x 1 -4
9
1
1
13. a 1 - 3 , a 2 - 2
4
2
1
7
1x 11
3
15
18. x # - 1, x 2 1.
11. - 4
1
2
29. 3 1 n # 3
31. x 1
1
3
1
2
3
2
,x 2
5
7
1
32. x # 4 , x 2 5
5
1
33. x # - 1 , x 2 - 1
4
34. x 1 - 3, x 2 2
35. -
3
3
#x 14
5
765
766
Exercises 3.12
1.
a = 1, b = 3
4.
x = 6, y = 17
7.
x = - 3, y = 2
10. m = 2, n = 3
2. x = 2, y = 1
3. p = 2, q = - 1
5. x = - 10, y = 2
6. t = 3, v = 1
8. x = - 64, y = - 39
11. w 1 = - 1, w 2 = 5
13. p = - 4, q = 1
9. x = 3, y = - 4
15. x = - 1, y = - 4 16. s = 2, t = - 1
18. k = - 4, h = 1
19. v 1 = - 2, v 2 = 4
(a) x 2 - 8x + 16 = ] x - 4 g2
4.
(a) x = - 2, y = 5
5.
(a) x = 2
6.
(a) b = 2, -1
7.
(a) A = 36
20. x = 2, y Z 1.41
9.
-1 1 y # 3
1
3
1
4
(b) g = 2,
(b) b = 12
10. (a) x = - 0.298, -6.70
1
4
(c) x $ 4, x # 3
8. x =
1
,1
2
(b) y = 4.16, -2.16
(c) n = 0.869, -1.54
Problem
23 adults and 16 children.
11. (a) V = 764.5
(b) r = 2.9
13. x 1 2, x 2 9
14. x = 2.4, y = 3.2
Exercises 3.13
(b) r = 3.9
1.
x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1
2.
x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = 4
3.
x = 0, y = 3 and x = 3, y = 0
4.
x = 4, y = - 3 and x = 3, y = - 4
6.
x = 3, y = 9
8.
m = - 4, n = 0 and m = 0, n = - 4
9.
x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = - 2
13. x = 1, y = 5 and x = 4, y = 11
1
14. x = , y = 4 and x = - 1, y = - 1
4
16. (a) ii (b) i
18. n 2 0, n 1 - 3
5. x = - 1, y = - 3
7. t = - 2, x = 4 and t = 1, x = 1
11. x = 2, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = - 2
19. x = - 4
20. x = - 2
(c) x = 2
15. (a) V = 2100

(d) iii
(d) x = 2
(g) - 4 # x # 2
21. (a) y 2 3
(e) x = 3, -1
(h) x = - 3
12. x = 0, y = 1
(k) x =
(j) x # - 1, x $ 1
1
1
15. t = - , h =
4
2
(m) No solutions
(e) iii
18. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1 and x = - 1, y = 1
(s) 2 1 n # 2
5
12
,y =13
13
2
5
2
5
(b) - 3 # n # 0
(f) t $ 1, t # - 2
(i) y 2 2, y 1 - 2
5
6
(l) -
1 3
(n) t = 2 ,
3 5
(p) m # - 3, m $ 2
17. x = 0, y = 0 and x = - 2, y = - 8 and x = 3, y = 27
20. x = -
(c) ii
1
4
1
3
16. x = 2, y = 0
3
1
,y =2
4
2
12. x 2 71
17. a = 3, b = 2, c = - 4
10. x = 0, y = 0 and x = 1, y = 1
19. x =
(b) k 2 + 4k + 4 = ] k + 2 g2
1
(b) x = 4, y = 1 and x = - , y = - 8
2
(b) y =
12. a = 0, b = 4
14. x 1 = 1, x 2 = - 1
17. a = - 2, b = 0
3.
1
#b #2
2
(o) - 1 1 x 1 3
(q) t 1 - 1, t 2 0
(t) -
(r) 1 1 y 1 3
1
1
1x #
5
2
Exercises 3.14
1.
x = - 2, y = - 8, z = - 1
2. a = - 2, b = - 1, c = 2
3.
a = - 4, b = 2, c = 7
4. a = 1, b = 2, c = - 3
5.
x = 5, y = 0, z = - 2
6. x = 0, y = - 5, z = 4
7.
p = - 3, q = 7, r = 4
8. x = 1, y = - 1, z = 2
9.
h = - 3, j = 2, k = - 4
10. a = 3, b = - 1, c = - 2
2.
(a) b = 10
(b) a = - 116 (c) x = - 7

1
(d) x # - 4 , x 2 - 3 (e) p # 4
3
(a) A = 1262.48
y =1
x = 2.56, -1.56
2. x 1 - a, x 2 a
6.
] x + 3 g ] x - 3 g ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 2x + 4 h; x = ! 3, 2
7.
x = 1, y = 2 and x = - 1, y = 0
8.
b = 4; x = ! 17 + 4 Z 8.12, - 0.123
10. - 1 1 t 1 1
13. r = 2.31
Test yourself 3
1.
1.
4.
(b) P = 8558.59
16. y # - 2,
18. x =
11. - 3 # x # 8
14. No solutions
1
2
#y 1
2
3
2 ^ 4 ! 10 h
3
20. y 1 -1, y 2
3. a = 3, b = !2
5. y # - 2, 0 1 y # 3
3
5
9. x = ! 1
1
12. x =
4
15. x = ! b + a 2 + a
17. P = 2247.36
19. x 1 - 4, - 2.2 1 x 1 0.7
ANSWERS
10. +AEB + +BEC + +CED

= 50 - 8y + 5y - 20 + 3y + 60
= 90c
Exercises 4.1
1.
4.
7.
So +AED is a right angle.
(a) y = 47c (b) x = 39c (c) m = 145c (d) y = 60c

(e) b = 101c (f) x = 36c (g) a = 60c (h) x = 45c
(i) y = 40c (j) x = 80c 2. (a) 121c (b) 72c 29l
(c) 134c 48l 3. (a) 42c (b) 55c 37l (c) 73c 3l
(a) (i) 47c (ii) 137c (b) (i) 9c (ii) 99c (c) (i) 63c
(ii) 153c (d) (i) 35c (ii) 125c (e) (i) 52c (ii)142c
(f) (i) 15c7l (ii) 105c7l (g) (i) 47c36l (ii) 137c36l
(h) (i) 72c21l (ii)162c21l (i) (i) 26c11l (ii) 116c11l
(j) (i) 38c51l (ii) 128c51l 5. (a) x = 49c (b) 41c
(c) 131c 6. (a) y = 15c, x = z = 165c
(b) x = 142c, y = 48c, z = 28c
(c) a = 43c, b = 137c, c = 101c
(d) a = 97c, b = d = 41c, c = 42c
(e) a = 68c, b = 152c, c = 28c (f) a = 10c, b = 150c
8x - 10 + 2x - 10 + x + 10 + 7x + 10 = 360
(angle of revolution)
18x = 360
x = 20
+ABE = 8x - 10
= 8 (20) - 10
= 150c
+EBC = 2x - 10
= 2 (20) - 10
= 30c
+ABE + +EBC = 150c + 30c
= 180c
` +ABC is a straight angle
+DBC = 7x + 10
= 7 (20) + 10
= 150c
+DBC + +EBC = 150c + 30c
= 180c
` +DBE is a straight angle
` AC and DE are straight lines
8.
+DFB = 180c - (180 - x) c

(+AFB is a straight angle)
=x
` +AFC = x
+CFE = 180c - (x + 180c - 2x)

(+AFB is a straight angle)
=x
` +AFC = +CFE
` CD bisects +AFE
9.
+ABD + +DBC
= 110 - 3x + 3x + 70
= 180c
So +ABC is a straight angle.
AC is a straight line.
Exercises 4.2
1.
(a) a = b = e = f = 148c , c = d = g = 32c

(b) x = z = 70c , y = 110c
(c) x = 55c , y = 36c , z = 89c
(d) y = 125c , x = z = 55c
(e) n = e = g = a = c = z = x = 98c,
o = m = h = f = b = d = y = w = 82c
(f) a = 95c , b = 85c , c = 32c
(g) a = 27c , b = 72c , c = 81c
(h) x = 56c , y = 124c , z = a = 116c , b = 64c
(i) x = 61c
2.
(a)
(j) y = 37c
+CGF = 180c - 121c
(FGH is a straight angle)
= 59c
` +BFG = +CGF = 59c
These are equal alternate angles.

` AB < CD
(b) +BAC = 360c - 292c = 68c
` +BAC + +DCA = 68c + 112c

= 180c
These are supplementary cointerior angles.
` AB < CD
(c) +BCD = 180 - 76
(+BCE is a straight angle)
= 104c
+ABC = +BCD = 104c
` AB ; CD
(d) +CEF = 180 - 128
(+CED is a straight angle)
= 52c
+CEF = +ABE = 52c
ÀB ; CD
(e) +CFH = 180 - ] 23 + 115 g (+EFG is a straight angle)
= 42c
`+BFD = 42c (vertically opposite angles)
+ABF + +BFD = 138c + 42c
= 180c
` AB ; CD
767
768
Exercises 4.3
1.
(a) x = 60c
(b) y = 36c
(c) m = 71c
(e) x = 30c
(f) x = 20c
(g) x = 67c
(d) x = 37c
(h) a = 73c
10. +OQP = 180 - ] 75 + 73 g (angle sum of triangle)

= 32c
` +MNO = +OQP = 32c
(i) a = 75c , b = 27c , c = 46c
` MN ; QP
(j) a = 36c , b = 126c , c = 23c

(k) x = 67c , y = z = 59c , w = 121c
2.
Exercises 4.4
All angles are equal. Let them be x.

(angle sum of D)
Then x + x + x = 180
3x = 180
x = 60
1.
So all angles in an equilateral triangle are 60c.

3.
] 90 - x g c
4.

+ACB = 50c
+ABC = 180c - (50c + 45c) (angle sum of D)
= 85c
` +DEC = +ABC = 85c
5.
(given)
(given)
AC = DE = 8 cm
(given)
` D ABC / DDEF
(SSS)
(b)Yes
XY = BC = 4.7 m
(given)
+XYZ = +BCA = 110c (given)

YZ = AC = 2.3 m
(given)
` D XYZ / DABC
(SAS)
+ACB = 180c - 124c

= 56c
+CBA + 68c = 124c
+CBA = 124c - 68c
= 56c
` +CBA = +ACB = 56c
` D ABC is isosceles
(c) No
y = 38c
7.
(a) x = 64c
(DCB is a straight angle)
(b) x = 64c , y = 57c
+HJI = 180c - (35c + 25c)

= 120c
+IJL = 180c - 120c
= 60c
+JIL = 180c - (90c + 30c)
= 60c
+ILJ = 180 - (60c + 60c)
= 60c
(d) Yes
(exterior angle of D)
2.
(angle sum of D HJI)
(angle sum of D IKL)

(angle sum of D JIL)
(given)
(given)
`DPQR / DSTU
(AAS)
(given)
(a) AB = KL = 4
(given)
+B = +L = 38c
(given)
BC = JL = 5
` by SAS, D ABC / D JKL
(given)
(d) +Y = +T = 90c
(given)
+Z = +S = 35c
(given)
XY = TR = 1.3
` by AAS, D XYZ / D STR
(angle sum of D JKL)
` +JLK = +JKL = 30
` D JKL is isosceles
(given)
(e) BC = DE = 4
(given)
+C = +E = 90c
(given)
AC = EF = 7
` by SAS, D ABC / D DEF
BC = BD
` AB ; ED
+PRQ = +STU = 52c

QR = TU = 8 cm
(given)
(c) MN = QR = 8
(given)
NO = PR = 8
(given)
MO = PQ = 5
` by SSS, D MNO / D PQR
(KJI is a straight angle)
`+BDC = 46c (base angles of isosceles triangle)

+CBD = 180 - 2 # 46
= 88c
`+CBD = +BDE = 88c
(given)
(given)
(b) +Z = +B = 90c
(given)
XY = AC = 7
(given)
YZ = BC = 2
` by RHS, D XYZ / D ABC
(HJL is a straight angle)
Since +IJL = +JIL = +ILJ = 60c,

D IJL is equilateral
+KJL = 180c - 60c
= 120c
+JLK = 180c - (30c + 120c)
= 30c
+PQR = +SUT = 49c
(e) No
(c) x = 63c
(d) a = 29c , b = 70c
9.
AB = EF = 5cm
BC = DF = 6 cm
` AB < DE
6.
8.
(a) Yes
3.
(a)
+B = +C
+BDA = +CDA = 90c (given)
AD is common
` by AAS, D ABD / D ACD
ANSWERS
4.
(b) ` BD = DC (corresponding sides in congruent Ds)

` AD bisects BC
But +OBA + +OBC = 180c
+ABD = +BDC
OB is perpendicular to AC.
5.
(a)
OA = OC
(equal radii)
OB = OD
(similarly)
+AOB = +COD
So +OBA = +OBC = 90c
(alternate angles, AB < CD)

+ADB = +DBC
BD is common
` by AAS, D ABD / D CDB
` AD = BC
10. (a) AD = BC
+ADC = +BCD = 90c
DC is common
`DADC / DBCD
(b) AC = BD
1.
`DAOB / DCOD
(SAS)
(b) AB = CD
(corresponding sides in congruent
(given)
BC = DC
(given)
`DABC / DADC
(SSS)
(b) +ABC = +ADC
(corresponding angles in congruent
`DOAB / DOBC
(SAS)
(b) +OCB = +OBC
(base angles of OBC, an isosceles
4.
right angled triangle)

(angle sum of triangle)
5.
So +OCB = +OBC = 45c

Similarly +OBA = 45c
` +OBA + +OBC = 45c + 45c = 90c
So +ABC is right angled
(a) +AEF = +BDC = 90c
(given)
AF = BC
(given)
FE = CD
(given)
`DAFE / DBCD
(RHS)
(b) +AFE = +BCD
(corresponding angles in
(e) b = 4.5
(g) p = 9.7
(alternate angles, AB < ED)

(similarly)
(given)
+GFE = +EFD
1.5
GF
o
=
= 0.5
EF
2.7
2.7
EF
o
=
= 0.5
DF
4.86
GF
EF
`
=
EF
DF
Since two pairs of sides are in proportion and their
included angles are equal, then DDEF ||| DFGE
1.3
AB
=
= 0.714
DE
1.82
4.2
AC
=
= 0.714
DF
5.88
4.9
BC
=
= 0.714
EF
6.86
AC
BC
AB
=
=
`
DE
DF
EF
Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,
D ABC ||| D DEF
y = 41c
6.
congruent triangles)
(a) OA = OC
(c) m = 6.6
(f) a = 115c , x = 19c , y = 3.2
+BAC = +EDC
+ABC = +DEC
+ACB = +ECD
+AOB = +COB = 90c (given)
9.
(d) a = 76c , i = 23c , b = 81c
3.
OB is common
8.
(b) x = 4.4
a = 1.81, b = 5.83
(equal radii)
But +OCB + +OBC = 90c
(SAS)
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, DABC ||| DCDE
triangles)
(a) OA = OC
(a) x = 15.1
2.
AC is common
7.
(given)
Exercises 4.5
(a) AB = AD
(given)
triangles)
triangles)
6.
(ABC is a straight angle)
(equal radii)
OB is common
(a) OA = OB
OC = OD
OA
OB
`
=
OD
OC
+AOB = +COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
AB = BC
(given)

included angles are equal, 3 OAB ||| 3 OCD
`DOAB / DOBC
(SSS)
(b) AB = 5.21 cm
(b) +OBA = +OBC
(corresponding angles in
congruent triangles)
7.
(a) +A is common
+ABC = +ADE
+ACB = +AED
(corresponding angles, BC < DE)

(similarly)
769
770
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABC ||| D ADE
6.
(b) x = 2.17, y = 2.25

8.
+ABF = +BEC
+CBE = +BFA
` +C = +A
YZ 2 = XY 2 = 1, XZ 2 = 2
YZ 2 + XY 2 = 1 + 1
=2
= XZ 2
` D XYZ is right angled
(alternate angles, AB z CD)

(similarly, BC z AD)
(angle sum of Ds)
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal, D ABF ||| DCEB

9.
+A is common
1.2
AD
=
= 0.4
AB
3
0.8
AE
=
= 0.4
AC
2
AD
AE
`
=
AB
AC
included angles are equal, D AED ||| D ABC, m = 4.25
AB
10.
CD
BC
AC
AC
AD
AB
`
CD
=
=
=
=
XY = YZ = 1
` D XYZ is isosceles
7.
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
2
2 2 = ^ 3 h + BC 2
4
1
`1
AC
8.
2
= 0.769
2.6
3
= 0.769
3.9
3.9
= 0.769
5.07
BC
AC
=
AD
AC
= 3 + BC 2
= BC 2
= BC
=2
=2#1
= 2BC
(a) AC = 5
(b) AC 2 = 25, CD 2 = 144,
AD 2 = 169
AC 2 + CD 2 = 25 + 144
= 169
= AD 2
` D ACD has a right angle at +ACD
` AC is perpendicular to DC
AB =
9.
D ABC ||| D ACD, x = 109c, y = 47c
11. d 2 = ] 20 - 3t g 2 + ] 15 - 2t g 2
= 400 - 120t + 9t 2 + 225 - 60t + 4t 2
= 13t 2 - 180t + 625
11. (a) x = 7.8
(b) m = 4.0, p = 7.2
(d) x = 6.2, y = 4.4

AB
AD
12. (a)
=
DE
BC
AD
AF
Also
=
DE
FG
AB
AF
`
=
BC
FG
(c)
(c) x = 6.5
(e) x = 1.4, y = 9.2
12. 1471 mm
AB
AD
=
AE
AC
AD
AF
=
AE
AG
AB
AF
=
AC
AG
(b)
Also
`
16. 4.3 m
13. 683 m
14. 12.6 m
15. 134.6 cm
17. 42.7 cm
18. 1.3 + 1.1 2 = 2.9 and 1.5 2 = 2.25

1.3 2 + 1.1 2 ! 1.5 2 so the triangle is not right angled
` the property is not a rectangle
19. No. The diagonal of the boot is the longest available
space and it is only 1.4 m.
14. y = 0.98
15. x = 3.19, y = 1.64
Exercises 4.6
1.
(a) x = 6.4
2.
(a) p =
3.
s = 6.2 m
5.
AB 2 = 81, CB 2 = 144, CA 2 = 225

AB 2 + CB 2 = 81 + 144
= 225
= CA 2
` D ABC is right angled
61
10.
BD
AD
=
AE
CE
AD
DF
Also
=
AE
EG
BD
DF
`
=
CE
EG
13. a = 4.8, b = 6.9
3b
x2 + y2
x
Since three pairs of sides are in proportion,
(b) y = 6.6
(c) b = 5.7
(b) t =
(c) x =
58
20. (a) BC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2
= 20
BC = 20
AO = 6 cm
(equal radii)
So AC 2 = 6 2 - 4 2
= 20
AC = 20
Since BC = AC, OC bisects AB
(b) +OCA = +OCB = 90c
(given)
OA = OB
(equal radii)
OC is common
` DOAC / DOBC
(RHS)
So AC = BC (corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
` OC bisects AB
(d) m = 6.6
65
(d) y =
33
4. CE = 15.3 cm
Exercises 4.7
1.
(a) x = 94c (b) y = 104c (c) x = 111c (d) x = 60c

(e) y = 72c (f) x = 102, y = 51 (g) x = 43, y = 47
ANSWERS
2.
D ABE is isosceles.
9.
` +B = +E = 76c
(base +s equal)
+CBE = +DEB = 180c - 76c
= 104c (straight +s)
+D + 62c + 104c + 104c = 360c (angle sum of quadrilateral)
+D + 270c = 360c
+D = 90c
` CD is perpendicular to AD`
3.
(a)
+D = 180c - x
(+A and +D cointerior angles, AB < DC)
+C = 180c - (180c - x)
(+C and +D cointerior angles, AD < BC)
= 180c - 180c + x
=x
`+A = +C = x
+B = 180c - x (+B and +C cointerior angles, AB < DC)
`+B = +D = 180c - x
(b) Angle sum = x + x + 180c - x + 180c - x
= 360c
6.4 cm
11. 4 2 cm
a = 150c , b = 74c
5.
(a) a = 5 m, b = 3 m, x = z = 108c, y = 72c

(b) x = 53c, y = 56c, z = 71c
(c) x = y = 5 cm, a = b = 68c
(d) a = 121c, b = 52c, i = 77c
(e) x = 60c (f) x = 3, y = 7
6.
+ADB = +CDB
+CDB = +ABD
+ADB = +DBC
` +ABD = +DBC
` BD bisects +ABC
7.
(a) AD = BC = 3.8 cm
AB = DC = 5.3 cm
(BD bisects +ADC)

(alternate angles, AB < DC)
(given)
(given)
Since two pairs of opposite sides are equal, ABCD is a

parallelogram.
(b) AB = DC = 7cm
(given)
AB < DC
(given)
Since one pair of opposite sides is both equal and
parallel, ABCD is a parallelogram.
(c) +X + +M = 54c + 126c
= 180c
` XY < MN
Also, XM < YN
(given)
` XMNY is a parallelogram
(d) AE = EC = 5 cm
DE = EB = 6 cm
(given)
(given)
Since the diagonals bisect each other, ABCD is a

parallelogram.
8.
(a) x = 5 cm, i = 66c (b) a = 90c, b = 25c, c = 65c

(c) x = 3 cm, y = 5 cm (d) x = 58c, y = 39c
(e) x = 12 cm
12. x = y = 57c
Exercises 4.8
1.
(a) 540c (b) 720c (c) 1080c (d) 1440c (e) 1800c
(f) 2880c 2. (a) 108c (b) 135c (c) 150c (d) 162c
(e) 156c 3. (a) 60c (b) 36c (c) 45c (d) 24c
4.
128c34l 5. (a) 13
8.
2340c
(b) 152c18l 6. 16
7. 3240c
9. 168c23l
10. Sum = 145n = (n - 2) # 180c

145n = 180n - 360
= 35n
10.3 = n
But n must be a positive integer.
` no polygon has interior angles of 145c.
11. (a) 9
4.
10. +ECB = 59c, +EDC = 31c, +ADE = 59c
(b) 12
(c) 8
(d) 10
(e) 30
12. (a) ABCDEF is a regular hexagon.

AF = BC
(equal sides)
FE = CD
(equal sides)
+AFE = +BCD
(equal interior angles)
` D AFE / D BCD
(SAS)
S = ] n - 2 g # 180c
= (6 - 2) # 180c
= 720c
720c
+AFE =
6
= 120c
Since AF = FE, triangle AFE is isosceles.
So +FEA = +FAE
(base angles in isosceles triangle)
180 - 120c
` +FEA =
2
= 30c
+AED = 120 - 30c
= 90c
Similarly, +BDE = 90c
(b)
So +AED + +BDE = 180c

These are supplementary cointerior angles
ÀE < BD
13. A regular octagon has equal sides and angles.
AH = AB
(equal sides)
GH = BC
(equal sides)
+AHG = +ABC
(equal interior angles)
` D AHG / D ABC
(SAS)
So AG = AC
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
S = ] n - 2 g # 180c
= (8 - 2) # 180c
= 1080c
1080c
` +AHG =
8
= 135c
+HGA = +HAG
771
772
180 - 135c
2
= 22c30l
+GAC = 135 - 2 # 22c30l
= 90c
We can similarly prove all interior angles are 90c and
adjacent sides equal.
So ACEG is a square.
`+HAG =
2.
3.
118.28 cm2
4.
(common)
(a) +DAE = +BAC
(corresponding angles, DE < BC)
+ADE = +ABC
(similarly)
+AED = +ACB
` D ABC and D ADE are similar (AAA)
] 5 - 2 g # 180c
5
= 108c
(b) x = 3.1 cm, y = 5.2 cm

162c
8.
(a) AB = AD
BC = DC
(adjacent sides in kite)

(similarly)
AC is common
` ABC and ADC are congruent (SSS)
(b)
AO = CO
BO = DO
+AOB = +COD
(equal radii)
(similarly)
` AOB and COD are congruent (SAS)

9.
11.
73.5 cm2
AF
AD
=
AE
AG
AD
AB
=
AE
AC
AF
AB
`
=
AG
AC
12. (a) AB = AC
+B = +C
BD = DC
Exercises 4.9
1.
(a) 26.35 m 2 (b) 21.855 cm 2 (c) 18.75 mm 2 (d) 45 m 2

(e) 57 cm 2 (f) 81 m 2 (g) 28.27 cm 2 2. 4.83 m 2
3.
(a) 42.88 cm 2 (b) 29.5 m 2 (c) 32.5 cm 2 (d) 14.32 m 2

(e) 100.53 cm 2 4. (a) 25 m 2 (b) 101.85 cm 2
(c) 29.4 m 2 (d) 10.39 cm 2 (e) 45 cm 2
5.
7 51 + 98 = 7 ^ 51 + 14 h cm 2
7.
$621.08
9.
(a) 48 cm (b) 27 cm 10. 12w units 2
6. 22.97 cm 2
(b) 89 m 2
(similarly)
(given)
(AD bisects BC, given)
(b) +ADB = +ADC

(corresponding +s in congruent Ds)
(straight +)
But + ADB + +ADC = 180c
So +ADB = +ADC = 90c
So AD and BC are perpendicular.
13.
14.
(a) x = 43c, y = 137c, z = 147c (b) x = 36c

(c) a = 79c, b = 101c, c = 48c (d) x = 120c
(e) r = 7.2 cm (f) x = 5.6 cm, y = 8.5 cm (g) i = 45c
(equal ratios on intercepts)
` D ABD / D ACD ] SAS g
(c) 10.5 m
Test yourself 4
1.
6. 1020.7 cm3 7. 36 m
5.
2
10. 6 2 + ^ 2 7 h = 36 + 28 = 64 = 8 2
` ABC is right angled (Pythagoras)
360
p
(b) Each interior angle:
360
180 p
180p 360
=
p
p
180p - 360
=
p
180 ^ p - 2 h
=
p
15. (a)
8. (a) 161.665 m 2
(vertically opposite +HGB)
So +AGF = +CFE = i
These are equal corresponding +s.
` AB < CD
14. +EDC =
ED = CD
(equal sides in regular pentagon)
So EDC is an isosceles triangle.
`+DEC = +ECD
180 - 108c
+DEC =
2
= 36c
+AEC = 108 - 36c
= 72c
Similarly, using triangle ABC, we can prove that
+EAC = 72c
So EAC is an isosceles triangle.
(Alternatively you could prove EDC and ABC congruent
triangles and then AC = EC are corresponding sides in
congruent triangles.)
+AGF = i
+ACB = 68c
+CAD = 68c - 34c
= 34c
` +CAD = +ADC = 34c
(exterior + of D)
So ACD is isosceles
^ base +s equal h
ANSWERS
+DAC = +ACB
+BAC = +ACD
(alternate +s, AD < BC)

(alternate +s, AB < DC)
7.
AC is common
` D ABC / D ADC (AAS)
`
AB = DC
Similarly, AD = BC
` opposite sides are equal
15. (a) 24 cm2 (b) 5 cm
Let ABCD be a square with diagonals AC and BD and

+D = 90c
(adjacent sides of square)
AD = DC
` D ADC is isosceles
`+DAC = +DCA
(angle sum of D)
+DAC + +DCA = 90
`
+DAC = +DCA = 45
Similarly, +BAC = +BCA = 45
16. 9
17. +BFG + +FGD = 109c - 3x + 3x + 71c

= 180c
These are supplementary cointerior +s.
` AB < CD
18. 57 cm2
(other angles can be proved similarly)
19. +ACB = 180c - ] +A + +B g

= 180c - x - y
+ACD = 180c - +ACB
z = 180c - (180c - x - y)
= 180c - 180c + x + y
=x+y
20. (a)
+A
AC
EF
AB
DE
AC
`
EF
= +E
2.97
=
= 1.1
2.7
3.96
=
= 1.1
3.6
AB
=
DE
(+sum of D)
(straight +)
8.
^ given h
Let ABCD be a kite

(given)
AD = AB
(given)
DC = BC
So ABC and DEF are similar (two sides in proportion,

included +s equal).
(b) x = 4.3 cm
AC is common
` by SSS, D ADC / D ABC
`
+DAC = +BAC
2. x = 75c , y = 46c , z = 29c
1.
94c
4.
+BAD = +DBC
+ABD = +BDC
` +ADB = +DCB
(corresponding angles in congruent Ds)

(given)
(found)
3. 1620c, 32c 44l
AD = AB
+DAE = +BAE
(given)
(alternate angles, AB < DC)
(angle sum of D)
AE is common
` by SAS, D ADE / D ABE
` +DEA = +BEA
(corresponding angles in congruent Ds)
But +DEA + +BEA = 180c
(DEB is a straight angle)
` +DEA = +BEA = 90c
` the diagonals are perpendicular
` since 3 pairs of angles are equal,

D ABD <; D BCD
d = 6.74 cm
5.
AB = DC
(given)
+A + +D = 131c + 49c
= 180c
+A and +D are supplementary cointerior angles
` AB < DC
Since one pair of opposite sides are both parallel and
equal, ABCD is a parallelogram.
6.
27.36 m 2
9.
(exterior angle of D MNZ)

+MNY + 84c = (15c + 112c)
`
+MNY = 43c
(exterior angle of D XYZ)
+XYZ + 69c = 112c
`
+XYZ = 43c
`
+MNY = +XYZ = 43c
` MN < XY
10. x = 2.12 m
11. (a) 6 m 2
12. x = 28.7 cm, y = 3.8 cm
(b) 10 + 2 5 = 2 ^ 5 + 5 h m
13. x = 7.40 m, y = 4.19 m
773
774
14. (a)
(adjacent sides in square)

AB = BC
+ABE = +CBE = 45
(diagonals in square make 45c with sides)
34. x = 22c, y = 29c, w = z = 90c 35. 56.7 cm 2

36. a - 21 b 10 =
EB is common.
b 10
a 21
37. x 2 6, x 1 -2
2
5
` by SAS, D ABE / DCBE

`
AE = CE (corresponding sides in congruent Ds)
39. - x - 7
Since AB = BC and AE = CE, ABCE is a kite.
43. Given diagonal AC in rhombus ABCD:
40. x =
1
4
1
8
38.
41. x # -3, x $ 3
42.
1
6
(adjacent sides in rhombus)

AB = BC
(alternate +s, AD < BC)
+DAC = +ACB
(base +s of isosceles D ABC)
+BAC = +ACB
` +DAC = +BAC
` diagonal AC bisects the angle it meets.
Similarly, diagonal BD bisects the angle it meets.
44. ] x + 3 g-1 45. x 3 + 6x 2 + 12x + 8 46.

(b) BD =
x2 + x2
=
=
2x 2
2x
48. x = 98c, y = 41c
1
BD
2
2x
=
units
2
DE =
51. (a) 12x - 8y
49. 0 1 x 1 5
(b) 2 31
(c)
54
2 17
47. x = 53c
1
50.
3x + 2
x-3
(d) 3 2 + 1
x 2 - 3x + 9
y7
- ]x + 5g
11 3
(f)
(g) x - 14 y 7 z -11 = 14 11
]x + 1g]x - 1g
6
x z
3
1
(h)
(i) 8 5 (j) 13
2
5a ] a + b g ] 1 + 2b g
(e)
Practice assessment task set 1

4
1.
2. 2 ^ 5 + y h ^ x - y h
p =9
25 + 5 2
5.
23
3. (a) x - 1
(b) x 3
4.
6y - 10
7.
x=
9.
(given)
+ABC = +EDC = 90
+ACB = +ECD
(given)
AB = ED
` by AAS D ABC / DEDC
(corresponding sides in congruent triangles)
` AC = EC
` D ACE is isosceles
2
7
10. 231.3
8.
2
x-3
11. - 3
14. 3 10 - 4
6. x 3 + 2x 2 - 16x + 3
12. 135c
13. 7.33 # 10 - 2
15. 3.04 16. x + 3
17. x = 1.78, -0.281
52. x = 2.7, y = 3.1
21. x =
4 ! 12
=2! 3
2
28.
26. 7.02 cm
6 15 + 2 6
43
22.
1
49
24. x = 2, y = -1
27. ] 2x - 1 g ^ 4x 2 + 2x + 1 h
29. 7
cm
57.
2
5
58. 5%
61. 9xy y
59. 2.2 # 10 8 kmh -1
60. k = 20
62. 147c 16l 63. 5.57 m 2
64. (a) 5 ] a + 2b - 2 g ^ a 2 - 4a - 2ab + 4b 2 + 4b + 4 h

(b) ] 3a + 4b g ] a - 6b + 2c g
23. x = 4, y = 11 or x = -1, y = - 4
25. 7
2
3
56. Let +DEA = x

Then +EAD = x
+CDA = x + x (exterior + of DEAD)
= 2x
`
+ABC = 2x (opposite +s of < gram are equal)
`
+ABC = 2+DEA
65. - 1
7
15
54. r =
55. 17.3 cm
18. r = 1.55 19. x 2 1
20.
53. x = 25
30. $643.08 31. 1.1
32. -2 10 + 3 5 - 2 2 + 3
66.
3
1
#x 15
4
8
BC < AD
(ABCD is a < gram)
BC < FE
(BCEF is a < gram)
` AD < FE
Also BC = AD ^ opposite sides of < gram h
BC = FE
^ similarly h
` AD = FE
Since AD and FE are both parallel and equal, AFED is a
parallelogram.
67. b = 11.95 m
33. $83.57
68. (a)
34 cm
(b) 30 cm2
ANSWERS
69.
18 3 + 31 2 - 25 5
75
70. 20 71. 32 m
(g) x-intercepts 3, 5, y-intercept 15
72. BD bisects AC
So AD = DC
+BDC = +BDA = 90c (given)
BD is common
` DBAD / DBCD
(SAS)
` AB = CB
(h) x-intercept - 3 5 , y-intercept 5

(i) x-intercept -3, no y-intercept
(j) x-intercept !3, y-intercept 9
2.
f ] -x g = ] -x g 2- 2
= x2 - 2
= f (x)
` even function
3.
(a) f ^ x 2 h = x 6 + 1
triangles)
So triangle ABC is isosceles

73.
x2 + y2
2
79. (d)
74. (b)
75. (c)
76. (a) 77. (b)
(c) f ] - x g = - x 3 + 1
78. (b)
g ] - x g = ] - x g + 3 ] - x g4 - 2 ] - x g 2
= x 8 + 3x 4 - 2 x 2
= g (x)
` even function
5.
f ] - x g = - x = -f ] x g
` odd function
6.
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 - 1
= x2 - 1
= f (x)
` even function
7.
f ] -x g = 4 ] -x g - ] -x g 3
= - 4x + x 3
= - ^ 4x - x 3 h
= - f ]xg
` odd function
8.
f ] -x g = ] -x g 4 + ] -x g 2
= x4 + x2
= f ]xg
` even function
f ]xg - f ]- xg = 0
9.
(a) Odd (b) Neither (c) Even (d) Neither (e) Neither
Chapter 5: Functions and graphs
Exercises 5.1
Yes
2. No
3. No
8.
Yes
9. Yes
10. No
4. Yes
5. Yes
11. Yes
6. Yes
12. No
7. No
13. Yes
14. No 15. Yes
Exercises 5.2
1.
f ] 1 g = 4, f ] -3 g = 0
3.
f ] 5 g = -25, f ] -1 g = -1, f ] 3 g = -9, f ] -2 g = -4
5.
-35
6. x = 9
2. h ] 0 g = -2, h ] 2 g = 2, h ] -4 g = 14
7. x = !5
8. x = -3
4. 14
9. z = 1, -4
10. f ^ p h = 2p - 9, f ] x + h g = 2x + 2h - 9
11. g ] x - 1 g = x 2 + 2
12. f ] k g = ] k - 1 g ^ k 2 + k + 1 h
13. t = -1; t = 2, -4
14. 0
(b) Odd values i.e. n = 1, 3, 5, f
16. f ] 2 g - f ] -2 g + f ] -1 g = 0 - 4 + 1 = -3
18. 7
11. (a) No value of n
19. -28
21. f ] x + h g - f ] x g = 2xh + h 2 - 5h
(ii) x 1 0
(iii) Even
(b) (i) x 1 2
(ii) x 2 2
(iii) Neither
Exercises 5.3
1.
2
, y-intercept -2
3
(b) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4
(c) x-intercept 12, y-intercept 4
(d) x-intercepts 0, -3, y-intercept 0
(e) x-intercepts !2, y-intercept -4
(f) x-intercepts -2, -3, y-intercept 6
(a) x-intercept
(c) (i) -2 1 x 1 2
(d) (i) All real x ! 0
22. 4x + 2h + 1
25. (a) 2 (b) 0
(c) n 4 + n 2 + 2
(b) Yes, when n is odd (1, 3, 5, )
12. (a) (i) x 2 0
20. (a) 3 (b) x - 3 = 3 - 3 = 0

Denominator cannot be 0 so the function doesnt exist
for x = 3. (c) 4
23. 5] x - c g 24. 3k 2 + 5
10. (a) Even values i.e. n = 2, 4, 6, f
15. f ] 5 g = 125, f ] 1 g = 1, f ] -1 g = -1
17. 10
(d) Neither odd nor even
4.
80. (d)
1.
(b) 7 f ] x g A 2 = x 6 + 2x 3 + 1
(e) (i) None
(ii) x 1 -2, x 2 2
(ii) None
(ii) All real x
(iii) Odd
(iii) Neither
Exercises 5.4
1.
(iii) Neither
(a) x-intercept 2, y-intercept -2

1
(b) x-intercept -1 , y-intercept 3
2
1
(c) x-intercept , y-intercept 1
2
(d) x-intercept -3, y-intercept 3
2
1
(e) x-intercept , y-intercept 3
3
775
776
2.
(a)
(e)
5
5
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
3 4
-2
-3
-4
-5
2 3 4
(f)
(b)
1
21
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2 3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-2
-3
1 2 3 4
-4
-5
5
4
3
2
2
- 1
(c)
5
4
3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
5
4
3
2
1
y
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
(h)
-5
(d)
(g)
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
ANSWERS
(i)
Exercises 5.5
1.
(a) x-intercepts 0, -2, y-intercept 0

(b) x-intercepts 0, 3, y-intercept 0
(c) x-intercepts !1, y-intercept -1
(d) x-intercepts -1, 2, y-intercept -2
(e) x-intercepts 1, 8, y-intercept 8
2.
(a)
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
6
5
4
3
2
1
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
(j)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
4
3
2
1
111
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
3.
4.
2 3
-2
-3
-4
-5
2
1
(a) " all real x ,, " all real y , (b) " all real x ,, " y: y = 2 ,
(c) ! x: x = -4 +, " all real y , (d) ! x: x = 2 +, " all real y ,
(e) ! all real x +, " y: y = 3 ,
(a) Neither
(b) Even
(c) Neither
(d) Odd
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2
1
-4
-5
-3
(c)
-3
-4
-2
-5
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(e) Odd
5.
(3, -1)
(b)
1 2 3 4 5
111 2
2
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
777
778
(d)
6
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-2
-3
-4
-5
y
(e)
1 2 3 4
(i)
5
4
3
2
1
6
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
1 2 3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
1112 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
-3
-4
-5
-6
y
(f)
(h)
(j)
12
10
8
6
4
2
5
4
3
2
1
1 2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-8
3 4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-10
3.
5
4
3
(a) (i) x-intercepts 3, 4, y-intercept 12 (ii) {all real x},

1
( y: y $ - 2
4
(b) (i) x-intercepts 0, -4, y-intercept 0 (ii) {all real x},
" y: y $ -4 ,
2
1
(c) (i) x-intercepts -2, 4, y-intercept -8

" y: y $ - 9 ,
(g)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
1 2 3 4
(ii) {all real x},
(d) (i) x-intercept 3, y-intercept 9 (ii) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,

(e) (i) x-intercepts ! 2, y-intercept 4
" y: y # 4 ,
4.
(a) {all real x}, " y: y $ -5 ,
(ii) {all real x},
(b) {all real x}, " y: y $ - 9 ,
ANSWERS
1
(c) {all real x}, ( y: y $ -2 2
4
(d) {all real x}, " y: y # 0 ,
(e) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,

5.
(a) 0 # y # 9
6.
5
4
(b) 0 # y # 4
(c) -1 # y # 24
1
(e) -18 # y # 2
4
(d) -4 # y # 21
(a) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0
3
2
1
(b) (i) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 0
(c) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0 (d) (i) x 1 2 (ii) x 2 2

(e) (i) x 2 -5 (ii) x 1 -5
7.
8.
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
f ] -x g = - ] -x g 2
= -x2
= f (x)
` even
-3
-4
-5
(a) Even (b) Even (c) Even (d) Neither

(e) Neither (f) Even (g) Neither
(h) Neither (i) Neither (j) Neither
(d)
5
4
3
Exercises 5.6
1.
2.
(a) x-intercept 0, y-intercept 0

(b) No x-intercepts, y-intercept 7
(c) x-intercepts ! 2, y-intercept -2
(d) x-intercept 0, y-intercept 0
(e) x-intercepts ! 3, y-intercept 3
(f) x-intercept -6, y-intercept 6
2
(g) x-intercept , y-intercept 2
3
4
(h) x-intercept - , y-intercept 4
5
1
(i) x-intercept , y-intercept 1
7
(j) No x-intercepts, y-intercept 9
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
5
4
3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
-5
-3
(f)
-4
y
5
-5
3
2
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-3
-2
(b)
(e)
(a)
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2 3 4 5
-2
-3
-4
-5
779
780
(g)
3.
(a) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,

(b) {all real x}, " y: y $ -8 ,
(c) {all real x}, " y: y $ 0 ,
(d) {all real x}, " y: y $ -3 ,
(e) {all real x}, " y: y # 0 ,
4.
(a) (i) x 2 2 (ii) x 1 2 (b) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0

1
1
(d) (i) x 2 0 (ii) x 1 0
(c) (i) x 2 1 (ii) x 1 1
2
2
(e) (i) x 1 0 (ii) x 2 0
5.
(a) 0 # y # 2
5
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
(b) - 8 # y # -4
(d) 0 # y # 11
-4
-5
6.
(a) x 2 -3
(e) x 1 -2
(b) x 1 0
7.
(a) x = !3
(b) x 2 1, x 1 -1
(h)
5
(c) 0 # y # 6
(e) -1 # y # 0
(c) x 2 9
(d) x 2 2
(c) -2 # x # 2
(d) x = -1, -3 (e) x = 3 (f) x = 1, 2 (g) -3 1 x 1 5
(h) - 4 # x # 2
(j) x # 2, x $ 4
1
(k) - 4 # x # 1 (l) x # 0, x $ 1 (m) x = 2, 2
(n) No solutions (o) x = 0 (p) x = 1 (q) x = 0, -2
1
(t) x = 0, 6
(r) No solutions (s) x =
3
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
Exercises 5.7
-4
1.
-5
(i) x 2 4, x 1 0
(a) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) no y-intercept

y
(iii)
y
(i)
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-4
-3
-5
-4
-5
(j)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
(b) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0}

(ii) no y-intercept
5
4
(iii)
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-2
-1
-1
-2
ANSWERS
(c) (i) {all real x: x ! -1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) 1

y
(iii)
(iii)
5
4
3
2
-2
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2 3
-2
-1
-3
-4
-2
-5
1
(d) (i) {all real x: x ! 2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -1
2
(g) (i) {all real x: x ! 1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -4
(iii)
(iii)
5
4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1 2
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-5
-4
(e) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii)
-5
1
6
(h) (i) {all real x: x ! -1}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -2
(iii)
(iii)
2
5
4
-2
-1
-1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(f) (i) {all real x: x ! 3}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii)
-2
2
3
-3
-4
-5
781
782
(i) (i) ' all real x: x !
1
2
1, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) 2
3
Exercises 5.8
1.
(iii)
(a) (i)
1
2
-1
-2
-1
-3
2
3
-3
-2
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # 3 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 ,
(j) (i) {all real x: x ! -2}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) -3
(b) (i)
y
(iii)
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
x
-2
-4
-3
-4
-5
2.
3.
4.
(ii) ! x: -4 # x # 4 +, " y: -4 # y # 4 ,
2
-x
2
=x
= - f (x)
` odd function
(c) (i)
f ] -x g =
5
4
3
(a)
1
#y #1
9
(b)
1
#y #1
3
(d)
3
#y #3
7
(e) - 2 # y # -
(a) 1 # x # 3
(b) 1 # x # 4
(d) 1 # x # 4
(e) 1 # x # 2
(c) -2
1
1
#y #2
2
1
8
(c) - 6 # x # 0
(2, 1)
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
ANSWERS
(ii) ! x: 0 # x # 4 +, " y: -1 # y # 3 ,
(iii) ! x: -5 # x # 5 +, " y: -5 # y # 0 ,
(d) (i)
(b) (i) Above x-axis

y
(ii)
5
4
3
1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-1
-3
-4
(iii) ! x: -1 # x # 1 +, " y: 0 # y # 1 ,
-5
(c) (i) Above x-axis
(ii) ! x: -4 # x # 2 +, " y: -3 # y # 3 ,
(ii)
(e) (i)
5
4
3
2
(-2, 1)
-6
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
(iii) ! x: -6 # x # 6 +, " y: 0 # y # 6 ,
(d) (i) Below x-axis
-2
(ii)
(ii) ! x: -3 # x # -1 +, " y : 0 # y # 2 ,
2.
(a) (i) Below x-axis

(ii)
-8
-8
-5
-5
(iii) ! x: -8 # x # 8 +, " y: -8 # y # 0 ,
783
784
6.
(e) (i) Below x-axis

y
(ii)
(a) {y: - 9 # y # 3}
(b) {y: 0 # y # 9} (c) {y: -8 # y # 1}
1
(d) ' y: # y # 1 1 (e) {y: 0 # y # 4}
5
(f) {y: -1 # y # 15} (g) {y: -1 # y # 0}
(h) " y: - 1 # y # 8 , (i) {y: - 4 # y # 21}
1
(j) ' y: - 6 # y # 6 1
4
- 7
7.
(a) {all real x: x ! -1}

(b) x-intercept: y = 0
3
0=
x+1
0=3
This is impossible so there is no x-intercept
(c) {all real y: y ! 0}
8.
(a) {all real x: x ! 0}
(b) {all real y: y ! !1}
9.
(a)
- 7
(iii) " x: - 7 # x #
3.
7 ,, # y: - 7 # y # 0 -
(a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius
5 , centre (0, 0)
25
(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, -6)

(e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3)
4.
20
15
10
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 16
(b) x - 6x + y - 4y - 12 = 0
(c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0
(d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0
(e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
(f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0
(g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0
(h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0
(i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0
(j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-5
2.
3.
5.
-15
y
(b)
8
6
4
(a) {all real x}, {all real y} (b) {all real x}, {y: y = -4}
(c) {x: x = 3}, {all real y} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -1}
1
(e) {all real x}, {all real y} (f) {all real x}, ' y: y # 12 1
4
(g) {x: -8 # x # 8}, {y: -8 # y # 8}
(h) {all real t: t ! 4}, {all real f (t): f (t) ! 0}
(i) {all real z: z ! 0}, {all real g ^ z h: g ^ z h ! 5}
(j) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0}
(a) {x: x $ 0}, {y: y $ 0} (b) {x: x $ 2}, {y: y $ 0}
(c) {all real x}, {y: y $ 0} (d) {all real x}, {y: y $ -2}
1
(e) ' x: x $ -2 1, {y: y # 0}
2
(f) {all real x}, {y: y # 5} (g) {all real x}, {y: y 2 0}
(h) {all real x}, {y: y 1 0}
(i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 1}
(j) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 2}
(a) x = 0, 5 (b) x = -3, 1, 2 (c) x = 0, 2, 4
(d) x = 0, ! 4 (e) x = !7 4. (a) -1 # x # 1
(b) {x: -1 # x # 1}
(a) {x: x # - 1, x $ 2}
-10
Exercises 5.9
1.
(b) {t: t # - 6, t $ 0}
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-8
y
(c)
25
20
15
10
5
-4 -3 -2 -1
-5
-10
-15
ANSWERS
(d)
(g)
8
6
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-1
-1
-6
-8
10. (a) " x: x $ 1 , " y: y $ 0 ,

y
(b)
y
(e)
2
1
8
6
-1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
11.
6
-4
-6
-8
3
2
1
-1
(f)
12. (a) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None
(b) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 -2 , (ii) x 2 0 (iii) x 1 0
(c) (i) {all real x: x ! 0}, {all real y: y ! 0} (ii) None
(iii) All x ! 0
(d) (i) {all real x}, {all real y} (ii) All x (iii) None
(e) (i) {all real x}, " y: y 2 0 , (ii) All x (iii) None
13. (a) - 2 # x # 2 (b) (i) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: 0 # y # 2}
(ii) {x: - 2 # x # 2}, { y: - 2 # y # 0}
10
-10
-1
10
Exercises 5.10
1.
-10
(b) -10 (c) 8 (d) 3 (e) 3 (f) 75

1
(j) 1 (k) - 7 (l) x 2 - 3x
(h) - 6 (i)
4
(a) 21
(m) 2x 3 + 3x - 5
2.
(g) 0
(n) 3c 2
(a) Continuous (b) Discontinuous at x = - 1

(c) Continuous (d) Continuous (e) Discontinuous at
x = !2
785
786
3.
5.
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(c)
(d)
Exercises 5.11
1.
(a) 0 (b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 2 (e) 1

(h) 0 (i) 5x (j) 3
2.
(a) RHS = 1 +
=
(f) 6 (g)
3
1
+ 2
x
x
x2 + x + 3
x2
= LHS
(b) 1 from above (c) 1 from below
3.
(a) 2 from below (b) 2 from above
4.
(a)
x
3
(b)
5x 2
4
2
3
(e)
ANSWERS
(f)
7.
21x #2
9.
x#
2
5
2
,x 21
3
8. x 1 - 6, x 2 - 3
10. - 2
2
# x 1 -2
3
Exercises 5.13
1.
(a)
6
(g)
5
4
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(h)
-3
-4
(b)
6
5
(i)
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
(j)
-3
-4
y
(c)
6
5
4
3
2
1
Exercises 5.12
1.
1
1x 10
2
2. 0 1 x 1
1
3
4.
1
#x 10
2
5. 1 1 x 1 1
3. 0 1 x # 1
1
3
6. x $ -1, x 1 - 2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
787
788
(d)
(g)
x+y = 1
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
y
(e)
1
1
2 3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-2
-3
-3
-4
-4
3x - y - 6 = 0
-5
(f)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y = x +1
(h)
-6
(i)
y = 2x -3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
x
x + 2y - 2 = 0
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
ANSWERS
(j)
(c)
6
1
5
4
3
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-1
x
-2
-1
-3
-4
-5
x=
-6
2.
(a) x 2 -3
(e) y $ 2
3.
(b) y $ -2
1
2
(d)
5
(d) y 2 x 2 - 4
(c) y $ x + 1
y=x2
(a)
2
1
5
4
-4 -3 -2 -1
y = x2 - 1
-1
-2
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
-5
-2
(e)
-3
-4
-5
6
4
(b)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
y = x3
-3
-3
x
4.
(a) y 1 3x - 2
(b) y 2 x 2 + 2
(c) x 2 + y 2 1 49
(d) x 2 + y 2 2 81
(e) x 1 5, y 2 2
-6
-8
789
790
5.
(a)
(b)
3
2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y=x -3
-4
-2
-3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
(b)
-4
-5
-6
3
2
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y = 3x 5
-2
3
2
(c)
5
4
-4 -3
-1
-1
-2
-3
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4
-5
-6
-2
6.
-2
(d)
(a)
5
4
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
y=x+1
-4
-3
-2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
y=3x
ANSWERS
(e)
(h)
x = -2
y = x3
y=3
4
2
y=1
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-8
-3
(f)
(i)
1
1
-2
-1
-2
-1
-1
x=1
y
(g)
(j)
y=4
y = x2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
x - y = -1
2
1
x-y=2
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-3
-2
-4
-3
-5
-4
-5
-6
791
792
7.
(a)
(d)
y = x2
5
4
3
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-1
2
y= x
-2
-2
-3
-4
-5
(e)
(b)
8
y = x3
6
4
y=1
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
y=
-4
-3 -2
-1
-1
1
x+2
-2
-6
-8
8.
y
(c)
(a)
y
y = x2
y=5
4
3
-2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-2
-4
x=1
-5
x=2
ANSWERS
(e)
(b)
y = |x|
y=3
x
-4 - 3 - 2 - 1
-1
-2
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
y = -1
-3
-3
-5
x=2
Test yourself 5
-6
(c)
-2
x=3
-4
y=x-2
793
1.
(a) f ] - 2 g = 6
2.
(a)
(b) f ] a g = a 2 - 3a - 4
(c) x = 4, -1
y = 2x + 1
6
5
4
3
2
2x - 3y = 6
(b)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
(c)
y
(d)
y=2
(d)
-3
(e)
x = -3
Answer S1-S5.indd 793
-3
8/11/09 11:31:52 AM
794
8.
(f)
9.
(g)
(h)
10.
3.
4.
1
4
(b) Domain: all real x; range: all real y
(c) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 1
(d) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: 0 # y # 1
(e) Domain: - 1 # x # 1; range: - 1 # y # 0
(f) Domain: all real x ! 0; range: all real y ! 0
(g) Domain: all real x; range: all real y
(h) Domain: all real x; range: y $ 0
(a) Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 6
15
5. (a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 9
(d) 3
11. (a) y # 3
(b) y 2 x + 2
(c) y $ - x 2, y # 0
12. (a) Domain: all real x ! 3, range: all real y ! 0

(b)
(e) 2
6.
13. (a)
7.
(b) (i) x = 2, -4 (ii) - 4 1 x 1 2 (iii) x 2 2, x 1 - 4
ANSWERS
14. (a) 2
(b) x = 3
2
3
1
3
(c) 1
(b)
15. (a) x-intercept -10, y-intercept 4

(b) x-intercepts - 2, 7, y-intercept
y
-14
16. (a) i (b) iii (c) ii
17. (a) 4
(b)
2
5
(c) - 1
(d) i
1
2
(e) iii
(d) 3
-1
18.
(c)
19. (a) Domain: x $ 2, range: y $ 0
(b)
(d)
f (x) = x 4 3x 2 1
f ( x) = ] - x g4 3 ] x g2
= x 4 3x
3x 2 1
= f (x)
So f ] x g is even.
-4
20. (a)
1
1
x
f (x) = x 3 x
f ( x) = ] - x g3 ( )
= - x3 + x
= -( 3
)
= - f (x)
So f ] x g is odd.
(b)
(e)
21. (a
a)
1
x
x
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
4
-2
795
796
1.
6.
f ] 3 g = 9, f ] -4 g = 16, f ] 0 g = 1
7.
Domain: all real x ! ! 1; range: y # - 1, y 2 0
2
b=- ,3
3
2.
3.
8.
-2
9.
Domain: x $ 0; range: y $ 0
10. x = 0, 3, - 2
11.
4.
12. h ] 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g = - 3 + 0 - ] -1 g = - 2
5.
ANSWERS
13.
18.
14.
19.
20. Domain: x $ 3; range: y $ 0 21. Domain: - 2 # x # 2

15. f ^ (-a) h = 2 (-a ) - 1
= 2a 2 - 1
= f (a 2)
2
16. x =
17. (a)
22.
1 ! 41
4
1
x+3
2]x + 3g
1
=
+
x+3
x+3
2x + 6 + 1
=
x+3
2x + 7
=
x+3
= LHS
2x + 7
1
=2+
`
x+3
x+3
RHS = 2 +
23. (a) 0
(b)
(b) Domain: all real x ! - 3; range: all real y ! 2

(c)
24.
797
798
Exercises 6.1
cos i =
2.
3
5
4
sin b = , cot b = , sec b =
5
4
3
3.
sin b =
4.
cos x =
5
, tan x =
9
5.
cos i =
3
4
, sin i =
5
5
6.
5
5
3
tan i =
, sec i = , sin i =
2
2
3
7.
cos i =
35
, tan i =
6
8.
tan i =
51
51
, sin i =
7
10
9.
(a)
10. (a)
7
74
7
, cos b =
5
, tan b =
6.
(a) 17c 20l (b) 34c 20l (c) 34c 12l
1.6 m
5.
(a) 18.4 cm
7.
47.4 mm 8. 20.3 m
(c) 9.0 cm
9
56
3. 20.3 cm
4. 13.9 m
(b) 13.8 cm
6. 10 cm and 10.5 cm
9. (a) 7.4 cm
(b) 6.6 cm
1
10. (a) 6.8 cm
35
(b) 6.5 cm
1.
(a) x = 39c 48l (b) a = 35c 06l (c) i = 37c 59l

(d) a = 50c 37l (e) a = 38c 54l (f) b = 50c 42l
(g) x = 44c 50l (h) i = 30c 51l (i) a = 29c 43l
(j) i = 45c 37l (k) a = 57c 43l (l) i = 43c 22l
(m) i = 37c 38l (n) i = 64c 37l (o) b = 66c 16l
(p) a = 29c 56l (q) i = 54c 37l (r) a = 35c 58l
(s) i = 59 2l (t) c = 56c 59l
2.
37c 57l 3. 22c 14l
3
1
1
, cos 30c =
, tan 30c =
2
2
3
3
6.
(a) 11.4 cm
13. tan 48c = cot 42c = 1.11
14. (a) 2 cos 61c or 2 sin 29c
8.
(a) 13 m
(e) 2
15. x = 80c
16. y = 22c
19. t = 20c
20. k = 15c
11. 38 cm
Exercises 6.4
3
1
, cos 60c = , tan 60c =
2
2
(d) 1
(e) 1.393
2.
74
12. sec 82c = cosec 8c = 7.19
(c) 0
(d) 0.928
(a) x = 6.3 (b) y = 5.6 (c) b = 3.9 (d) x = 5.6

(e) m = 2.9 (f) x = 13.5 (g) y = 10.0 (h) p = 3.3
(i) x = 5.1 (j) t = 28.3 (k) x = 3.3 cm (l) x = 2.9 cm
(m) x = 20.7 cm (n) x = 20.5 mm (o) y = 4.4 m
(p) k = 20.6 cm (q) h = 17.3 m (r) d = 1.2 m
(s) x = 17.4 cm (t) b = 163.2 m
11. sin 67c = cos 23c = 0.92
(b) 0
(c) 0.339
1.
5
(b) 45c
1
1
(c) sin 45c =
, cos 45c =
, tan 45c = 1
2
2
(c) sin 60c =
(b) 0.697
Exercises 6.3
56
, cosec x =
5
(b) sin 30c =
(a) 0.635
(d) 46c 34l (e) 79c 10l
5
12
12
, sin i =
, tan i =
5
13
13
1.
5.
4. 36c52l 5. 50c
(b) 37c 52l 7. a = 31c 58l, b = 45c 44l
(b) 65c 17l 9. (a) 11c 19l (b) 26 cm
10. 4.96 cm and 17.3 cm
17. p = 31c
11. (a) 12.9 m
(b) 56c 34l
18. b = 25c
Exercises 6.5
1.
(a)
North
Exercises 6.2
1.
(a) 47c
(b) 82c
(c) 19c
(d) 77c
2.
(a) 47c 13l (b) 81c 46l (c) 19c 26l
(e) 52c
(d) 76c 37l (e) 52c 30l

3.
4.
(a) 77.75c
(b) 65.5c
(c) 24.85c
(d) 68.35c
(e) 82.517c
(a) 59c 32l (b) 72c 14l (c) 85c 53l

(d) 46c 54l (e) 73c 13l
Beach
house
100c
Boat
ANSWERS
North
(b)
(f) North
Farmhouse
Jamie
12c
Campsite
Dam
(g)
320c
North
North
(c)
House 160c
Jetty
200c
Mohammed
(h)
North
Seagull
(d) North
Alistair
Mine shaft
80c
Town
50c
(i)
Bus stop
Yvonne
North
North
(e)
Plane
349c
B Hill
285c
School
799
800
North
(j)
4.
(a) 2nd
6.
(a) 1st
(e) -
Boat ramp
8.
Island
280c
2.
(a) 248c
3.
080c
7.
4. 210c 5. 160c 6. 10.4 m
12. 1.8 km
(g)
3
2
1
2
(b)
13. 12 m 14. 242c
15. 035c
25. 198 m 26. 4.8 km 27. 9.2 m 28. 217c
3+1
2
(g) 1
1
4
(b) 1 (c)
6+ 2
=
4
(h)
(k) 0
(d) 4
2 ^ 3 + 1h
4
(l) 1
(q) 2 3
3 2
2
9 3
2
(a) x =
3.
60c
7.
(a) 6 2 m
4.
(b) y =
2m
5.
3m
4 3
3
(i)
(f)
(r) -
1
2
(s) 6
2 3
3
(n)
2
3
(t)
6
2- 3
2
(c) p = 2 3
6.
10 3
m
3
(b) 4 m 8. 0.9 m
9.
3
2
(c)
(d) 1
(i)
(i) 1
5
21
65
(d)
(j)
2
1
2
(c) - 3
3
2
(i) 3
2
1
2
(j) -
(e) -
(j) -
(e) -
(d)
1
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
(f)
1
2
, cot x = -
, sec i =
3
10
21
21
2
, tan x = -
65
91
3
, tan x = 10
91
61
61
, cosec a = 5
6
51
7
, cot i = 10
51
(b) cos x
(f) - sin i (g) cos a
5^3 + 3 h
m
3
(b) cos x = -
5
18. cot a = - , sec a =
6
19. sin i =
89
5
55
8
8
, sec x = - , cosec x = 3
3
55
17. (a) sin x =
20. (a) sin i
(c) tan b
(d) - sin a
(e) - tan i
(h) - tan x
Exercises 6.8
10. 100 3 m
1.
Exercises 6.7
1.
(a) 1st, 4th (b) 1st, 3rd (c) 1st, 2nd

(e) 3rd, 4th (f) 2nd, 3rd (g) 3rd
(h) 3rd (i) 2nd (j) 4th
2.
(a) 3rd
(b) -
(c)
, cosec x = -
15. tan i = 16. tan x =
(m) 2 ^ 2 - 1 h
(p) 3 - 2 2
2.
(e)
3
2
7 74
5 74
, sin x = 74
74
14. cos x = -
(j) - ^ 2 + 3 h
1
3
89
(b) 7.2 km 30. (a) 13.1 m (b) 50c26l
(a)
(o) 1
13. cosec x = -
Exercises 6.6
1.
(h) -
2
1
33
4
, tan i = 7
33
11. cos i = 12. cos x =
22. 1931.9 km 23. 34.6 m 24. 149c
29. (a) 1.2 km
3
2
(b)
(g)
(h) -
(h)
16. 9.2 m 17. 171 m 18. 9.8 km 19. 51c 41l 20. 2.6 m
21. 9c21l
1
2
(b)
3
4
10. sin i = - , cos i = 5
5
10. (a) 1056.5 km (b) 2265.8 km (c) 245c

11. 83.1 m
(b) -
5. (a) 2nd
7. (a) 1
1
2
(f) -
(a) (g)
8. 126.9 m 9. 72c48l
21 m
1
2
(a) -
3
2
(b)
(f) - 3
9.
(b) 145c (c) 080c (d) 337c (e) 180c
(b) - 3
1
2
3. (a) 4th (b) -
1
2
(d) 2nd, 4th
(a) i = 20c 29l, 159c 31l (b) i = 120c, 240c

(c) i = 135c, 315c (d) i = 60c, 120c (e) i = 150c, 330c
(f) i = 30c, 330c
(g) i = 30c, 120c, 210c, 300c ] 0c # 2i # 720c g
(h) i = 70c, 110c, 190c, 230c, 310c, 350c
] 0c # 3i # 1080c g
ANSWERS
(i) i = 30c, 150c, 210c, 330c

(j) i = 15c, 45c, 75c, 105c, 135c, 165c, 195c, 225c,
255c, 285c, 315c, 345c
2.
(a) i = !79c 13l (b) i = 30c, 150c

(d) i = - 60c, -120c
16.
(c) i = 45c, -135c
(e) i = 150c, -30c
(f) i = !30c, !150c

(g) i = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, -67c 30l, -157c 30l
(h) i = !15c, !45c, !75c, !105c, !135c, !165c
(i) i = 135c, -45c
(j) i = !30c, !60c, !120c, !150c
3.
17.
4.
-1
5.
Exercises 6.9
1.
(a) cos i (b) - tan i (c) cos i (d) tan i (e) - sec a
2.
(a) sin i (b) sec i (c) cosec x

2
(f) cosec x
(j) sin2 x
3.
6.
x = 0c, 180c, 360c
9.
x = 0c, 360c
7. - 1
8. 1
(g) sec x
(k) 1
(l) sin i cos i
(a) LHS = cos x - 1

= 1 - sin 2 x - 1
= - sin 2 x
= RHS
So cos 2 x - 1 = -sin 2 x
2
(b) LHS = sec i + tan i

sin i
1
=
+
cos i
cos i
1 + sin i
=
cos i
= RHS
1 + sin i
So sec i + tan i =
cos i
10.
(c) LHS = 3 + 3 tan 2 a
11. 0
12. x = 270c
14. x = 0c, 180c, 360c
13. x = 0c, 180c, 360c

15. x = -270c, 90c
= 3 (1 + tan 2 a )
= 3 sec 2 a
3
=
cos 2 a
3
=
1 - sin 2 a
= RHS
So 3 + 3 tan 2 a =
(d) cos2 x
(e) sin a
(h) tan i (i) 5 cosec 2 i
3
1 - sin 2 a
801
802
(d) LHS = sec 2 x - tan 2 x

= tan 2 x + 1 - tan 2 x
=1
= RHS
(j) LHS =
=
(e) LHS = ] sin x - cos x g 3

= ] sin x - cos x g ] sin x - cos x g 2
= ] sin x - cos x g ^ sin 2 x - 2 sin x cos x + cos 2 x h
= ] sin x - cos x g ] 1 - 2 sin x cos x g
= sin x - 2 sin 2 x cos x - cos x + 2 sin x cos 2 x
= RHS
So ] sin x - cos x g 3 = sin x - 2 sin 2 x cos x - cos x
+ 2 sin x cos 2 x
RHS =
1 - sin 2 i + 2 sin i
sin i cos i
cos 2 i + 2 sin i
=
sin i cos i
2 sin i
cos 2 i
=
+
sin i cos i sin i cos i
cos i
2
=
+
sin i cos i
= cot i + 2 sec i
= LHS
(g) LHS = cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i

= sin 2 i cot i
cos i
= sin 2 i #
sin i
= sin i cos i
= RHS
So cos 2 ] 90c - i g cot i = sin i cos i
So
4.
So
cos 2 i
= tan 2 i + cos 2 i
sin b cos b
+
cos b sin b
sec b
sin 2 b + cos 2 b
sin b cos b
sec b
1 + cot b
cosec b
- cos b = sin b
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= ] 2 cos i g 2 + ] 2 sin i g 2
= 4 cos 2 i + 4 sin 2 i
= 4 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i)
= 4 ]1g
=4
= RHS
So x 2 + y 2 = 4
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
1 - sin 2 i cos 2 i
tan b + cot b
sec b
LHS = RHS
So ] cosec x + cot x g ] cosec x - cot x g = 1

cos 2 i
sin 2 i cos 2 i
=
cos 2 i
cos 2 i
= sec 2 i - sin 2 i
= tan 2 i + 1 - (1 - cos 2 i)
= tan 2 i + 1 - 1 + cos 2 i
= tan 2 i + cos 2 i
= RHS
sec b
1
sin b cos b
cos b sin b
= sec b #
1
cos b sin b
1
=
#
1
cos b
= sin b
1 - sin i + 2 sin i
sin i cos i
cosec b
1 + cot b - cot b
(i) LHS =
cosec b
cosec b
1
=
cosec b
= sin b
(f) RHS =
(h) LHS = ] cosec x + cot x g ] cosec x - cot x g

= 1 + cot 2 x - cot 2 x
=1
= RHS
- cos b
cosec b
1 + cot b - cos b cosec b
1 + cot b - cos b #
So sec 2 x - tan 2 x = cosec 2 x - cot 2 x
So cot i + 2 sec i =
1 + cot b
5.
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= ] 9 cos i g 2 + ] 9 sin i g 2
= 81 cos 2 i + 81 sin 2 i
= 81 (cos 2 i + sin 2 i)
= 81 ] 1 g
= 81
= RHS
So x 2 + y 2 = 81
1
sin b
ANSWERS
Exercises 6.10
1.
(a) x = 8.9
Exercises 6.13
(b) y = 9.4 cm
(d) b = 10.7 m
2.
(c) a = 10.0
1.
(e) d = 8.0
(a) i = 54c 57l (b) a = 61c 23l (c) x = 43c 03l
3.
126c 56l 4. (a) 13.5 mm
5.
(a) 1.8 m
7.
(a) 10.3 m
9.
(a) 14.1 cm (b) 15.6 cm
(a) 7.5 cm 2 (b) 32.3 units 2 (c) 9.9 mm 2

(d) 30.2 units 2 (e) 6.3 cm 2
2.
15 3 2
m
2
6.
1.2 m 2
9.
(a) 7.8 cm
(d) a = 87c 04l (e) i = 150c 56l
3. 7.5 cm 2
7. 42 cm 2
(a) m = 5.8
(b) 180.8 cm 2
(b) 18.5 cm 2
(c) h = 7.4 cm
(e) y = 9.3
(a) i = 51c 50l (b) i = 60c 27l (c) x = 57c 42l

(d) b = 131c 31l (e) i = 73c 49l
1.
(a) 2 m (b) 2.2 m (c) 65c 21l 2. (a) 1.9 m (b) 49c 46l
3.
(a) 109 cm 2
5.
(a) 9 m
7.
(a) 48 m
(b) 128.6 m
9.
16c 50l
10. 11c 10l
(b) 16c 20l 4. 65c 9l
(b) 25c 7l 6. (a) 56 m
3.
32.94 mm 4. 11.2 cm and 12.9 cm
Exercises 6.15
5.
(a) 11.9 cm (b) 44c 11l (c) 82c 13l
1.
+XYZ = +XZY = 66c 10l, +YXZ = 47c 40l

(a) 18.1 mm (b) 80c49l 8. (a) 6.2 cm
(c)
(b) 12.7 cm
(b) 30c
12.9 cm 10. (a) 11 cm
tan a + tan b
1 - tan a tan b
(b) 89.7 m
(c) 97.7 m 8. 84 m
(a) sin a cos b - cos a sin b
(e)
9.
(c) 19.1 cm 2
Exercises 6.14
(b) b = 10.4 m
(d) n = 16.4
7.
8. 247.7 mm 2
(b) 9.4 m 8. (a) 60c 22l (b) 57c 9l
Exercises 6.11
6.
(b) cos p cos q - sin p sin q
(d) sin x cos 20c + cos x sin 20c
tan 48 + tan x
1 - tan 48c tan x
(f) cos 2i cos a + sin 2i sin a
(g) cos x cos 75c - sin x sin 75c
(h)
Exercises 6.12
1.
12.5 cm and 4.7 cm 2. (a) 040c (b) 305c 3. 16.4 m
4.
103c
7.
(a) 1.21 km
5. 1.97 m 6. 11c
(i) sin 4a cos b - cos 4a sin b (j)

2.
(b) 1 minute 8. 32 m 9. 107 m
12. 7.7 km
13. 5.7 km and 5.4 km
14. 1841 km
15. 35.8 m 16. 89c 52l 17. 9.9 km
18. 163.5 km
19. 64.1 m 20. 3269 km
21. (a) 11.3 cm (b) 44c 40l 22. 141c

23. (a) 11.6 cm (b) 73c 14l
(a) sin ] a + b g (b) tan 65c

(e) tan 2i (f) sin 32c
(i) 2 sin x sin y
5.8 sin 42c 29l

10. (a) AC =
(b) i = 74c 50l
sin 101c 36l
11. h = 8.5
3.
(a)
(c)
(d)
(e)
24. (a) 265.5 km (b) 346c 33l

25. (a) 35c 5l (b) (i) 4.5 m
S6.indd 803
5. 34.8 cm 2
(b) 2.7 m 6. 5.7 cm
10. (a) 54.7 mm (b) 35.1 mm
2.
4. 15.5 cm 2
(b) 25 mm
10. (a) 5.6 cm
1.
803
(ii) 0.55 m
(g)
1+ 3
2 2
1+ 3
2 2
(c) cos 55c
(d) sin ^ 2x + 3y h
(g) 2 sin a cos b
(h) 2 cos x sin y
(j) 2 cos m cos n

2+ 6
4
(b)
1+ 3
2+ 6
4
2 2
-^2 3 + 4h
= -^ 3 + 2h
2
2 2
1+ 3
1 + tan a tan 3b
2 3+4
=
2
1- 3
1- 3
tan a - tan 3b
3-1
1+ 3
tan 5x - tan 7y
1 + tan 5x tan 7y
2- 6
4
(f)
3+2
3-1
2 2
6- 2
4
2+ 6
4
8/11/09 11:38:03 AM
804
(h)
1+ 3
1- 3
15. (a) sin 6x
-^4 + 2 3 h
= -^2 + 3 h
2
(e)
3-1
1+ 3
o + cos x e
o
(i) sin x e
2
2
(j)
4.
2
2
cos y =
(c)
2 cos y
5. (a)
6 + 35
3 5-2 7
6 + 35
12
3 5+2 7
12
(b)
6.
(a) 2 sin i cos i (b) cos 2 i - sin 2 i (c)
7.
(a) 3 sin i cos 2 i - sin 3 i
8.
9.
(g)
32 5 + 27 7
17
(b) cos 3 i - 3 sin 2 i cos i (c)
2 tan i
1 - tan 2 i
3 tan i - tan 3 i
3
(c) 2
11. (a)
4
5
(b)
3
(d) 2
12
13
(c) -
(e)
33
65
10. (a)
1
2
18. (a)
(b)
(d)
12
5
(e) - 3
(b) -2 sin x sin y
21.
15
16
(c) 2 cos x sin y
(f)
2 tan y ^ tan 2 x + 1 h
1 - tan 2 x tan 2 y
2 tan i
1 - tan 2 i
(c) cos 2 i - sin 2 i
(d) sin x cos 2y + cos x sin 2y

= sin x _ cos 2 y - sin 2 y i + 2 cos x sin y cos y
(e) cos 2a cos b - sin 2a sin b
= ^ cos 2 a - sin 2 a h cos b - 2 sin a cos a sin b
(f)
tan x + tan 2y
1 - tan x tan 2y
tan x - tan x tan 2 y + 2 tan y
=
1 - tan 2 y - 2 tan x tan y
(g) sin 2i cos d - cos 2i sin d
= 2 sin i cos i cos d - cos 2 i sin d + sin 2 i sin d
(h) cos i cos 2c + sin i sin 2c
= cos i _ cos 2 c - sin 2 c i + 2 sin i sin c cos c
tan x - tan 2z
tan x - tan x tan 2 z - 2 tan z
=
1 + tan x tan 2z
1 - tan 2 z + 2 tan x tan z
(j) sin 2x cos 2y - cos 2x sin 2y
= 2 sin x cos x _ cos 2 y - sin 2 y i
- 2 sin y cos y ^ cos 2 x - sin 2 x h
(i)
(b)
(h) 1
63
65
(b)
1
2
(c)
1
(i)
2 2
(d)
3
(j) -
1
2
5 39
7
, sin 2x =
32
32
7
25
(c)
120
169
(d) -
33
56
(b)
1
2+ 3
=2- 3
2-1
(d) cos x cos y - sin x sin y + sin x cos y - cos x sin y
(b)
2
4
22. (a)
13. (a) 2 sin x cos y
14. (a) 2 sin b cos b
2 2
17. cos 2x = -
1
[cos 115c + cos ] - 15c g]
2
1 - tan 2 x tan 2 y
20. (a) tan x
(b)
2 tan x _ 1 + tan 2 y i
(g) cos 6a
12. (a) 2 cos x cos y
(e)
1
sin 12i (f) 1 + sin 2x
2
19. 4 sin i cos i ^ cos 2 i - sin 2 i h =

4 sin i cos 3 i - 4 sin 3 i cos i
1 - 3 tan 2 i
(a) tan 4i (b) sin 7i cos 3i - cos 7i sin 3i

cos 2x cos 7x - sin 2x sin 7x
(c) tan 10i (d) cos 2y

(h) cos 80c
(i) tan 2b (j) 1 - sin 6x

16. (a)
tan 2x
(b) cos 14y
(b)
1
sin 2i tan i
2
1
= (2 sin i cos i) tan i
2
sin i
= sin i cos i
cos i
= sin 2 i
= LHS
1
2
` sin i = sin 2i tan i
2
RHS =
RHS =
1 - cos i
sin i
i
i
- sin 2 n
2
2
=
i
i
cos
2 sin
2
2
i
i
1 - cos 2 + sin 2
2
2
=
i
i
cos
2 sin
2
2
i
i
sin 2 + sin 2
2
2
=
i
i
2 sin
cos
2
2
i
2 sin 2
2
=
i
i
2 sin
cos
2
2
i
sin
2
=
i
cos
2
i
= tan
2
= LHS
i
1 - cos i
` tan =
2
sin i
1 - d cos 2
1
2
(e)
(f)
3
2
ANSWERS
23. RHS = sin 11i sin 3i

= sin (7i + 4i) sin (7i - 4i)
= (sin 7i cos 4i + cos 7i sin 4i)
(sin 7i cos 4i - cos 7i sin 4i)
= sin 2 7i cos 2 4i - cos 2 7i sin 2 4i
= sin 2 7i (1 - sin 2 4i) - (1 - sin 2 7i) sin 2 4i
= sin 2 7i - sin 2 7i sin 2 4i - sin 2 4i + sin 2 7i sin 2 4i
= sin 2 7i - sin 2 4i
= LHS
` sin 2 7i - sin 2 4i = sin 11i sin 3i
5.
6.
7.
24. LHS = cos 3i

= cos (2i + i)
= cos 2i cos i - sin 2i sin i
= (cos 2 i - sin 2 i) cos i - 2 sin 2 i cos i
= cos 3 i - sin 2 i cos i - 2 sin 2 i cos i
= cos 3 i - 3 sin 2 i cos i
= cos 3 i - 3 (1 - cos 2 i) cos i
= cos 3 i - 3 cos i + 3 cos 3 i
= 4 cos 3 i - 3 cos i
= RHS
8.
(a)
1 + t2
2t
(i)
1.
4.
LHS =
1
2
1 - t2
(f)
(j)
(a)
2 sin ] i - 45cg (b)
34 sin ] i + 59c 2lg
5 sin ] i - 63c 26lg
29 sin ] i - 21c 48lg
10 cos ] i - 18c 26lg 9. 2 cos ] i + 60cg

85 sin ] i + 12c 32lg
(b)
85 cos ] i - 77c 28lg
(a) x = 45c, 225c
(b) x = 30c, 210c
(f) x = 0c, 60c, 300c, 360c
(c)
1+t
1-t
(d)
1 + t2
3 - 3t + 8t
2
1+t
(h)
3.
1
t
(c) i = 360n ! 30c
(d) x = 180n - ] -1 gn # 30c
(e) i = 180n - 45c
(f) b = 360n ! 45c

(h) i = 180n + 30c
4.
x = 52c 30l, 82c 30l, -97c 30l, -127c 30l
5.
x = 180n + ] - 1 gn # 30c, 360n ! 90c
6.
x = -180c, 0c, 90c, 180c
7.
(a) i = 180n
1 + t 2 + 2t + 1 - t 2
(b) x = 360n
n
(d) i = 180n + (-1) 270c
1 + t2
1 + sin i - cos i
=t
1 + sin i + cos i
(b) a = 180n + 60c
(i) i = 360n ! 75c 49l (j) a = 180n + ] -1 gn # 23c 31l
1 - t2
(a) i = 180n + ] - 1 gn # 30c
(g) c = 180n ! 60c
^1 + t h
(d) i = 180c, 270c
(i) i = 51c 2l, 190c 54l (j) i = 160c 32l, 270c
2t + 1 - t 2
2 2
2t
(a) i = 126c 52l, 306c52l (b) i = 35c58l, 189c16l
(g) i = 90c, 340c 32l (h) i = 56c 34l, 176c 34l
1 - t2
2t
(g)
(h) x = 0c, 180c, 360c
(j) x = 0c, 360c
(e) i = 240c 43l, 327c 21l (f) i = 90c, 180c
4t ^ 1 - t 2 h
1+t
2t 2 + 2t
=
2 + 2t
2t ] t + 1 g
=
2]1 + t g
=t
= RHS
`
41 sin ] i + 38c 40lg
65 sin ] i + 60c 15lg
(d) cos 50c
(d) 0
1+t
1+t
1 + t 2 + 2t - 1 + t 2
(i)
(c) i = 60c, 240c
1 + sin i - cos i
1 + sin i + cos i
2t
1 - t2
1+
2
1+t
1 + t2
1+
(h)
10 sin ] i + 18c 26lg
(f)
(i) x = 30c, 135c, 150c, 315c

2.
1 + t2
(j)
13 sin ] i + 56c 19lg
(e) x = 90c, 210c, 330c
(c)
1 - t + 2t
1+t
1-t
(g)
29 sin ] i + 21c 48lg
(g) x = 0c, 45c, 180c, 225c, 360c
(b)
1-t
(e)
17 sin ] i + 14c 2lg
(d) x = 0c, 45c, 180c, 225c, 360c
(e)
2 sin ] i + 45cg (d)
Exercises 6.17
(e) sin 2i (f) cos i
3.
(c)
(b) 2 sin ] i + 60cg
(c) x = 0c, 60c, 180c, 300c, 360c
(a) tan i (b) cos i (c) tan 20c
(b)
5 sin ] i + 26c 34lg
10. (a)
Exercises 6.16
2.
(a)
(e)
25. 3 sin x - 4 sin 3 x
3
(a)
2
^ 1 + t 2 h2
(c) 2 sin ] i - 60cg (d) 2 sin ] i - 30cg
` cos 3i = 4 cos 3 i - 3 cos i
1.
4t - 4t 3 - 1 + 6t 2 - t 4
8.
(a) (i) x = 30c, 150c
(c) x = 180n
(e) 360n ! 90c
(ii) x = 180n + ] - 1 gn ! 30c
(b) (i) x = 41c 25l, 318c 35l (ii) x = 360n ! 41c 25l
(c) (i) x = 71c 34, 251c 34l (ii) x = 180n + 71c 34l
(d) (i) x = 161c 34l, 341c 34l (ii) x = 180n - 18c 26l
(e) (i) x = 45c
(ii) x = 180n + (-1) n 90c - 45c
805
806
9.
x = 180n + ] -1 g n # 30c, 180n + (-1) n 270c
10. (a) x = 0c, 120c, 240c, 360c
cos i =
2.
(a) cos x
(b) 2
34
, sin i =
34
(c) cosec A
(d) cos i
(e) cos 20i
(a) i = 46c 3l (b) i = 73c 23l (c) i = 35c 32l
5.
LHS =
8.
(b) -
2 2
2 ^ 3 + 1h
4
2 ^1 - 3 h
4
(c)
1
2 2
2
4
(b) x = 180n + 45c
24. a = 51c 40l
23. i = 0c, 120c, 360c
(b) cos ] x + x g = cos x cos x - sin x sin x

= cos 2 x - sin 2 x
= ^ 1 - sin 2 x h - sin 2 x
= 1 - 2 sin 2 x
2 cos 2 i
So
= 2 + 2 sin i
1 - sin i
25. (a) cos ^ x + y h
2 cos 2 i
1 - sin i
2 ^ 1 - sin 2 i h
=
1 - sin i
2 ] 1 + sin i g ] 1 - sin i g
=
1 - sin i
= 2 (1 + sin i)
= 2 + 2 sin i
= RHS
2 2
3+1
22. (a) x = 360n ! 60c
(b) 1.84 (c) 0.95
7. (a)
1- 3
(b) 8.5 m
(c) x = 180n + ] - 1 gn # 60c
4.
1
(d) 2
21. (a)
(b)
(a) 0.64
b = 40c
20. 2951 km
3.
6.
20 sin 39c
sin 99c
(b) 360n ! 120c, 360n
Test yourself 6
1.
19. (a) AD =
3
2
1.
92c 58l 2. 50.2 km
4.
(a) AC =
25.3 sin 39c 53l

(b) h = 25.2 cm
sin 41c 21l
6.
- cos x
7. 16 3 cm 2
9.
x = 22c 30l, 112c 30l, 202c 30l, 292c 30l 10. i = 75c 45l
3. x = 12.7 cm
8.
(c) - 3
140
(e) 221
11. 5.4 m
x = 120c, 240c
14. -
56
9
12. i = 110c, 230c

15. 31 m
1
2
13. 6.43 km
16. LHS =
9.
5. 4.1 km
cos i ] sin i + cos i g
= cos i
1 - sin 2 i
] sin i + cos i g
cos 2 i
sin i + cos i
=
cos i
= tan i + 1
= RHS
17. x 2 + y 2 + 4y - 5 = 0
x = 90c, 270c
10. 122 km
11. 5 3
19. (a) 52c 37l (b) 9 m

12. (a) 6.3 cm
(b) 8.7 m
13. (a) i = 65c 5l (b) i = 84c 16l (c) i = 39c 47l

14. 65.3 cm 2
15. (a) x = !60c, !120c
(b) x = 15c, 105c, -75c, -165c

(c) x = 0c, !180c, 30c, -150c
3
4
16. sin i = - , cot i =
5
3
17. (a) 209c
18. i = 180n + ] -1 gn 30c + 53c 8l
(b) 029c
18. (a) 65 m
(b) 27c 42l
20. 30c 8l
21. LHS = cos 6i cos 4i - sin 6i sin 4i

= cos (6i + 4i)
= cos 10i
= cos 2 5i - sin 2 5i
= cos 2 5i - (1 - cos 2 5i)
= 2 cos 2 5i - 1
= RHS
` cos 6i cos 4i - sin 6i sin 4i = 2 cos 2 5i - 1
22. 30.1 m, 0.5 ms - 1
23. i = 30, 150, 270
24. i = 180n + (-1) n 270c
25. - t
ANSWERS
7.
Exercises 7.1
1.
(a) 5 (b) 10
(c) 13
(c)
52 = 2 13
85
(d)
2.
(a)
13
(b)
65
3.
(a) 9.85 (b) 6.71 (c) 16.55 4. 12 units
5.
Two sides =
6.
Show AB = BC =
7.
Show points are
8.
Radius = 3 units, equation x 2 + y 2 = 9
9.
Distance of all points from ^ 0, 0 h is

x 2 + y 2 = 11
34 , 1 side =
(b) XY =
15. BD = AC =
98
AC =
11 , equation
20 , so parallelogram
16. (a) AB = AC =
17. 2 101
18.
116 , AC =
145
130 , XZ =
XY 2 + XZ 2 = 65 + 65
= 130
= YZ 2
So triangle XYZ is right angled.
1.
40 , BC = 4
61 units
3.
(b) 1
(g) - 4
1
2
x = 1.8
1
3
(c) - 1
(h) -
2
3
(-2, 1)
(i) 2
4. x = 9
7.
1
1
(e) ^ -1, 1 h (f) ^ - 3, 2 h (g) d 3, n (h) d 1 , 1 n
2
2
1 1
1
(i) d , 2 n (j) d 0, 5 n
2 2
2
(j) - 2
(f) -
2. y 1 = 21
(3, 4)
(7, 2)
1
1
2 3 4
(2, -1)
Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = 1
1
2
Gradient of AB = gradient of CD = -1
Gradient of BC = gradient of AD =
1
3
3
4
1
Gradient of AC = - 5 ,
2
1
gradient of BD = 2
(b) a = - 5, b = 6
(c) a = -1, b = - 2 (d) a = -1, b = - 2
^ 4, 3 h 6. x = 3 is the vertical line through

midpoint ^ 3, 2 h.
2
3
(e)
Gradient of BC = gradient of AD = 0
(a) ^ 2, 4 h (b) ^ 1, -1 h (c) ^ - 2, 1 h (d) ^ - 3, 2 h
4. P = Q = ^ 2, -1 h
1
4
2
5
5. (a) Show m 1 = m 2 =
-2
3 + ]-3g
-4 + 4
= 0,
=0
2
2
(d) - 2
-3 -2 -1
-1
(Pythagoras theorem)
(e) a = 6, b = 1
1
3
65
Exercises 7.2
5.
(a) 2
6.
3.
12. x 2 + y 2 = 1
30.2
(a) a = 9, b = - 3
(b) Lines are parallel.
Problem
2.
2
, AB =
2
Exercises 7.3
Since XY = YZ, triangle XYZ is isosceles.
1.
34 ; YZ =
11. x 2 + y 2 = 4
AB 2 + BC 2 = 29 + 116
= 145
= AC 2
So triangle ABC is right angled (Pythagoras theorem)
65 , YZ =
34
,
2
40 = 2 10 ; XZ =
11. a = ! 6 - 2
37 , QP = MN =
20. XY =
10 , BC =
17 units from ^ 7, -3 h
14. MQ = NP =
29 , BC =
9. ^ - 8, 13 h
1 1
1 1
10. (a) X = d - , 3 n , Y = d , n , Z = ^ 1, 1 h
2 2
2 2
128
12. All 3 sides are 2 units. 13. a = 10, - 2
19. AB =
125 , midpoint AC = midpoint
AC = BD =
1
BD = d 4, - n ; rectangle
2
85
10. a = 3
(b) OC = OB = 2
8.
1 1
Midpoint of AC = midpoint of BD = d 2 , 3 n .
2 2
Diagonals bisect each other
8.
Gradient of AC = 1, gradient of BD = -1
9.
(a) Show AB 2 + BC 2 = AC 2
(b) Gradient of AB =
gradient of BC = -
4
5
5
,
4
3
5
1
8
807
808
10. (a) F = ^ 1, - 2 h, G = d 4,
Exercises 7.6
1
n
2
(b) Gradient of FG = gradient of BC =
5
6
1.
11. 4x - 3y - 11 = 0 12. Gradient of ^ 2, - 4 h and

^ 3, -1 h = gradient of ^ 3, -1 h and ^ 5, 5 h = 3
18. (a)
19.
(h)
14. 0.93 15. 21 16. 50c 12l 17. 108c 26l
13. 1
(b)
-5 - ] -2 g
7-4
-3
=
3
= -1
m = tan i
-1 = tan i
` i = 180c - 45c ^ 2nd quadrant h
= 135c
(b) (i) 2
(ii) -7
(ii) 1 (c) (i) 6
(d) (i) -1
(ii) 0
(e) (i) - 4
(ii) 3
(f) (i) 1
(ii) - 2
(g) (i) - 2
(ii) 6 (h) (i) -1
(ii) 1
(i) (i) 9 (ii) 0
(j) (i) 5 (ii) - 2 2. (a) (i) - 2 (ii) 3 (b) (i) - 5 (ii) - 6

1
(c) (i) 6 (ii) -1 (d) (i) 1 (ii) 4 (e) (i) - 2 (ii)
2
1
1
4
(f) (i) 3 (ii) 1
(g) (i) (ii) - 2 (h) (i) (ii) 2
5
2
3
(ii) -
1
2
(j) (i) 1
2
3
(ii)
2
3
3. (a) 4
1
(c) 0 (d) - 2 (e) -1 (f) - 3 (g) 2 (h) 4
3
1
2
1
1
2
(j) 1
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(o) 4
5
7
5
3
2
3
1
1
1
(p) (q) 15 (r) - 1
(s)
(t) 6
14
2
8
(b) - 2
3.
(j)
1
5
(i)
(d) 1
1
2
(d) x + 2y + 5 = 0
(e) x - 2y + 4 = 0
(f) x + 3y - 1 = 0
(g) 3x + 4y + 13 = 0
4.
m1 m2 = -
(g)
1
3
1
# 5 = - 1 so perpendicular
5
1
5
m1 # m2 = -
3
7
# = -1
7
3
7. k = -
2
3
8. m 1 = m 2 = 4
5
AB < CD _ m 1 = m 2 = 3 i and BC < AD d m 1 = m 2 = - n
8
1
10. Gradient of AC: m 1 = , gradient of BD: m 2 = - 2,
2
1
m 1 # m 2 = # - 2 = -1
2
11. (a) y = - x
(b) 5x - y - 8 = 0
(d) 2x - 3y + 16 = 0
(c) 2x + y + 2 = 0
12. 7x + 6y - 24 = 0
13. x + y - 3 = 0 14. 2x - y - 5 = 0
15. 2x - 3y + 18 = 0
Exercises 7.7
1.
(a) ^ 2, - 4 h
(b) ^ -1, - 3 h
(e) ^ 5, -1 h
(f) ^ -1, 1 h
(j) d
3.
(c) ^ 4, 4 h
(g) ^ 3, 7 h
^ 2, 5 h, ^ 4, 1 h and ^ -1, -1 h
5x + 6y - 27 = 0
(d) y = 4x + 20 (e) 3x + y - 3 = 0 (f) 4x - 3y - 12 = 0
x+y-1=0
10. 2x + y - 2 = 0
(g) y = x - 1
11. x + y - 3 = 0
12. x - 2y - 3 = 0
13. x - y + 1 = 0
14. x - 3y + 2 = 0
(h) y = x + 5
(a) 4x - 3y + 7 = 0
(e) x - 2y + 2 = 0
2. x + y - 8 = 0
(b) 3x - 4y + 4 = 0
(d) 3x + 4y - 25 = 0
4. 4x + y - 8 = 0
6. y = - 2x
5. (a) y = 3
7. 3x - 4y - 12 = 0
9. x = - 4
10. 3x + 8y - 15 = 0
(i) ^ 41, 26 h
4. All lines intersect
at ^ 2, -3 h
9.
(c) y = 5x
(d) ^ 0, - 2 h
(h) ^ 4, 0 h
1
7
n 2. Substitute ^ 3, - 4 h into both lines
,19
19
7.
(a) y = 4x - 1 (b) y = - 3x + 4
2x + y - 3 = 0
5
6
(a) x - y + 1 = 0 (b) x - 3y + 16 = 0 (c) x + y - 5 = 0
All lines meet at ^ - 5, 0 h
(b) x = -1
(f) -
(e) 1
5.
(c) 4x - 5y + 13 = 0
8.
3
4
m 1 = m 2 = 3 so parallel
1
(i) 1
2
Exercises 7.5
1.
(c)
9.
(a) (i) 3 (ii) 5
1
2
1
3
3.
6.
2^ 3 + 3h
3
(i) (i) 3
1
3
(b)
5. m 1 = m 2 = 1
Exercises 7.4
1.
2.
(c) - 3
m=
20. x =
(a) - 3
15. 3x + y - 7 = 0
21. 5x - y + 17 = 0
8. 4x + 7y + 23 = 0
16. x + 5y + 13 = 0
17. 27x - 5y - 76 = 0
19. 2x - y - 1 = 0
6. 11x + 6y = 0
18. 3x - y - 14 = 0
20. 3x - y - 11 = 0
ANSWERS
Exercises 7.8
Exercises 7.10
3
13
(c) 2.5 (d) 2.4
(e)
8
13
1.
(a) 2.6 (b) 1
2.
(a) 3.48 (b) 1.30 (c) 0.384 (d) 5.09 (e) 1.66
3.
(a)
4.
d1 = d2 = d3 = 1
5.
7 13
13
A: d =
14
5
(b)
, B: d =
(c)
4 205
205
(d)
5 26
13
1.
(e)
9
1
1
2
1
(d) d 4 , -1 n (e) d 2 , - 2 n (f) d - 5, 2 n
7
7
4
2
10
14 13
13
^ 2, - 3 h: d =
13
10
6 6
6 4
4
1
n (i) d - , 1 n
(g) d 2 , 7 n (h) d - 3 , -1
7 7
7 7
11
11
2
2
(j) d 1 , -1 n
3
3
-3
5
Opposite signs so points lie on opposite sides of the line

6.
3 2
1 3
4 8
(a) d - , 1 n (b) d 2 , 3 n (c) d - 2 , 1 n
5 5
5 5
9 9
2.
, ^ 9, 2 h: d =
10
1
4
(a) d - 4, 3 n (b) d 6 , 2 n (c) ^ 19, 25 h
5
2
4
1
2
(f) d 9, -1 n (g) d - 6, - n (h) d 9, 1 n
7
2
3
(e) ^ 40, 12 h
Same signs so points lie on the same side of the line

7.
^ - 3, 2 h : d = - 4 , ^ 4 , 1 h : d = 2
(i) ^ - 58, 30 h
1
5

8.
d 1 = d 2 = 2 so the point is equidistant from both lines
9.
^ 8, - 3 h: d =
55
37
, ^ 1, 1 h: d =
10. ^ - 3, 2 h: d =
, ^ 4, 1 h: d =
A
(3, 2)
5.
3 1
P = d 1 , n , Q = ^ 16, -19 h, PQ = 24 units
5 5
6.
3
4
2
B = d 9 , -12 n 7. p = 4 , q = 20
5
5
5

8 5
units
5
11. d 1 = d 2 = 4 so same distance 12.
13. 1
14. 4.2 15. x = 9
2
or -17
3
16. b = 3
8.
1
1
or -1
4
12
9.
17. m = - 1
2
1
or -18
3
3
18. Show distance between ^ 0, 0 h and the line is 5

19. Show distance between ^ 0, 0 h and the line is greater than 1
4 1
20. (a) ^ 3, -1 h, d 3 , n, ^ - 2, 2 h
7 7
(b)
2 10 13 5 26 34
,
,
5
5
119
1.
(a) 149c 2l (b) 119c 45l (c) 143c 58l (d) 172c 14l
(e) 135c
3. 12c 20l
3.
(a) - 1
1
3
21c 2l, 120c 58l, 38c
7.
m = - 5.4, 1.53
9.
(a) +A = +C = 63c 26l, +B = +D = 116c 34l
6. m = 3, -
8. k Z -1.64, 0.095
(b) 124c 31l 10. +A = 61c 56l, +B = +C = 59c 2l
2 8
10. P = d , 3 n
9 9
1
5
1
2. d 2 , - 2 n
2
(b) 2
(c)
5.
6.
(d)
(a) 7x - y - 11 = 0
3
5
(b) 5x + y - 6 = 0
(d) 3x + 5y - 14 = 0
4. 53c 58l
5.
a = 8, b = 18
6.4 units
(i) 74c 56l (j) 36c 52l

2.
B
(-1, 6)
( 13 , 4 23 )
2 2
2 2
(a) d , 1 n (b) Each ratio gives d , 1 n . This means
3 3
3 3
that the intersection of the medians divides each
median in the ratio 2:1.
1.
(a) 18c 26l (b) 29c 45l (c) 82c 52l (d) 26c 34l
(e) 10c 29l (f) 41c 49l (g) 72c 15l (h) 18c 26l
(1 23 , 3 13 )
Test yourself 7
4.
Exercises 7.9
2
2
(a) E = d , 2 n (b) F = d 1 , 2 n
3
3
4.
7
5
(j) ^ 10, 13 h
(c) EF = 1, AC = 3 ` AC = 3EF
37
Same signs so points lie on same side of the line

-6
3.
1
(d) d 12, 5 n
2
(c) 3x + 2y = 0
(e) x - 3y - 3 = 0
6 5
units
5
1
m 1 = - , m 2 = 4 so m 1 m 2 = -1
4
` lines are perpendicular.
7.
x-intercept 5, y-intercept - 2
8.
(a) 2x + y - 1 = 0
9.
m 1 = m 2 = 5, so lines are parallel
(b)
1
2
(c)
5
units
2
10. 3x - 4y = 0
809
810
11. ^ -1, 1 h
12. a = 6, b = 1
22. (a) AB: 7x + 5y + 14 = 0
13. 66c 48l
^ -7, 7 h lies on the line (show by substitution)
14. Solving simultaneously, x - y - 4 = 0 and
(b) -1:2 or 1:- 2
2x + y + 1 = 0 have point of intersection ^ 1, - 3 h .
2
23. x = 16 , y = -17
3
Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 5x - 3y - 14 = 0:
LHS = 5 # 1 - 3 # - 3 - 14 = 0 = RHS
2 1
1 1
25. (a) P = d 1 , 3 n (b) Q = d 4 , 3 n
3 3
3 3
` point lies on 5x - 3y - 14 = 0:
Substitute ^ 1, - 3 h in 3x - 2y - 9 = 0:
(c) PQ has gradient m 1 = 0
LHS = 3 # 1 - 2 # - 3 - 9 = 0 = RHS
AC has gradient m 2 = 0
` point lies on 3x - 2y - 9 = 0:
Since m 1 = m 2, PQ < AC
` lines are concurrent

5
1
15. d 2 , -1 n 16. - 0.499
9
3
18. y = 3
19. ^ 4, 7 h
22. ^ - 2, 1 h: d =
-8
13
1
(d) R = d 6 , 0 n
3
17. c = -13, - 65
4
5
2
(e) PR has gradient m 1 = -
21. 93c22l
20. x = 1
, ^ 6, 3 h: d =
BC has gradient m 2 = -
13
24. x - y - 4 = 0
Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus
k = -2
4.
Show AC and BD have the same midpoint ^ 1, 2 h and

m AC # m BD = -1
5.
Show distance of all points from ^ 0, 0 h is 3; radius 3;

equation x 2 + y 2 = 9
8.
12 13
13
2. x - 3 y - 3 3 = 0
3. 10x 2 + 10y 2 = 81
1.
4 13
13
14. 2x + 5y + 14 = 0
3x +y + 3 - 2 3 =0
1
18. b = 2 , - 21
3
m1 - m2
20.
1 + m1 m2
m1 - m2
12. ^ 3, - 5 h
2.
15. 45c
17. x - y + 6 = 0
1
1
2
2
19. d 2 , - 2 n, d 1 , - 3 n
3
3
3
3
=1
=1
1 + m1 m2
m1 m2 + 1 = m1 - m2
m1 m2 = m1 - m2 - 1
m1 - m2
or
= -1
1 + m1 m2
m 1 - m 2 = -1 - m 1 m 2
m1 m2 = m2 - m1 - 1
21. P = f
1.
9. 113c12l 10. 2x + 3y + 13 = 0
11. BC = AC = 18 , AB = 6, so D is isosceles;
m BC # m AC = -1, so D is right angled.
16.
Exercises 8.1
7. +OBA = 45c; a = b (sides of isosceles D)
13. a = 2, b = 3
- 4p - 1 7p - 3
p
,
p -1
p -1
5
7
25. 3x - 7y - 14 = 0
6.
5
7
Since m 1 = m 2, PR < BC

23. 63c 26l
24. m = - 0.059, - 9.2
3.
ANSWERS
4.
5.
10.
Exercises 8.2
2. Yes, x = x 1
1.
Yes, x = 0
5.
Yes, x = x 1, x = x 2
8.
Yes, x = 2
3. No
6. Yes, x = 0
9. Yes, x = - 2, 3
11. Yes, x = 90c, 270c
4. Yes, x = 0
7. Yes, x = - 3
10. Yes, -1 # x 1 0
12. Yes, x = 0
13. No
14. No
15. Yes, x = !3
6.
Exercises 8.3
1.
(a) 3 (b) -7 (c) 3 (d) 8

(h) -1 (i) 10 (j) -1
2.
(a) x 2 - 2x - 4 (b) 2x 3 + x - 1 (c) - 7x - 1

(d) 4x 4 - x 2 (e) - 4x + 3 (f) 2x 2 + 6 (g) - 2x
(h) 4x 2 (i) 3x - 1 (j) x 2 - 2x + 9
(e) 2
(f) - 3
(g) 2
Exercises 8.4
7.
1.
(a) 4.06
2.
(a) 13.61
4.
(a) f ] x + h g = x 2 + 2xh + h 2
(b) 3.994
(c) 4
(b) 13.0601
(c) 12.9401
(d) 13
3. 6
2
2
2
(b) f (x + h) - f (x) = x + 2xh + h - x
2
= 2xh + h
(c)
f ]x + hg - f ]xg
h
8.
(d) f l(x) = lim
2xh + h 2
h
h ] 2x + h g
=
h
= 2x + h
f ]x + hg - f ]xg
=
h "0
h
= lim (2x + h)
h "0
= 2x
5.
9.
(a) f (x + h) = 2 ] x + h g2 - 7 (x + h) + 3
= 2 (x 2 + 2xh + h 2) - 7x - 7h + 3
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3
2
2
(b) f (x + h) - f (x) = (2x + 4xh + 2h - 7x - 7h + 3)
- (2x 2 - 7x + 3)
= 2x 2 + 4xh + 2h 2 - 7x - 7h + 3
- 2x 2 + 7x - 3
= 4xh + 2h 2 - 7h
811
812
(c) f ] x + h g - f ] x g
h
4xh + 2h 2 - 7h
h
h ] 4x + 2h - 7 g
=
h
= 4x + 2h - 7
=
2.
(a) 4x + 1 (b) 8x - 12
(e) 6x 2 + 6x - 3
3.
(a)
(d) f l] x g = 4x - 7
6.
4.
(c) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g = h + 5h
2
(d) f ] 2 + h g - f ] 2 g
h
6.
h 2 + 5h
=
h
h ]h + 5 g
=
h
=h+5
(e) f l] 2 g = 5
7.
(a) f ] -1 g = -7
(c) 12
8.
(a) f ] 3 g = 8
(c) f l] 3 g = 6
9.
(a) f l] 1 g = - 13
(b) f ] 3 + h g - f ] 3 g = 6h + h 2
11.
dV
= 4rr 2
dr
(c) -12
(b)
(c) f l] x g = 8x - 4
(e)
(g)
dy
dx
dy
dx
= 3x 2
dy
dx
(d) 15
3.
dy
dx
(b) - 5
(c) x = 4
15. 18
(c) 11
(d) -18
(h) 136
(i) - 4
(j) 149
(a) 1
7
1
26
(b)
(g) -
1
25
1
71
(ii) -
(a) (i) 6
(c)
(h)
1
6
1
20
(d) (i) -
(b) (i) 8
1
24
1
(ii) 11
(ii) -
1
20
(d) (i) - 8
1
8
(e) 18
1
43
(e)
(j) -
(f) 27
1
10
1
5
1
8
1
(ii)
8
(ii) -
(a) x + 24y - 555 = 0

(c) x - 17y - 516 = 0
(e) x + 2y - 9 = 0
6.
(a) (i) 7x - y + 4 = 0 (ii) x + 7y - 78 = 0

(b) (i) 10x - y + 36 = 0 (ii) x + 10y - 57 = 0
(c) (i) 10x + y - 6 = 0 (ii) x - 10y - 41 = 0
(d) (i) 2x + y + 2 = 0 (ii) x - 2y - 19 = 0
(e) (i) 2x - y + 2 = 0 (ii) x + 2y - 9 = 0
7.
x = !3
10. (0, 1)
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 2x + 3 (d) 10x - 1 (e) 3x 2 + 4x - 7
(f) 6x 2 - 14x + 7 (g) 12x 3 - 4x + 5
(h) 6x 5 - 25x 4 - 8x 3 (i) 10x 4 - 12x 2 + 2x - 2
(j) 40x 9 - 63x 8
13. (a) 5
(b) -13
(b) x - 8y + 58 = 0
(d) x - 45y + 3153 = 0
8. (1, 2) and (-1, 0)
15. -1
Exercises 8.5
dh
= 40 - 4t
dt
5.
(h) f l] x g = - 6x 2
(c) - 0.04
10.
(a) 27x - y - 47 = 0 (b) 7x - y - 1 = 0

(c) 4x + y + 17 = 0 (d) 36x - y - 47 = 0
(e) 44t - v - 82 = 0
= 10x - 1
(b) - 0.03992
12. 3
dv
= 30t
dt
4.
(e) - 9
13. (a) 0.252 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.2498
1.
(e)
ds
= 10t - 20
dt
7.
(a) 72
(e) (i) 11
(f) f l] x g = 6x 2 + 5
9.
(b) x = ! 2
(c) (i) 24
= 2x + 5
(d)
= 3x 2 - 4 x + 3
14. (a) - 0.04008
(d) 4x
5. - 56
(g) 11
(f)
= 2x + 2
12. (a) f l] x g = 2x
8x 7
- 6x 5
3
Exercises 8.6
2.
y + dy = ] x + dx g2 + 2 (x + dx)
= x 2 + 2xdx + dx 2 + 2x + 2dx
Since y = x 2 + 2x
dy = 2xdx + dx 2 + 2dx
dy
2 x d x + d x 2 + 2d x
(b)
=
dx
dx
d x ] 2x + d x + 2 g
=
dx
= 2x + dx + 2
11. (a) 2 (b) 5
(c)
= 60x 9 - 40x 7 + 35x 4 - 3
gl] x g = - 20x - 5
1.
(b) 17
Substitute _ x + dx, y + dy i:
dy
dy
dx
8.
10. (a) y = x 2 + 2x
dx
f l] x g = 16x - 7
14. (a) 12
(b) f ] -1 + h g - f ] -1 g = 4h 3 - 12h 2 + 12h
(c)
(b) 2x 3 - x 2
(f) 2x 2 - 2x + 2
(b) f ] 2 + h g = h 2 + 5h + 11
(a) f ] 2 g = 11
x
-1
3
(d) 16x 3 - 24x
(c) 2x
11. (1, 2)
13. (a) (1, -1)
9. (- 5, -7)
3
15
n
12. d - 1 , - 4
4
16
(b) 6x - y - 7 = 0
14. 10t - h - 7 = 0
15. 4x - 2y - 19 = 0
1
4
ANSWERS
Exercises 8.7
(k) 1
1.
(a) - 3x - 4
(e) x
2.
(a) (f) (j) -
3.
8.
1
27
1
8
1
2
+ 3x - 2
(b)
x2
1
2x
(f) x
5
2
3
(g) 6x
(c)
2 x
(g) -
2 x3
1
(c) 1.2x - 0.8
(b) 1.4x 0.4
1
3 x
2
3
2
10
5.
x4
15. d 5,
5
2 ] 4 + x g3
(w) -
2.
1
16
10. x - y + 9 = 0
8.
x=
7+
4.
5. 176
7. 69x - y - 129 = 0
- 6 ! 30
3
12. x + 16y - 16 = 0
13. (9, 3)
9. 34x - y + 29 = 0
^ x 4 - 3x 3 + 3x h
(v) -
16 3 4x + 1
3
4. (4, 1) 5. x = 2, -1
- 2x 2
(g)
^ 2x 2 - x h2
15
] x + 5 g2
(c)
- x + 14x
2
(e)
(h)
- 3x 2 - 6x - 7
(k)
4 ] 3x - 1 g3
(x)
16
] 5x + 1 g2
(b)
x4
-6
] x - 2 g2
=
(i)
x 4 - 12x 2
^x - 4h
- x + 14
x3
- 34
] 4x - 3 g2
x 2 ^ x 2 - 12 h
^ x 2 - 4 h2
(f)
11
] x + 3 g2
(j)
-14
] 3x + 1 g2
4x ] x - 3 g
4x 2 - 12x
=
] 2x - 3 g2
] 2x - 3 g2
^ 3x 2 - 7 h
2x 2 ] x + 6 g
- 18x
2x 3 + 12x 2
=
(m)
(n)
2
2
2
]
g
] x + 4 g2
^x - 5h
x+4
2
2
n, d - 5, - n
5
5
(u) -
-2
] 2x - 1 g2
(a)
(d)
1
2
2x 3 + 9x 2 + 7
] x + 3 g2
(o)
(q)
] 7 - x g9
6. 8x + y + 7 = 0
(a) 8x 3 + 9x 2 (b) 12x - 1 (c) 30x + 21

(d) 72x 5 - 16x 3 (e) 30x 4 - 4x
(f) x ] 5x + 2 g ] x + 1 g2 (g) 8 ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 2 g4
(h) 3x 3 ] 16 - 7x g ] 4 - x g 2 (i) ] 10x + 13 g ] 2x + 5 g3
4
5
(j) 10x ^ x 3 + 5x 2 - 3 h ^ x 2 + 1 h + ^ 3x 2 + 10x h ^ x 2 + 1 h
4
3
2
2
^
h
^
h
= x 13x + 60x + 3x - 20 x + 1
1
2
2]x + 5g - x ]x + 5g
(r)
x+5
] 7x + 2 g4 - 28 ] x - 1 g ] 7x + 2 g3
(u)
] 7x + 2 g8
1
2
- 21x + 30
] 7x + 2 g5
15 ] 2x - 5 g3 ] 3x + 4 g4 - 6 ] 3x + 4 g5 ] 2x - 5 g2
] 2x - 5 g6
4
]
]
g
3 3x + 4 4x - 33 g
=
] 2x - 5 g4
5
4
3x 2 + 8x - 5
] 3x + 4 g2
] 2x - 9 g2 ] 20x + 51 g
6 ] 5x + 1 g ] 2x - 9 g2 - 5 ] 2x - 9 g3
=
2
] 5x + 1 g
] 5x + 1 g2
27
(y)
(p)
^ x 2 - x - 1 h2
(s)
(t)
(l)
x 4 - 2x 3 - 4x 2 - 1
2 ] 2x + 7 g10
Exercises 8.9
1.
10x - y - 9 = 0
1.
^ 4x 3 - 9x 2 + 3 h
3. 40
6.
6. 3 7. 2x + 3 x + 1
6
(a) 4 ] x + 3 g3 (b) 6 ] 2x - 1 g2 (c) 70x ^ 5x 2 - 4 h
5
4
(d) 48 ] 8x + 3 g (e) - 5 ] 1 - x g (f) 135 ] 5x + 9 g8
3
(g) 4 ] x - 4 g (h) 4 ^ 6x 2 + 3 h ^ 2x 3 + 3x h
7
2
^
h
(i) 8 ] 2x + 5 g x + 5x - 1
1
3
5
(j) 6 ^ 6x 5 - 4x h ^ x 6 - 2x 2 + 3 h (k) ] 3x - 1 g 2
2
2
5
-4
(l) 2 ] 4 - x g- 3 (m) - 6x ^ x 2 - 9 h
(n) ] 5x + 4 g 3
3
1
3^ 2
3
4
3x - 14x + 1 h ^ x 3 - 7x 2 + x h
(o)
(p)
4
2 3x + 4
8x
5
2
(q) (r)
(s)
3
] 5x - 2 g2
^ x 2 + 1 h5
7 - 3x
(t) -
3. 1264
3x 2
Exercises 8.8
1.
26
Exercises 8.10
1
32
(b) -
2 x3
2.
4 - 3x
2 2-x
5
11
=2x - 1
] 2x - 1 g2
15
(e)
x6
(i) -
] 2x - 1 g2
+ 2-x =
9. 3x + 16y - 8 = 0
14. x = 4
(h) x
(l)
12
4. 3
11. (a) -
1
4
(d) -
6 6 x5
(h)
x7
1 -2
x
2
(d)
2 2-x
- 2 ] 5x + 3 g
3x + 1
3 x+1 -2 x+1
3x + 5
(v)
=
x+1
2 ] x + 1 g3
2x - 3
(w)
2 x-1 -2 x-1
- 2x + 1
=
] 2x - 3 g2
2 x - 1 ] 2x - 3 g2
x ] x - 9 g2
(x)
x2 + 1
- 2 ] x - 9 g x2 + 1
] x - 9 g4
- x 2 - 9x - 2
x2 + 1 ] x - 9 g3
813
814
5
9
2.
1
8
6.
x - 18y + 8 = 0
3. - 1
4. x = 0, 1
(b)
5. x = - 9, 3
7. 17x - 25y - 19 = 0
Exercises 8.11
1.
(a)
2.
dy
dx
(b)
(b) Substitute Q into both equations.

(c) y = x 2 - 4 has m 1 = 4
y = x 2 - 8x + 12 has m 2 = - 4
(d) 28c 4l
2.
(a)
(d)
(e)
dy
dx
dy
dx
dy
dx
11
] 2x + 1 g2
5 x3
2
4. 71c 34l
5. 162c 54l
(d) 0c
3. 8c 8l
6. (a) X = ^ 4, 16 h, Y = ^ -1, 6 h
(f)
dy
dx
5. (a) 1
8.
(a) x = - 2
(b) x = 1
9.
(a) f l] x g = 32 ] 4x + 9 g3
dy
dy
(c)
dv
= 4t - 3
dt
dx
= 42x 5 - 9x 2 + 2x - 8
dx
= 9 (2x + 4) (x 2 + 4x - 2)8
= 40x ] 2x - 1 g3 + 5 ] 2x - 1 g4 = 5 ] 2x - 1 g3 (10x - 1)
=-
10
x3
(b) 20
6. 10
7. 42
(c) x = 2
(b)
dy
dx
= ] 9x - 1 g ] 3x - 1 g (d)
(e) f l] x g =
(c) m = 6
dx
4.
(c)
(b) P = ^ 3, 9 h
dy
3. (a)
= 10x - 3
=dy
dx
5
] x - 3 g2
=-
4
x2
1
5 5 x4
10.
(b) At X: m 1 = 12, m 2 = 7
At Y : m 1 = - 8, m 2 = - 3
(c) At X: 3c 22l At Y : 11c19l
7.
71c 34l, 8c 58l 8. (a) (0, 0), (2, 8), (-1, -1)
(b) 63c 26l at (0, 0), 4c 42l at (2, 8), 71c 34l at (-1, -1)
9.
At (0, 0), m 1 = 0 and m 2 = 4

At (2, 4), m 1 = 4 and m 2 = 0 Angle at both is 75c 58l
10. 164c 45l at (0, 0), 178c 37l at (- 3, - 33), 146c 19l at (1, 3)
Test yourself 8
1.
(a)
11. 9x - y - 7 = 0
12. (2, 3)
14. (- 2, 71), (5, - 272)

17. 9
20.
7
10
13.
dS
= 8rr
dr
15. 4x - y - 6 = 0
18. 12x + y - 4 = 0
19.
16. 3525
ds
1
= u + at, t =
5
dt
21. 17c6l at (3, 9), 53c8l at (-1, 1)
22. 175c 26l at (2, 4), 177c 40l at (4, 16)
ANSWERS
13
18
1.
f ] 1 g = - 3, f l] 1 g = - 36
3.
dx
= 8t 3 + 300t 2; t = 0, - 37.5
dt
4.
2x + y = 0, 3x - y - 3 = 0, 6x - y + 12 = 0
5.
^ 2, 2 h, ^ - 2, -14 h, x + 12y - 26 = 0, x + 12y + 170 = 0
6.
3
4
7.
8.
9.
(b)
2. -
1
90c
180c
270c
360c
5 ] 5x + 1 g3 ] x - 9 g4 + 15 ] x - 9 g5 ] 5x + 1 g2
= 10 ] 5x + 1 g2 ] x - 9 g4 (4x - 13)
2 ] 4x - 9 g4 - 16 ] 2x + 1 g ] 4x - 9 g3
] 4x - 9 g8
- 2 ] 12x + 17 g
=
] 4x - 9 g5
x=
- 6 ! 204
- 3 ! 51
=
6
12
11. a = 1
14.
2
1
27
21. ^ - 4, -73 h
10. 2x + y - 25 = 0
1
1
1 1 ! 13
n 13. x = ,
12. P = d - 2 , 6
4 16
3
3
15. 3x - y + 5 = 0, Q = ^ 0, 5 h, PQ =
10
16. (a) Substitute (1, 1) into both curves:

y = ] 3x - 2 g5:
LHS = 1
RHS = ] 3 # 1 - 2 g5
= 15
=1
= LHS
So (1, 1) lies on the curve y = ] 3x - 2 g5
5x - 3
:
x+1
LHS = 1
5#1-3
RHS =
1+1
2
=
2
=1
= LHS
So perpendicular
25. x = 0, 2, 6
28. p = 1
1
2
8r 3
dV
=
3
dr
33. -
30. k = 4
1
48
36. (a) 6x 2 - 5 ] 3x - 1 g ] 3x - 5 g3
5 22
22
31. x - y - 4 = 0
34. a = -1, b = 2, c = 4
(b)
- ] 5x + 6 g
] x - 3 g4 2x + 1
4 ! 13
6
1
1
n
(b) Q = d - 4 , 12
7
49
5x - 3
x+1

- 0.77
(b) 22c 45l
5.
- 0.309
3 3
o, 12x - 12 3 y + 31 = 0
2
7.
m1 m2 =
20. (a) x = 90c, 270c
9.
7
12
1
1 3
, -1 , 1
2
2 5
29.
27.
35. S = 8rr - 8r + 2rrh
1.
19. x =
26. a = - 14, b = 7
32. 4x - y - 13 = 0
` (1, 1) is a point of intersection
11
18. e 1 ,
12
4x 4 3x - 2
38. (a) x + 7y - 80 = 0
So (1, 1) lies on the curve y =
17. n = 8
3 ] 4 - 5x g
23.
24. (a) 16x + 32y + 1 = 0, 4x - 2y - 1 = 0

1
(b) m 1 $ m 2 = - # 2
2
= -1
37. x =
y=
22. 3x - 9y - 14 = 0
2. 1
3. 5x + 2y - 1 = 0
6. (a)
3 cm 2
(b) AC =
4. ^ 2, - 2 h
13 cm, BD = 1 cm
3
8
1
# - = -1; A = d -1, 1 n
4
6
2
8. x = 15c
815
816
10.
19. i = 120c, 240c

23. y = 16.5
26. 7
20. - 1
2
3
21. 2
24. 3x + y - 5 = 0
27. x = 3
22. a = 115c 56l
25. 1
2
1x 13
3
28. - 3
29. Show perpendicular distance from ^ 0, 0 h to the line is

2 units, or solving simultaneous equations gives only
one solution.
30. (a) g ] 2 g = 1, g ] - 3 g = - 6
(b)
11.
31. 3x 2 - 4x
32. -
34. x = - 2, y = -17
12. 45c 49 13. Domain: all real x !
real y ! 0
1
; range: all
2
14.
33. 17.5 m
35. (a) AB = 7.0 m
36. 3 cos i 37. (a) 2x - y + 4 = 0
(b) 27.8 m2
(b) P ^ - 2, 0 h, Q ^ 0, 4 h
(c) 4 units
39. 15 units2 40. f (- x) = ] - x g6 - ] - x g2 - 3

= x6 - x2 - 3
= f (x)
38. 127 m
41. 16x 2 ^ 2x 2 + 1 h + ^ 2x 2 + 1 h = ^ 18x 2 + 1 h ^ 2x 2 + 1 h

3
42. - 4
1
# y #9
3
43. -
44. (a) 3x - y - 4 = 0
15.
47.
50.
8
units
13
1
2x - 7
5
] x + 1 g2
3
x2
(b) x - y - 2 = 0
(c) x + 3y + 10 = 0
45.
(d) R = ^ -10, 0 h
46. Domain: all x ! - 4; range: all y ! 0

48. 4.9 km 49. 8x - 7 - 10x - 3
51. 2x - 3
53. x + 6y - 56 = 0
55. a = 2, b = - 9
52.
-17 - 2x
x 2 + 5x
- ] 17 + 2x g
x 2 + 5x
54. f ] - 2 g = - 45, f l] - 2 g = 48
56. 7x - 5y + 9 = 0
57. 47x - y + 109 = 0 58. x = - 0.25 59. ^ 33, -17 h

16. sin 4 i 17. 2 units 18. x - 8y + 15 = 0
60.
3+1
2 2
6+ 2
4
62. x = 63c 26l, 243c 26l
61. 67c 37l
ANSWERS
63.
4.
(a) x = 112c, y = 56c, z = 34c

(c) x = 55c, y = 43c
(b) x = 49c
(d) x = 166c, y = 7c
(e) x = 62c, b = 31c

(f) x = y = 32c, z = 58c, v = 32c, w = 17c
(h) y = 102c
(g) x = 5c
(i) x = 57c 30l, y = 32c 30l
(j) x = 75c, y = 77c, z = 13c

5.
64. (a) cos i (b) cos ^ i + b h
(c) tan 14a
65. 3
D ABC <; D DEC
67. 12c 32l at both points
66. x 1 4, x 2 4.6
1
range: y $ 0
2
(b) domain: all real x ! -7 range: all real y ! 0
(b) x = 5.5 cm
68. (a) domain: x $
(c) domain: - 2 # x # 2
69. a = -15, b = -1
6.
x = 30 (angle at centre is double the + at the circumference)

y = (180 - 30) ' 2 (+ sum of isosceles D)
= 75c
7.
360 - x = 2 # 110 (+ at the centre is double the

+ at the circumference)
` x = 140
y = 70 (similarly)
8.
+ABC = 90c (+ in semicircle)

` +BAC = 90c - 29c (+ sum of D)
= 61c
` x = 61c (+ in same segment)
9.
+STV = +WUV (+ in same segment)

+TSV = +UWV (similarly)
+TVS = +UVW (vertically opposite +s)
range: - 2 # y # 0
70. cos 2i
71. (a) (0, 0), (1, 3), (-1, -1), (2, 20)
(b) 63c 26l at (0, 0), 2c 20l at (1, 3), 40c 36l at (-1, -1),
0c 22l at (2, 20)
72. (a) x = 360n ! 45c
(b) x = 180n + 30c
(c) x = 180n + ] -1 gn # 60c

73. (a) (1, 1) (b) 2 13 units
(c) - 1
1
2
(d) 3x + 2y - 5 = 0
74. (a)
75. (b), (d) 76. (a)
79. (b), (d)
77. (c)
` Since all pairs of angles are equal,
78. (c)
D STV ||| DWUV

x = 2.4 cm
80. (c)
10.
+B = 90c (+ in semicircle)
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2
= 62 + 32
= 36 + 9
= 45
AC = 45
=3 5
1
Radius = AC
2
3 5
=
cm
2
11.
+OAC = 30c (Base +s of isosceles D)

+BAO = 25c (similarly)
` +CAB = 30c + 25c
= 55c
x = 2 +CAB
(+ at the centre is double the
+ at the circumference)
= 2 # 55c
= 110c
Chapter 9: Properties of the circle

The proofs given as answers to this chapter are informal. Also,
they may not be the only way to answer the question.
Exercises 9.1
1.
(a) i = 32c (b) x = 8 cm (c) i = a = 68c 30l (d) i = 31c

(e) x = 9 mm
2.
16r
cm
9
(f) i = 22c30l
3. (a) i = 29c
(c) a = 83c , b = 42c

(f) y = 97c
(b) x = 18c
(d) x = 68c
(e) x = 10 cm
(g) x = 15c, y = 150c, z = 75c
(h) x = 47c, y = 43c, z = 94c

(j) x = y = 39c
(a) +DCE = +ACB (vertically opposite +s)

+EDC = +BAC (+s in the same segment)
+DEC = +ABC (similarly)
` Since all pairs of +s are equal,
(i) b = 40c
817
818
12. (a) x = 52c, y = 76c

(b) AC = BD
(equal diameters)
Diagonals are equal so ABCD is a rectangle.
(opposite sides of a rectangle)
` AD = BC
6.
OB = 8.3 cm
8.
x Z 4.4 m, a = 78c, b = 38c, i = 64c
9.
OA = r
13. +ECB = 33c

+EBC = 180 - ] 114 + 33 g (angle sum of triangle)
= 33
`+ECB = +ADE
` AD < BC
AC =
OC =
=
=
14. (a) +AOB = 90c (given)

+ABC = 90c (angle in semi-circle)
`+AOB = +ABC
`+A is common
`D AOB ||| D ABC (AAA)
(Note 2 pairs of angles equal means 3 pairs will be equal
by angle sum of triangle.)
(b) AO = BO
AB =
r +r
2
=
=
(equal radii)
2 r2
=
=
2 # r2
2r
x2
4
4r 2 x 2
4
4
2
4r - x 2
4
4r 2 - x 2
2
r2 -
4r 2 - x 2
2
2r + 4r 2 - x 2
2
So BC =
AC. CD = BC.CE
2r
(angle at centre double
Reflex +BOD = 360 - 2i
1
+BCD = +BOD
2
(angle at centre double
1.
(a) x = 107c, y = 94c (b) i = 134c, c = 90c

(c) x = 112c, y = 112c, z = 68c (d) x = 92c, y = 114c
(e) b = 73c, a = 107c, c = 107c (f) x = 141c, y = 63c
(g) x = 65c, y = 43c
(h) w = 89c, x = 86c, y = 54c, z = 35c
(i) w = 69c, x = 111c, y = 82c, z = 98c (j) x = 118c
2.
(a) x = 62c, y = 31c (b) x = 75c, y = 105c

(c) x = 88c, y = 65c (d) x = 62c, y = 82c, z = 36c
(e) x = 90c, y = 113c (f) x = 38c, y = 71c
(g) x = 85c, y = 95c (h) x = 48c, y = 78c
(i) x = 107c, y = 73c
(j) a = 81c, b = 55c, c = 83c, d = 16c, e = 28c
3.
(a) +A = 180c - 58c
(+A and +B cointerior angles,

AD ; BC)
+D = 180c - 58c
(+C and +D cointerior angles,

AD ; BC)
angle at circumference)
So +BCD and +DAB are supplementary (add to180c)
Exercises 9.2
(a) x = 5 cm (b) y = 15 cm (c) x = 2.4 m (d) x = 42c
(e) z = 90c (f) x Z 10.3 m (g) x = 6 m, y = 3 m
(h) m Z 13.4 cm (i) y Z 5 cm (j) x = 5 mm
4. 25.6 cm
CE = 11.5 2 - 6.9 2
= 9.2
CD = 2 # 9.2 (perpendicular from O bisects chord)
= 18.4
= AB
(AAA)
Exercises 9.3
1
= (360 - 2i)
2
= 180 - i
3. 144 mm
`DABC ||| DCDE

(b) By similar triangles
AC
BC
=
CE
CD
41 cm
(Pythagoras theorem)
+A = +E
angle at circumference)
5.
centre bisects a chord)
x 2
r -d n
2
2
But AO = BO so AB = BC
15. Obtuse +BOD = 2i
2.
(perpendicular from the
10. (a) +ECD = +ACB
By similar triangles
AO
BO
=
AB
BC
1.
x
2
CD = r +
7. x = 4.7 m, y = 1.8 m
So +A = 180c - +C and +D = 180c - +B

Since opposite angles are supplementary, ABCD is a
cyclic quadrilateral.
(b) +B = +D = 90c
(given)
` +B = 180c - +D
Let +A = x
+C = 360 - ] 90 + 90 + x g
(angle sum of quadrilateral)
ANSWERS
= 360 - 180 - x
= 180 - x
= 180 - +A
(c)
+CDA = 180 - i
(straight angle)
` +B = 180c - +CDA
6.
(a) x = 67c (b) y Z 7.5 cm (c) x = 72c, y = 121c

(d) x = 63c, y = 126c (e) x = 8.9 m, y Z 5.1 m
(f) x = 63c, y = 63c (g) x = 98c, y = 65c, z = 17c
(h) x = 57c, y = 57c (i) x = 72c, y = 15c
(j) x = 61c, y = 70c, z = 52c
7.
(a) x = 26c, y = 74c, z = 48c (b) x = 68c, y = 44c, z = 68c

(c) x = y = z = 45c (d) x = 70c, y = 31c
(e) x = 20c, y = 57c, z = 103c (f) x Z 5.4 cm
(g) x Z 7.7 cm (h) x = 77c, y = 13c
(i) x Z 1.2 cm, y Z 2.1 cm (j) x = 55c, y = 112c, z = 57c
8.
AB Z 13 m
Let +A = x
+C = 360 - ] 90 + 90 + x g (angle sum of quadrilateral)
= 360 - 180 - x
= 180 - x
= 180 - +A
Exercises 9.4
1.
2.
3.
(a) i = 47c (b) x = 5 m (c) y = 11.3 cm

(d) x = y = 26c (e) a = 64c, b = 32c (f) i = 57c
(g) p = 145 Z 12 cm (h) y = 10 mm (i) x Z 5.79 cm
(j) x = 33c, y = 33c
(a) x = 10 cm (b) x = 64c, y = 26c (c) x = 13 cm
(d) x = 27c, y = 54c (e) y = 5 cm (f) x = 32c, y = 7c
(g) x = 72c, y = 42c (h) x = 35c, y = 90c
(i) m = 23c, n = 67c, p = 67c, q = 23c
(j) x = 71c, y = 62c
+OAB = 90c (tangent = to radius)
z = 90c - 48c (+ sum of D AOB)
= 42c
(equal radii)
OA = OC
` +OAC = +OCA = y
Test yourself 9
1.
i = 56c
4.
x = y = 12 cm
5.
z = 19c (+s in same segment)

y = 180c - (131c + 19c ) (+ sum of D )
= 30c
x = 30c (+s in same segment)
6.
x = 10 cm
7.
a = 3c , b = 44c , c = 136c
(+ at centre twice + at circumference)
= 50c
+OCA = 90c (tangent perpendicular to radius)
b = 90c - 83c
`
= 7c
OC = OE (equal radii)
` D OCE is isosceles
(base +s of isosceles D )
y = (180c - 48c) ' 2

(+ sum of D OAC)
= 66c
+ACD = 180c - +AED
+OCE = + OEC = c
2c + 100c = 180c (+ sum of D)
2c = 80c
c = 40c
Reflex +COE = 360c - 100c (+ of revolution)
= 260c
d = 360c - (260c + 50c + 7c)
(opposite +s of cyclic quad.)
= 180c - 62c
= 118c
= 52c
= +OAB - +OAC
= 90c - 66c
= 24c
1
v = +AOC
2
y+u
66c + u
u
+BAC
`
x
(+ at centre twice + at circumference)
1
# 48c
2
= 24c
=
4.
21 cm
5.
AC 2 + BC 2 = 3.9 2 + 5.2 2
= 42.25
AB 2 = 6.5 2
= 42.25
`
AB 2 = AC 2 + BC 2
` +ACB = 90c (by Pythagoras theorem)
` A lies on a diameter of the circle (tangent radius)
3. x = 7.2 m
1
# 100c
2
a=
8.
2. y = 2.3 mm
(+ sum of quadrilateral)
= 43c
9.
17 cm
10. 5.3 m
12. a = 61c, b = 29c

15. 18 cm
11. a = 101c, b = 98c

13. 14.9 cm
14. x = 4.9 m
16. a = 127c, b = 53c
17. +D = 180c - (80c + 53c) (+ sum of T)

= 47c
` y = 47c (+s in same segment)
x = 47c (+s in alternate segment)
18. x = 55c, y = 56c, z = 54c
819
820
6.
19. +C is common
+A = +CBD (+s in alternate segment)
Let +ODC = x and +OAB = y.

Then you can find all these angles
(giving reasons).
` D BCD ||| D ABC ] AAA g

20. (a) +OCB = +OCA = 90c (given)
OA = OB (equal radii)
OC is common
` DOAC / DOBC ] RHS g
(b) AC = BC (corresponding sides in / D s)
OC bisects AB
1.
6 cm
2.
Let +DOB
Then +EDO
EO
`
+OED
= +DCB = x (base +s of isosceles D ODC)

= 2x (ext. + of D)
= DO (equal radii)
= +EDO = 2x (base of+s of isosceles D EOD)
+AOC + +COB + +BOD + +AOD = 360c

(+ of revolution)
90c - y + x + +COB + y + 90c - x +

+AOD = 360c
+COB ++AOD + 180c = 360c
`
+COB ++AOD = 180c
+EOD = 180c - (+OED + +EDO) (+ sum of D EOD)

= 180c - 4x
+AOE = 180c - (+EOD + +DOB)
(+AOC straight +)
= 180c - (180c - 4x + x)
= 3x
` +AOE = 3+DCB
3.
Let+DAB
Then+DAC
+ACB
+ADB
+DBA
+CBA
+DBA + +CBA
7.
= x and +CAB = y
=x+y
= +DAB = x (+s in alternate segment)
= +CAB = y (similarly)
= 180c - (x + y) (+ sum of D ADB)
= 180c - (x + y) (+ sum of D ACB)
= 180c (DBC is straight +)
D
Let ABCD be a kite with AB = AD and BC = DC, and
+ADC = +ABC = 90.
AC is common.
(a) AD = DB = BE = EC = CF = FA (equal radii)
by SSS (or RHS) D ABC / D ADC
` AB = BC = CA
`D ABC is equilateral
`+BAC = +DAC and +BCA = +DCA

(corresponding 1s in congruent D s)
(b) rr units
(c)
5.
3 r2 -
Let +BAC = +DAC = a

Then +BAD = 2a
+BCA = +DCA = 90c - a (+sum of D )
+BCD = 180c - 2a
`
Opposite angles are supplementary.
2 3-r
1 2
o units 2
rr = r 2 e
2
2
+BDE = +ABD + +BAD (ext. + of D BAD)

` 2a = +ABD + a
a = +ABD
` D BAD is isosceles with AD = BD
+CDE = +ACD + +CAD (ext. +of D CAD )
` 2b = +ACD + b
b = +ACD
` DCAD is isosceles with AD = CD
` AD = BD = CD
So a circle can be drawn through A, B and C with centre D.
` 180c - (x + y) + 180c - (x + y) = 180c

180c = 2 (x + y)
`
90c = x + y
`
`
+DAC = 90c
4.
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral, and A, B, C and D are

concyclic points
Since +ABC = 90c, AC is a diameter. (+ in semicircle)
8.
25rr 2
units 2
28
ANSWERS
9.
Let interval AB subtend angles of x at +ADB and +ACB.
Now ABCE is a cyclic quadrilateral, so

+AEC + +B = 180c (opposite +s supplementary)
Also, +D + +B = 180c (given)
+D = +AEC
These are equal corresponding angles, so
DA < EA (this is impossible!)
A, B, C and D must be concyclic
ABCD is a cyclic quadrilateral.
Chapter 10: The quadratic function

Assume A, B, C and D are not concyclic. Draw a circle
through A, B and C that cuts AD at E.
Then +AEB = +BCA = x (+s in same segment)

But +AEB and +EDB are equal corresponding angles.
` EB || DB (this is impossible!)
A, B, C, D must be concyclic
10. Let ABCD be a quadrilateral with opposite angles
supplementary.
i.e. +A + +C = 180c and +B + +D = 180c
Assume the points are not concyclic. Draw a circle
through A, B and C, cutting CD at E.
Exercises 10.1
1.
Axis of symmetry x = - 1, minimum value - 1
2.
Axis of symmetry x = - 1.5, minimum value - 7.5
3.
Axis of symmetry x = - 1.5, minimum value - 0.25
4.
Axis of symmetry x = 0, minimum value - 4
5.
Axis of symmetry x =
6.
Axis of symmetry x = 1, maximum value -6
7.
Axis of symmetry x = - 1, maximum point ^ - 1, 7 h
8.
Minimum value -1, 2 solutions
9.
Minimum value 3.75, no solutions
3 7
3
n
, minimum point d ,
8 16
8
10. Minimum value 0, 1 solution

11. (a) x = -3; (-3, -12)
1
1 1
(c) x = 1 ; d 1 , 3 n
4
4 8
(b) x = -4; (-4, 17)

1
1
1
(d) x = -1 ; d -1 , -13 n
4
4
4
(e) x = -3; ^ -3, -23 h

12. (a) (i) x = -1
(b) (i) x = 1
(ii) -3
(iii) (-1, -3)
(ii) 1
(iii) (1, 1)
821
822
13. (a) Minimum (-1, 0)

(b) Minimum (4, -23)
(c) Minimum (-2, -7)
(d) Minimum (1, -1)
(e) Minimum (2, -11)
1
1
(f) Minimum d - , -3 n
4
8
(c) (i) 5.83, 0.17
(ii) Minimum -8
y
(iii)
10
8
6
(g) Maximum (-1, 6)
(h) Maximum (2, 11)

1 3
(i) Maximum d , 7 n
2 4
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
(j) Maximum (1, -3)
-4
14. (a) (i) -2
(iii)
-6
(ii) Minimum 0
y
-8
-10
5
4
3
(d) (i) -2, 0
(iii)
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
2
1
(b) (i) -1, 3 (ii) Minimum -4
-2
-3
(e) (i) ! 3
3
2
-2
-3
(ii) Minimum -18

y
(iii)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
(iii)
(ii) Minimum -1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-4
-6
-5
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
(f) (i) -1,
2
3
(ii) Minimum - 2
1
12
ANSWERS
(iii)
(i) (i) 0.56, -3.56
(ii) Minimum 4
1
4
(iii)
41
4
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
2
3
-2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2 1 -3
12
-4
-2
-3
-5
-6
(j) (i) 2.87, -0.87
(g) (i) 1.65, -3.65 (ii) Maximum 7
(iii)
(iii)
(ii) Maximum 7
7
6
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
1
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-2
-3
15. (a) 4
(h) (i) 1.3, -2.3 (ii) Maximum 3
(c)
1
4
y
7
(iii)
(b) None
1
4
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-3
823
824
16. (a) None
(b) 6
19.
3
4
(c)
14
12
10
8
-4
-3 -2 -1
-2
-4
4
2
-6
2
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
Graph is always above the x-axis so y 2 0 for all x

` 3x 2 - 2x + 4 2 0 for all x
-2
20.
-3
7
17. (a) - 3
8
(b) None
(c)
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
1
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
-4
-6
-4
-6
Graph is always above the x-axis so y 2 0 for all x

` x 2 + x + 2 2 0 for all x
-8
-10
-14
-16
-18
-4 -3 -2 -1
-2
18. (a)
21.
-12
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
-2
-14
-16
-18
-3
(b) x 1 2, x 2 3
(c) 2 # x # 3
Graph is always below the x-axis so y 1 0 for all x

` - x 2 + 2x - 7 1 0 for all x
ANSWERS
22.
8.
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 1 g2 - 4 ] 3 g ] 7 g
= - 83
10
2
1
-4 -3 -2 -1
-1
9.
-6
1.
x 1 -3, x 2 3
2. - 1 # n # 0
4.
x 1 - 2, x 2 2
5. 0 # y # 6
7.
x 1 - 4, x 2 2
8. p # - 3, p $ - 1
3. a # 0, a $ 2
6. 0 1 t 1 2
1
11. 1 1 h 1 2
2
14. q 1 3, q 2 6
15. All real x
17. - 3 1 x 1 5
1
19. y 1 - , y 2 5
3
20. x # - 2, x $ 4
30. - 2
24. -
18. - 6 # t # 2
29. x #
21. -
1
1x 10
2
1
#x 10
2
26. x $ - 1, x 1 - 2
28. x 1 - 6, x 2 - 3
9. m 1 2, m 2 4
12. - 4 # x # 5
16. n # - 4, n $ 3
1
3
27. 2 1 x # 2
2
5
2
,x 21
3
2
# x 1 -2
2
Exercises 10.3
1.
(a) 20 (b) -47 (c) -12 (d) 49 (e) 9

(h) 64 (i) 17 (j) 0
2.
(a) 17 unequal real irrational roots

(b) -39 no real roots (c) 1 unequal real rational roots
(d) 0 equal real rational roots
(e) 33 unequal real irrational roots
(f) -16 no real roots (g) 49 unequal real rational roots
(h) -116 no real roots (i) 1 unequal real rational roots
(j) 48 unequal real irrational roots
3.
1
2
(1)
(2)
x 2 + 3 = 2x + 6
x 2 - 2x - 3 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 3 g
= 16
20
So there are 2 points of intersection
Exercises 10.2
25. 1 1 x 1 1
14. 0 # b # 2
Substitute (2) in (1):
Graph is always below the x-axis so y 1 0 for all x

` - 5x 2 + 4x -1 1 0 for all x
23. 0 1 x # 1
11. m 1 - 3, m 2 3
y = x2 + 3
-7
1
3
13. p 1 -
16. Solving simultaneously:

y = 2x + 6
-5
22. 0 1 x 1
10. 0 1 k 1 4
15. p # - 2, p $ 6
-4
1
#k #7
2
k # - 5, k $ 3
12. k # - 1, k $ 1
-3
13. - 2
So 3x 2 - x + 7 2 0 for all x
-2
10. x # - 3, x $ 2
a =320
(f) -16 (g) 0
1
7
6. p 2 2 7. k 2 - 2
p = 1 4. k = ! 2 5. b # 12
8
17. 3x + y - 4 = 0
y = x 2 + 5x + 3
From (1):
y = - 3x + 4
x 2 + 5x + 3 = - 3x + 4
x 2 + 8x - 1 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = 8 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] - 1 g
= 68
20
So there are 2 points of intersection
(1)
(2)
18. y = - x - 4
y = x2
x2 = - x - 4
2
x +x+4=0
b 2 - 4ac = 1 2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 4 g
= - 15
10
So there are no points of intersection
(1)
(2)
19. y = 5x - 2
y = x 2 + 3x - 1
x 2 + 3x - 1 = 5 x - 2
x 2 - 2x + 1 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 2 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 1 g
=0
So there is 1 point of intersection
` the line is a tangent to the parabola
(1)
(2)
20. p = 3
1
4
21. (c) and (d)
(3)
825
826
Exercises 10.4
1.
2.
(a) a = 1, b = 2, c = -6
(b) a = 2, b = -11, c = 15
(c) a = 1, b = 1, c = - 2
(d) a = 1, b = 7, c = 18
(e) a = 3, b = -11, c = -16
(f) a = 4, b = 17, c = 11
(g) a = 2, b = -12, c = -9
(h) a = 3, b = - 8, c = 2
(i) a = - 1, b = 10, c = - 24
(j) a = - 2, b = 0, c = - 1
20. (a) m = 1
(b) m 1
x 2 - 4x + 5 = x ] x - 2 g - 2 ] x + 1 g + 3 + 4
4.
RHS = a ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + b ] x - 2 g + c
= 1 ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g + 1 ] x - 2 g + 17
= x 2 + 3x - 2x - 6 + x - 2 + 17
= x 2 + 2x + 9
= RHS
` true
1.
(a) x = -1, - 4 (b) y = 2, 5 (c) x = - 4, 2

(d) n = - 1, 4 (e) a = - 3, 5 (f) p = 3, 4 (g) x = 2, - 4
(h) k = 5, 12 (i) t = 6, - 4 (j) b = -12, - 4
2.
(a) x = - 2, 3
3.
6. a = 2, b = 1, c = - 1
7.
K = 1, L = 6, M = 7.5 8. 12 ] x + 5 g + ] 2x - 3 g - 65 - 2
9.
a = 0, b = - 4, c = - 21
(b) y = x 2 - 3x
(d) y = x 2 + 4x - 9
(a) a + b = - 2, ab = 1
(b) a + b = 1.5, ab = - 3
(c) a + b = 0.2, ab = - 1.8
(d) a + b = - 7, ab = 1
2
(e) a + b = 2 , ab = 1
3
m = 0.5
5. k = - 32
9.
k = -5
10. m = ! 3
x = ! 1, !2
7.
x = ! 2.19, !0.46, !1.93, !0.52
8.
(a) x = 0c , 90c , 180c , 360c (b) x = 90c , 180c , 270c

(c) x = 90c , 210c , 330c (d) x = 60c , 90c , 270c , 300c
(e) x = 0c , 180c , 270c , 360c
9.
(a) x = 0c , 45c , 180c , 225c , 360c

(b) x = 0c , 180c , 360c
(c) x = 0c , 30c , 150c , 180c , 360c
(d) x = 45c , 60c ,135c , 120c , 225c , 240c , 315c , 300c
(e) x = 30c , 60c , 120c , 150c , 210c , 240c , 300c , 330c
10.
x+3+
6. b = 4
7. k = 1
11. k = - 1
2
=5
x+3
14. b = - 6, c = 8
15. a = 0, b = - 1
(c) k = - 1.8
(b) p # - 2 3 , p $ 2 3
So u has 2 real irrational roots.

` x + 3 and so x has 2 real irrational roots
8. p = 13
12. n = - 1, 3
(e) k # - 1, k $ 0
3 3
6. x = - 1
u 2 - 5u + 2 = 0
b 2 - 4ac = ] - 5 g2 - 4 ] 1 g ] 2 g
= 17
20
1
16. ab = 1 ` b =
a
(c) p = !
(e) a = - 2, - 2 ! 6
Let u = x + 3
4.
18. (a) p = ! 2 3
1! 5
2
5.
(d) 21
(b) k = - 1, 0
(c) x =
2
# (x + 3) = 5 # (x + 3)
]x + 3g
] x + 3 g2 + 2 = 5 ] x + 3 g
] x + 3 g2 - 5 ] x + 3 g + 2 = 0
(a) x 2 + 3x - 10 = 0 (b) x 2 - 4x - 21 = 0
(c) x 2 + 5x + 4 = 0 (d) x 2 - 8x + 11 = 0
(e) x 2 - 2x - 27 = 0
17. (a) k = - 1
(b) y = ! 2, ! 2
(x + 3) # (x + 3) +
3.
13. p = 2, r = - 7
(a) x = ! 3
(d) x = 3, 5
(a) x = 0, 3 (b) p = 1 (c) x = 1 (d) x = 1 (e) x = 1, 3
Exercises 10.5
(c) - 0.5
(c) x = 4, 5
4.
(e) y = - x 2 - 2x + 1
(a) 3 (b) - 6
(b) x = 2, 3
(d) x = 1.37, - 4.37, 0.79, - 3.79
A = 1, B = 5 , C = - 6
2.
3 - 10
3 + 10
,m2
2
2
1
(e) x = 1 , 4
2
5.
1.
(c) k = 2
Exercises 10.6
3.
(c) y = 2x 2 - 3x + 7
(b) k = - 3
(c) m = - 3
m = 2, p = - 5, q = 2
10. (a) y = x 2 - x - 5
19. (a) k = 2
(d) k = 3
Test yourself 10
1.
(a) 0 # x # 3
(b) n 1 - 3, n 2 3
2.
a = 1, b = - 9, c = 14
4.
a =120
D = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -2 g 2 -4 # 1 # 7
= - 24
10
` positive definite
3. (a) x = 2
(c) - 2 # y # 2
(b) - 3
ANSWERS
2 1
(d) 18 (e) 30 6. x = 1 ,
3 3
5.
(a) 6 (b) 3
7.
(a) iv (b) ii (c) iii
8.
a = -1 1 0
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 3 2 - 4 # (-1) # (- 4)
= -7
10
(c) 2
(d) ii
(e) i
` - 4 + 3x - x 2 1 0 for all x
9.
(a) x = -
1
4
(b) 6
1
8
10. 3 ] x - 2 g2 + 12 ] x + 3 g - 41
12. (a) k = 3
1
4
1
13. x = - , 3
2
(b) k = 1
(c) k = 3
14. m 1 -
16. (a) i (b) i (c) iii
(d) i
17. (a) iii (b) i (c) i
(d) ii
18. For reciprocal roots b

ab
1
a
LHS
a
11. x = 30c , 150c , 270c
9
16
(d) k = 3
(e) k = 2
19. (a) x + 3x - 28 = 0
1
1
(c) 1 y 1
5
3
(e) ii
y = x 2 - 5x + 4
5.
11
9.
x = !1
(b) x - 10x + 18 = 0
(b) n # - 3, n 2 3
6.
The straight line - 2 1 x 1 2 or | x | 1 2
7.
A circle, centre the origin, radius 2 (equation

x2 + y2 = 4 i
8.
lines y = !1
4. A (parabolic) arc
5. A spiral
9. lines x = !5
10. line y = 2
11. Circle x 2 + y 2 = 1 (centre origin, radius 1)

12. Circle, centre ^ 1, -2 h, radius 4
13. y = -5
15. x = -7
16. x = 3
18. x = !4
1.
x2 + y2 = 1
2. x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2y - 79 = 0
3.
x 2 - 10x + y 2 + 4y + 25 = 0
5.
12x - 26y - 1 = 0
7.
3x 2 - 32x + 3y 2 - 50y + 251 = 0
8.
5x 2 - 102x + 5y 2 + 58y - 154 = 0
9.
x 2 - 4x + 20y - 36 = 0
11. y 2 + 8x - 32 = 0
1
(d) x # - 10, x 2 - 2
2
4. 8x - 6y + 13 = 0
6. y = ! x
(e) 4 1 x # 7
13. x 2 + 12y = 0
10. x 2 - 20y = 0
12. x 2 - 2x + 8y - 7 = 0
14. x 2 - 5x + y 2 - 2y - 11 = 0
15. x 2 + 3x + y 2 - y - 4 = 0
3. a = 4, b = - 3, c = 7
7. p 2 0.75
4. x = ! 2
8. Show D = 0
16. x 2 + x + y 2 - 2y - 17 = 0
17. 2x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 - 6y + 47 = 0
18. 2x 2 + 2x + 2y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0
19. 3x + 4y + 25 = 0, 3x + 4y - 15 = 0
20. 12x - 5y - 14 = 0, 12x - 5y + 12 = 0
4x + 1
3
1
=
+
11. 2
x-2 x+1
x -x-2
1 - 21
1 + 21
,k$
2
2
13. x = 30c , 90c , 150c
An arc
Exercises 11.2
10. A = 2, B = - 19, C = 67 or A = - 2, B = 13, C = - 61
12. k #
3.
4
7
6. n = - 2.3375
2. A straight line parallel to the ladder.
20. Circle, centre ^ -4, 5 h, radius 1
1
=
a
c
=
a
k
=
k
= RHS = 1
D = ] k - 4 g2 $ 0 and a perfect square real,

rational roots
2.
A circle
19. Circle, centre ^ -2, 4 h, radius 6
1.
1.
17. y = !8
20. x = 1, 3
21. (a) x 1 - 1, x 2 -
Exercises 11.1
14. Circle, centre (1, 1), radius 3
15. x = 0, 2
roots are reciprocals for all x.

2
3! 5
14. x = 1,
2
15. x = 60c , 90c , 270c , 300c
16. - 23
21. x - 2y - 3 ! 5 5 = 0
22. x - 7y + 9 = 0, 7x + y - 5 = 0
23. 7x - 4y - 30 = 0, 32x + 56y - 35 = 0
24. xy - 16x - 7y + 40 = 0
25. x 2 - 6x - 3y 2 - 12y + 9 = 0
827
828
Problem
23.
12x + 5y - 40 = 0, 12x + 5y + 38 = 0
Exercises 11.3
1.
(a) Radius 10, centre (0, 0) (b) Radius 5 , centre (0, 0)

(c) Radius 4, centre (4, 5) (d) Radius 7, centre (5, 6)
(e) Radius 9, centre (0, 3)
2.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 16 (b) x 2 - 6x + y 2 - 4y - 12 = 0
(c) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 10y + 17 = 0
(d) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 6y - 23 = 0
(e) x 2 + 8x + y 2 - 4y - 5 = 0
(f) x 2 + y 2 + 4y + 3 = 0 (g) x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 4y - 29 = 0
(h) x 2 + 6x + y 2 + 8y - 56 = 0 (i) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 1 = 0
(j) x 2 + 8x + y 2 + 14y + 62 = 0
56 units
24.
25. (a) 5 units (b) 3 units and 2 units

(c) XY is the sum of the radii. The circles touch each
other at a single point, ^ 0, 1 h .
26. Perpendicular distance from centre ^ 0, 0 h to the line is
equal to the radius 2 units; perpendicular distance from
centre ^ -1, 2 h to the line is equal to the radius 3 units.
27. (a) x 2 + 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
(b) ^ 2, 7 h, ^ -1, -2 h (c) Z = ^ -1, 8 h
1
(d) m zx # m yx = - # 3
3
= -1
` +ZXY = 90c
(b) x 2 - 4x + y 2 + 10y + 13 = 0
3.
x 2 - 18x + y 2 + 8y + 96 = 0
28. (a) 4 units
4.
x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 4y - 8 = 0
Exercises 11.4
6.
x 2 + 6x + y 2 - 16y + 69 = 0
7.
x 2 - 10x + y 2 + 4y + 27 = 0
9.
x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 10y + 25 = 0
5. x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 48 = 0
1.
8. x 2 + y 2 - 9 = 0
(c) x 2 = 4y
(e) x 2 = 40y
(f) x 2 = 12y
(g) x 2 = 24y
2.
12. x 2 + y 2 + 6y + 1 = 0
13. (a) Radius 3, centre (2, 1) (b) Radius 5, centre (4, 2)

(c) Radius 1, centre (0, 1) (d) Radius 6, centre (5, 3)
(e) Radius 1, centre (1, 1) (f) Radius 6, centre (6, 0)
(g) Radius 5, centre (3, 4) (h) Radius 8, centre (10, 2)
(i) Radius 5, centre (7, 1) (j) Radius 10 , centre (1, 2)
(a) x 2 = -4y
(b) x 2 = -12y
(d) x = -28y
(e) x = -24y
(g) x 2 = -32y
(h) x 2 = -8y
4.
(a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) y = 1 (b) (i) (0, 6) (ii) y = 6

(c) (i) (0, 2) (ii) y = 2 (d) (i) (0, 12) (ii) y = 12
(e) (i) (0, 5) (ii) y = 5 (f) (i) (0, 4) (ii) y = 4
(g) (i) (0, 8) (ii) y = 8 (h) (i) (0, 10) (ii) y = 10
6.
22. x 2 + 2x + y 2 + 2y - 23 = 0
(i) x 2 = -60y
(a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) y = -1 (b) (i) (0, 7) (ii) y = -7

(c) (i) (0, 4) (ii) y = -4 (d) (i) (0, 9) (ii) y = -9
(e) (i) (0, 10) (ii) y = -10 (f) (i) (0, 11) (ii) y = -11
1
1
(g) (i) (0, 3) (ii) y = -3 (h) (i) c (0, 1 m (ii) y = -1
2
2
3
1
1
(i) (i) c 0, 2 m (ii) y = -2
(j) (i) c 0, 3 m
4
2
2
3
(ii) y = -3
4
5.
21. (a) Both circles have centre ^ 1, -2 h

(b) 1 unit
(f) x 2 = -36y
3.
1
1
(i) (i) c 0, - m (ii) y =
2
2
20. Show perpendicular distance from the line to ^ 4, -2 h is

5 units, or solve simultaneous equations.
(c) x 2 = -16y
(j) x = -52y
17. Centre (4, 7), radius 8
19.
(h) x 2 = 44y
15. Centre ^ 2, 5 h , radius 5
1
1
18. Centre d - 1 , 1 n , radius 2
2
2
(d) x 2 = 16y
(j) x = 48y
11. x 2 - 8x + y 2 - 6y + 22 = 0
16. Centre ^ - 1, -6 h , radius 7
(b) x 2 = 36y
(i) x = 8y
14. Centre ^ 3, -1 h , radius 4
(a) x 2 = 20y
2
10. x + 12x + y - 2y + 1 = 0
2
34 units
1
1
(j) (i) c 0, -5 m (ii) y = 5
2
2
(a) x 2 = 28y (b) x 2 = 44y (c) x 2 = -24y

(d) x 2 = 8y (e) x 2 = !12y (f) x 2 = !32y
1
(g) x 2 = 32y (h) x 2 = y
7
(a) Focus ^ 0, 2 h, directrix y = -2, focal length 2
(b) Focus ^ 0, 6 h, directrix y = -6, focal length 6
(c) Focus ^ 0, -3 h, directrix y = 3, focal length 3
1
1
1
(d) Focus d 0, n, directrix y = - , focal length
2
2
2
3
3
3
(e) Focus d 0, -1 n, directrix y = 1 , focal length 1
4
4
4
1
1
1
(f) Focus d 0, n, directrix y = - , focal length
8
8
8
ANSWERS
7.
y =2
8. ^ 4, 4 h
9.
3
1
X = d -1 , - n
2
8
10. ^ 4, -2 h and ^ -4, -2 h ; 8 units

11. (a) x 2 = - 12y
(b) y = 3
(c) 33
7.
x = 4 (latus rectum)
9.
^ 9, - 6 h, ^ 81, 18 h
(d) 4
2
units
13
(e) 11.7 units2
Exercises 11.6
13. (a) x - 4y + 2 = 0 (b) ^ 0, 1 h does not lie on the line

(c) x 2 - 4x + y 2 - 2y + 1 = 0
(d) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the circle.
14. (a) Substitute Q into the equation of the parabola.
(b) _ q 2 - 1 i x - 2qy + 2aq = 0
(c) Equation of latus rectum is y = a. Solving with
x 2 = 4ay gives two endpoints A ^ -2a, a h, B ^ 2a, a h .
Length of AB = 4a.
1.
(a) ] x - 3 g2 = 8 ^ y + 3 h
(b) ] x - 5 g2 = 4 ^ y + 6 h
(c) ] x - 1 g = 4 ^ y + 3 h (d) ] x - 4 g2 = -12 ^ y - 3 h

(e) ] x - 6 g2 = 8 ^ y + 7 h (f) ] x + 7 g2 = -16 ^ y - 3 h
(g) ] x - 2 g2 = -4 ^ y - 5 h (h) ] x + 9 g2 = 12 ^ y + 6 h
2
(i) ] x + 1 g2 = - 4 ^ y - 2 h
2.
(j) ] x - 3 g2 = 8 ^ y + 1 h
(a) ^ y - 4 h2 = 4 ] x + 4 g (b) ^ y - 1 h2 = 8 ] x + 2 g
(c) ^ y + 2 h2 = 12 ] x + 1 g (d) ^ y - 10 h2 = - 4 ] x - 29 g
(e) ^ y + 3 h2 = - 16 ] x - 1 g
(f) ^ y - 6 h2 = 8 ] x + 4 g
(g) ^ y + 5 h2 = - 24 ] x - 2 g (h) ^ y + 12 h2 = 4 ] x + 36 g
Exercises 11.5
2.
5
1
units2
(b) d - 5, - 4 n (c) 10
6
12
10. (a) 5x - 12y - 25 = 0
1
units
3
12. (a) Substitute the point into the equation.

3
(b) 3x + 4y - 3 = 0 (c) d 2, - n
4
1.
8. 12, ^ 3, 6 h, ^ 3, -6 h
(a) y 2 = 8x (b) y 2 = 20x (c) y 2 = 56x (d) y 2 = 36x

(e) y 2 = 32x (f) y 2 = 24x (g) y 2 = 28x (h) y 2 = 12x
(i) y 2 = 16x (j) y 2 = 4x
(i) ^ y - 2 h2 = - 20 ] x - 1 g (j) ^ y + 4 h2 = - 8 ] x - 2 g
3.
(b) x 2 + 8x - 4y + 16 = 0
(c) x - 4x - 8y - 12 = 0
(d) x 2 - 6x - 8y + 41 = 0
(a) y = -36x (b) y = - 16x (c) y = -40x

(d) y 2 = -24x (e) y 2 = - 8x (f) y 2 = -48x
(g) y 2 = - 44x (h) y 2 = -20x (i) y 2 = -12x
(j) y 2 = -28x
2
(a) x 2 + 2x - 8y + 9 = 0
(e) x 2 + 4x - 16y + 20 = 0
(f) x 2 + 2x + 16y + 1 = 0
(g) x - 8x + 20y - 24 = 0
(h) x 2 + 10x + 8y + 1 = 0
(i) x 2 + 6x + 12y + 45 = 0
(j) x 2 + 4y + 24 = 0
(k) y - 6y - 12x - 3 = 0
(l) y 2 - 8y - 4x + 8 = 0
3.
4.
5.
(a) (i) (2, 0)

(c) (i) (4, 0)
(e) (i) (7, 0)
(g) (i) (6, 0)
1
(i) (i) c , 0 m
4
(ii) x
(ii) x
(ii) x
(ii) x
= -2
= -4
= -7
= -6
1
(ii) x = 4
(a) (i) (2, 0) (ii) x = 2 (b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) x = 3

(c) (i) (7, 0) (ii) x = 7 (d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) x = 1
(e) (i) (6, 0) (ii) x = 6 (f) (i) (13, 0) (ii) x = 13
1
1
(g) (i) (15, 0) (ii) x = 15 (h) (i) c - , 0 m (ii) x =
2
2
1
1
1
1
(i) (i) c - 6 , 0 m (ii) x = 6
(j) (i) c - 1 , 0 m (ii) x = 1
4
4
2
2
(a) y 2 = 20x
(b) y 2 = 4x
(e) y 2 = !36x
6.
(b) (i) (3, 0) (ii) x = -3

(d) (i) (1, 0) (ii) x = -1
(f) (i) (8, 0) (ii) x = -8
(h) (i) (9, 0) (ii) x = -9
1
1
(j) (i) c 4 , 0 m (ii) x = -4
2
2
(c) y 2 = -16x
(f) y 2 = !8x
(m) y 2 - 8x + 32 = 0
(o) y + 2y - 8x - 7 = 0
(h) y 2 =
(s) y - 4y + 2x + 5 = 0
4.
1
1
1
(d) Focus d 1 , 0 n, directrix x = - 1 , focal length 1
2
2
2
1
1
1
(e) Focus d -1 , 0 n, directrix x = 1 , focal length 1
4
4
4
(f) Focus d
1
1
1
, 0 n, directrix x = - , focal length
12
12
12
(a) (i) (3, 2)
(ii) y = -4
(b) (i) (1, 1)
(ii) y = - 3
(c) (i) (2, 0)
(ii) y = -2
(d) (i) (4, 2)
(ii) y = - 4
(e) (i) (5, 1)
(ii) y = -5
(f) (i) (3, 1)
(g) (i) (1, 0)
(ii) y = 4
(h) (i) (2, 0)
(i) (i) (4, 2)
(ii) y = 4
(j) (i) (2, 3)
(ii) y = 3
(ii) y = 2
(ii) y = 5
5.
(a) (i) (0, 1) (ii) x = -2 (b) (i) (2, 4) (ii) x = - 4

(c) (i) (0, 3) (ii) x = -4 (d) (i) (3, 2) (ii) x = -5
(e) (i) (7, 1) (ii) x = -5 (f) (i) (1, 5) (ii) x = 5
(g) (i) (11, 7) (ii) x = 13 (h) (i) (3, 6) (ii) x = 7
1
1
(i) (i) (7, 2) (ii) x = 9 (j) (i) c -10 , -3 m (ii) x = 9
2
2
6.
x 2 - 12y + 36 = 0
7.
x 2 + 4x - 8y - 4 = 0, x 2 + 4x + 8y + 12 = 0
8.
x 2 - 2x - 4y - 19 = 0
9. y 2 - 12y + 12x + 12 = 0
10. x 2 - 2x - 12y + 1 = 0
11. x 2 - 2x - 28y + 29 = 0
12. y 2 + 4y + 24x - 44 = 0
13. y 2 - 6y - 32x + 9 = 0
14. x 2 - 6x + 8y - 15 = 0
15. y 2 + 2y - 16x + 49 = 0
(a) Focus ^ 2, 0 h, directrix x = - 2, focal length 2

(c) Focus ^ -3, 0 h, directrix x = 3, focal length 3
(r) y 2 - 6y + 16x + 25 = 0
(t) y 2 - 2y + 2x - 6 = 0
1
x
2
(b) Focus ^ 1, 0 h, directrix x = - 1, focal length 1
(p) y 2 + 8y + 12x + 4 = 0
(q) y 2 - 2y + 4x - 11 = 0
(d) y 2 = 12x
(g) y 2 = 12x
(n) y 2 + 4y - 16x - 12 = 0
16. x 2 + 6x + 4y - 7 = 0
17. x 2 - 4x - 12y - 8 = 0
829
830
18. y 2 + 2y + 16x - 95 = 0
Exercises 11.8
19. (a) Vertex ^ - 2, 1 h, focus ^ - 2, 3 h, directrix y = -1
1.
(a)
(b) Vertex ^ 3, 2 h, focus ^ 3, 5 h, directrix y = -1

(c) Vertex ^ 1, -1 h, focus ^ 1, - 2 h, directrix y = 0
(d) Vertex ^ 3, 4 h, focus ^ 7, 4 h, directrix x = -1
(e) Vertex ^ 0, - 2 h, focus ^ 6, - 2 h, directrix x = -6
(f) Vertex ^ - 5, 0 h, focus ^ - 7, 0 h, directrix x = -3
20. Vertex ^ - 1, 4 h, focus ^ -1, -3 h , directrix y = 11, axis
x = - 1, maximum value 4
21. x 2 - 4x - 8y + 12 = 0 or x 2 - 4x + 8y - 36 = 0
(b) d 0, 7
22. (a) 8x 2 + 9y - 72 = 0
23
9
n, y = 8
32
32
(b)
23. (a)
(c)
3
1
(b) d -1, -8 n, y = -9
4
4
24. x 2 + 4x + 8y - 20 = 0
25. 0.3 m
Exercises 11.7
1.
5.
m=
dy
dx
1
3
=x
2. m = -4
3. m = -1
6. x - y - 2 = 0
4. m =
1
2
7. x - 2y + 12 = 0
8.
x + y - 6 = 0, x - y - 18 = 0
9.
x - 2y - 2 = 0, 2x + y - 9 = 0
(d)
7 1
10. 4x + y - 8 = 0, M = d 1 , n
8 2
11. x + y - 9 = 0, P = ^ - 18, 27 h
12. Q = ^ 33, 60.5 h
13. x + 4y + 144 = 0, 4x + 2y + 9 = 0, ^ 18, -40.5 h ; show
the point lies on the parabola by substituting it into the
equation of the parabola
14. x - y - 4 = 0, R = ^ 4, 0 h
15. (a) Substitute P into the equation of the parabola
(b) x + py - 2p - p 3 = 0
(c) Substitute ^ 0, 1 h into the equation of the normal.
0 + p - 2p - p 3 = 0
0 = p3 + p
= p (p 2 + 1)
2
Since p ! 0, p + 1 = 0
(e)
ANSWERS
(f)
2.
(a) (i) p
(ii) -
1
p
(iii) y - px + p 2 = 0
(iv) x + py = p 3 + 2p
1
(iii) y - qx + 3p 2 = 0
(b) (i) q (ii) q
(iv) x + qy = 3q 3 + 6q
1
(iii) y - tx + 2t 2 = 0
(c) (i) t (ii) t
2.
(a) x - 2y - 2 = 0 (b) 2x - y - 11 = 0
(c) y = x 2 + 3x + 2 (d) y = 16x 2 - 1 (e) xy = 2
3.
(a) x = 2t, y = t 2
(iv) x + ny = 5n 3 + 10n
1
(iii) y - px + 6p 2 = 0
(e) (i) p (ii) p
(iv) x + py = 6p 3 + 12p
1
(iii) y + kx - 4k 2 = 0
(f) (i) k (ii)
k
(b) x = 6t, y = 3t 2
(c) x = - 4t, y = -2t 2
(d) x = 8t, y = 4t 2
(e) x = - 18t, y = - 9t
(f) x = 10t, y = 5t 2
t
t2
,y=
4
2
5t 2
(j) x = - 5t, y = 2
(g) x = -3t, y = (i) x =
(iv) x + ty = 2t 3 + 4t
1
(iii) y - nx + 5n 2 = 0
(d) (i) n (ii) n
t
t2
,y=
4
8
3t
2
(h) x =
4.
(a) x 2 = 16y (b) x 2 = 20y (c) x 2 = 4y (d) x 2 = -28y

(e) x 2 = - 8y (f) x 2 = 4ay (g) x 2 = -4y (h) x 2 = 24y
(i) x 2 = -2y (j) x 2 = 4ay
5.
(a) Substitute _ 6t, - 3t i into the equation

(b) P = ^ -12, -12 h
(c) 2x - y + 12 = 0
(iv) x - ky = 4k 3 + 8k
1
(iii) y - qx - q 2 = 0
(g) (i) q (ii) q
(iv) x + qy = -q 3 - 2q
1
(iii) y + tx - 2t 2 = 0
(h) (i) t (ii)
t
(iv) x - ty = 2t 3 + 4t
1
(iii) y - mx - 3m 2 = 0
(i) (i) m (ii) m
6.
(a) Q = ^ - 8, 4 h
7.
^ 4, 0 h, x = - 4
9.
(a) x 2 = 24y
(iv) x + my = -3m 3 - 6m
1
(iii) y + ax - 8a 2 = 0
(j) (i) a (ii)
a
(b) x - y + 12 = 0
(iv) x - ay = 8a 3 + 16a
8. P = ^ 4, -4 h; 4x + 3y - 4 = 0
(b)
1
4
10. 3x - y - 18 = 0
3.
(ii) 8 -4pq ^ p + q h, 4 _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i B
Exercises 11.9
1.
t+n
(a) (i)
2
(b) (i)
(c) (i)
(d) (i)
(e) (i)
p+q
2
m+n
2
p+q
2
a+b
2
(f) (i) -
p+q
2
a+b
(g) (i) 2
(h) (i)
p+q
2
(i) (i) (j) (i)
s+t
2
p+q
2
(a) (i) ^ p + q, pq h (ii) 7 - pq ^ p + q h, p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 A

(b) (i) 7 4 ^ p + q h, 4pq A
(c) (i) 6 2 ] a + b g, 2ab @
1
(ii) y - ] t + n g x + 4tn = 0
2
(ii) 7 -2ab ] a + b g, 2 ^ a 2 + ab + b 2 + 2 h A
(d) (i) 6 3 ] s + t g, 3st @
(ii) y -
1
^ p + q h x + 2pq = 0
2
(ii) y -
1
] m + n g x + 3mn = 0
2
(ii) 7 -5tw ] t + w g, 5 ^ t 2 + tw + w 2 + 2 h A
(ii) y -
1
^ p + q h x + 5pq = 0
2
(ii) 8 -6pq ^ p + q h, -6 _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i B
(ii) y -
1
] a + b g x + ab = 0
2
(ii) y +
(ii) 7 -3st ] s + t g, 3 ^ s 2 + st + t 2 + 2 h A
(e) (i) 6 5 ] t + w g, 5tw @
(f) (i) 7 6 ^ p + q h, -6pq A
(g) (i) 6 4 ] m + n g, -4mn @
(ii) 7 -4mn ] m + n g, - 4 ^ m 2 + mn + n 2 + 2 h A
1
^ p + q h x - 2pq = 0
2
(h) (i) 7 10 ^ p + q h, -10pq A

(ii) 8 -10pq ^ p + q h, -10 _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i B
1
(ii) y + ] a + b g x - 6ab = 0
2
(i) (i) 6 5 ] h + k g, - 5hk @

(ii) 7 -5hk ] h + k g, - 5 ^ h 2 + hk + k 2 + 2 h A
1
(ii) y - ^ p + q h x - 4pq = 0
2
(ii) y +
1
] s + t g x - st = 0
2
1
(ii) y - ^ p + q h x - 7pq = 0
2
(j) (i) 7 -3 ^ p + q h, - 3pq A

(ii) 8 3pq ^ p + q h, - 3 _ p 2 + pq + q 2 + 2 i B
4.
(a) (i) xx 1 = 4 _ y + y 1 i (ii) y - y 1 = -
4
x - x1 i
x1 _
(b) (i) xx 1 = 6 _ y + y 1 i (ii) y - y 1 = -
6
x - x1 i
x1 _
831
832
(c) (i) xx 1 = 8 _ y + y 1 i (ii) y - y 1 = -
8
x - x1 i
x1 _
14. ^ - 2, -1 h
(d) (i) xx 1 = 2 _ y + y 1 i (ii) y - y 1 = -
2
x - x1 i
x1 _
15. Equation of tangent at P:

y - px + ap 2 = 0
Equation of tangent at Q:
y - qx + aq 2 = 0
10
(e) (i) xx 1 = 10 _ y + y 1 i (ii) y - y 1 = - _ x - x 1 i
x1
5.
(f) (i) xx 1 = -2 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
2
x - x1 i
x1 _
(g) (i) xx 1 = -4 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
4
x - x1 i
x1 _
(h) (i) xx 1 = -12 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
12
x - x1 i
x1 _
(i) (i) xx 1 = -22 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
22
x - x1 i
x1 _
(j) (i) xx 1 = -14 _ y + y 1 i
(ii) y - y 1 =
14
x - x1 i
x1 _
(a) xx 1 = 8 _ y + y 1 i (b) xx 1 = 2 _ y + y 1 i
6.
7.
9.
- px + qx + ap 2 - aq 2 = 0
x (q - p) - a (q 2 - p 2) = 0
x (q - p) - a (q + p) (q - p) = 0
x - a (q + p) = 0
x = a (q + p)
Substitute in (1):
y - pa (q + p) + ap 2 = 0
y - apq - ap 2 + ap 2 = 0
y - apq = 0
y = apq
16. (a) 3x + 4y - 8 = 0
(e) xx 1 = 10 _ y + y 1 i (f) xx 1 = -2 _ y + y 1 i
17. (a) For proof, see no. 9 above
(g) xx 1 = -12 _ y + y 1 i
(h) xx 1 = -4 _ y + y 1 i
(j) xx 1 = -18 _ y + y 1 i
(a) y - px + ap 2 = 0
(b) xx 0 = 2a _ y + y 0 i
1
] t + r g x + 2tr = 0
2
x2
y=18
dy
x
=9
dx
9t 2
o
At e -9t, 2
dy
-9t
n
= -d
9
dx
=t
y-
8. x + 2y - 36 = 0
For normal, m 1 m 2 = -1
1
t
The equation is given by
y - y 1 = m (x - x 1)
` m2 = -
9t 2
1
= - (x + 9t)
t
2
2ty + 9t 3 = -2 (x + 9t)
= -2x - 18t
2x + 2ty + 9t 3 + 18t = 0
`
y+
10. x + ty = at 3 + 2at
11. 3x - 4y + 4 = 0
12. Substitute focus ^ 0, -1 h into equation

3x + 4y + 4 = 0.
13. Equation of chord
1
y - ^ p + q h x + apq = 0
2
Substitute ^ 0, a h into equation
1
a - ( p + q) 0 + apq = 0
2
a + apq = 0
apq = - a
pq = - 1
(2)
] 1 g - ] 2 g:
(c) xx 1 = 4 _ y + y 1 i (d) xx 1 = 6 _ y + y 1 i
(i) xx 1 = -8 _ y + y 1 i
(1)
(b) Substitute ^ 0, 2 h into equation.
18. (a) 15x + 8y + 4 = 0

19. (a) x + 3y - 3 = 0
(b) N = _ 0, ap 2 + 2a i
1
1
(b) N = c - , - m
4
32
(b) ^ - 6, 3 h c 2,
1
m
3
20. (a) F = ^ 0, 6 h
(b) 3x + 4y - 24 = 0
(c) Q = ^ - 24, 24 h
(d) P : x - 2y - 3 = 0; Q: 2x + y + 24 = 0
1
(e) m 1 m 2 = # -2 = -1, ` tangents at P, Q are
2
perpendicular
(f) R = ^ -9, -6 h
(g) directrix: y = - a = - 6, ` R lies on directrix
21. P = ^ -2, -1.5 h
22. x - y + 9 = 0
23. m 1 m 2 = pq
= - 1 (since pq = - 1 for focal chord)
` tangents are perpendicular
24. Tangents intersect at 6 a ^ p + q h, apq @
i.e.
y = apq
= - a (since pq = - 1 for focal chord)
Directrix: y = - a
` tangents meet on the directrix
25.
y=
x2
4a
dy
x
=
2a
dx
At P _ x 0, y 0 i,
dy
dx
x0
2a
ANSWERS
(c) Directrix y = -3
Point of intersection = ^ - 8, -3 h
So the point lies on the directrix.
The equation is given by

y - y 1 = m(x - x 1)
x0
` y - y0 =
(x - x 0)
2a
2ay - 2ay 0 = x 0 (x - x 0)
= xx 0 - x 02
= xx 0 - 4ay 0 (since x = 4ay 0)
2ay + 2ay 0 = xx 0
2a(y + y 0) = xx 0
2
0
Exercises 11.10
1.
x 2 = 2 a ^ y - 2a h
7.
y - px + 2p 2 = 0; y - qx + 2q 2 = 0; y = - 2
8.
x 2 = 16 ^ y - 6 h
dy
dx
12. (a) PO has gradient
1
n
2
dy
x
4
1
2
(a) y - px + p 2 = 0
(b) p 2 + 1
(c) R = _ 0, - p 2 i and F = ^ 0, 1 h
FR = p + 1
= PF
2
4.
5.
q
2
(b) y = - 6a
15. (a) x 2 = 9a ^ y - 5a h
= -1
So the tangents are perpendicular.
3.
14. (a) T = 6 a ^ p + q h, apq @
2
4
dx
1
` m2 =
2
2.
; QO has gradient
(c) x 2 = 2a ^ y - 4a h is a parabola in the form

(x - h) 2 = 4a 0 ^ y - k h where ^ h, k h is the vertex and
a 0 is the focal length
a
` vertex is ^ 0, 4a h and focal length is
2
a
13. x 2 = 2ay - a 2 or x 2 = 2a d y - n
2
1
m:
2
m 1 m 2 = -2 #
p
2
q
= -1
2
pq = - 4
`
(b) x 2 = 2a ^ y - 4a h
m1 m2 =
At P (8, 8):
dy
-8
=
4
dx
` m 1 = -2
At q c 2,
(b) x 2 = 2a ^ y - a h
10. (a) y = -a
(c) (3, 2)
(d)
9. x 2 = 2a ^ y - a h
11. x 2 = - 4 ^ y + 4 h
(a) 3x + 4y - 8 = 0
(b) Q = d 2,
6.
Test yourself 11
2. x 2 - 4x - 8y - 4 = 0
1.
8x + 6y - 29 = 0
3.
Centre ^ 3, 1 h, radius 4
5.
(a) ^ 8, 8 h
6.
x 2 + y 2 = 25
8.
x 2 + x + y 2 - 3y - 10 = 0
4. (a) ^ 1, - 3 h
(b) 2x - y - 8 = 0
7. (a) y = 2
9. x 2 - 8x + 16y - 16 = 0
(b) y = 0
10. (a) (i) ^ 1, 1 h
(a) y + qx - 5q = 0
(b) R = _ 0, 5q 2 i
(c) F = ^ 0, - 5 h
FR = FQ = 5 _ q 2 + 1 i
So triangle FQR is isosceles.
` +FQR = +FRQ (base angles of isosceles triangle)
15. 4x - 3y - 16 = 0, 4x - 3y + 14 = 0
(a) 4x + 3y - 9 = 0
(b) Focus (0, 3)
Substitute into equation:
LHS = 4 ] 0 g + 3 ] 3 g -9
=0
= RHS
So it is a focal chord.
(ii) ^ 1, 2 h
(b) ^ 0, - 2 h
(a) y - tx + 3t 2 = 0
(b) Y = _ 0, - 3t 2 i
(c) F = ^ 0, 3 h
TF = FY = 3 ^ t 2 + 1 h
2
(b) ^ 4, - 3 h
11. 2x + 3y + 6 = 0
12. 14 units
13. y = - 24x
14. x - 8y + 16 = 0
16. y = x, y = - x
19. (a) x 2 = 12y
17. y 2 = 20x
18. (a) -
1
2
(b) 2
(b) y 2 = - 32x
20. (a) x - 4y + 72 = 0
1
(b) d 9, 20 n
4
21. Sub ^ 0, 4 h : LHS = 7 # 0 - 3 # 4 + 12 = 0 = RHS

2
22. d , -7 n
9
23. 3x - 2y + 40 = 0
24. x 2 - 10y + 100 = 0
25. y - 3x + 9a = 0
26. (a) x - y - 3 = 0 (b) R = ^ 0, -3 h

(c) F = ^ 0, 3 h FP = FR = 6
833
834
27. (a) y a-
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0
2
1
(p + q) # 0 + apq
2
a + apq
apq
pq
(b) Sub ^ 0, a h:
=0
6ap + 4aq 3ap 2 + 2aq 2

p
,
5
5
(b) x 2 = 2a ^ y + 2a h
=0
= -a
= -1
19. y = 0
20. (a) T = ^ 6, - 20 h
28. x - 2y + 48 = 0
29. (a) x - y + 3 = 0
18. (a) N = f
(b) ^ 6, 9 h and ^ - 2, 1 h
m x = t and m y = s
m1 - m2
tan i =
1 + m1 m2
t-s
tan 45c =
1 + ts
t-s
1=
1 + ts
t-s
1=
1 + ts
1 + ts = t - s
1 + s = t - ts
= t (1 - s)
1+s
=t
1-s
t-s
-1 =
1 + ts
-1 - ts = t - s
s - 1 = t + ts
= t (1 + s)
s-1
=t
1+s
(c)
30. y = - a
1.
(a) 8x + 6y - 29 = 0
(b) Midpoint of AB lies on line; m 1 m 2 = -1
2.
(a) x 2 - 2x + y 2 - 6y - 15 = 0
(b) Put y = 0 into equation
3.
y = 1 - 2x 2
5.
(a) 4x - 2y + 9 = 0; x + 2y - 24 = 0
(b) m 1 m 2 = - 1 (c) X = ^ 3, 10.5 h
(d) 3x - 4y + 8 = 0; focus ^ 0, 2 h lies on the line
6.
^ 0, 0 h
7.
(a) 2x - 4y - 1 = 0; 2x + y + 4 = 0
(b) Point lies on line y = - 1
8.
y = - 2 x 2 + 4x - 2
1
4. d 2 , - 3 n
2
or
9. 3x + y + 2 = 0
10.
(b) P = 6 a ] t + s g, ats @

1.
m 2, m 3
4.
24 cm
2
6. (a)
3
2. 4x + 3y - 16 = 0
Centre ^ - 3, 5 h, radius 7
5.
1
(b) 3
(c) 1
1
9
7.
Focus ^ 0, -2 h, directrix y = 2
8.
x = - 5 or - 6
10.
3. x 2 = 8y
9. k = - 1
+AFE = +CBE (ext.+ equal to opp. interior

+ in cyclic quadrilateral)
+CBE = 180c - +EDC (opp.+s supplementary in cyclic

quadrilateral)
11. (a) x 2 + 4x + y 2 - 10y + 21 = 0

(b) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 5 h2 = 8; centre ^ -2, 5 h;
radius =
12. -
8 =2 2
11. 3x - 4y - 14 = 0, 3x - 4y + 16 = 0
2 3
3
12. Vertex ^ - 4, -17 h , focus ^ - 4, -16.75 h
13. (a) y + 4y - 16x + 52 = 0

2
14. 4 2 units
` +AFE = 180c - +EDC

` AF || CD
(b) 2x - y - 6 = 0
15. x + y - 2y - 2 = 0
2
16. 696 mm from the vertex

17. 141x + 127y + 32 = 0; 219x + 23y + 58 = 0
13. x = 0, 3
14. k = 7.2 cm
16. b $ -2 17. i = 16c

^ 0, 0 h and radius 4
15. x + 2y + 2 = 0
18. x 2 + y 2 = 16, circle centre
19. x 2 + 4x + y 2 + 6y - 12 = 0
ANSWERS
Obtuse +AOC = 2+ADC (+at centre double + at circumference)

Reflex +AOC = 2+ABC (similarly)
Obtuse +AOC + reflex +AOC = 360c (+ of revolution)
`
2+ADC + 2+ABC = 360c
+ADC + +ABC = 180c
It can be proved similarly that
+BAD + +BCD = 180c
by drawing BO and DO.
` opposite angles in a cyclic quadrilateral are
supplementary
20. x 2 - 3x + y 2 - 6y - 17 = 0
21.
+BCD
+DAB
+DBC
+BDC
`+BDC
` +DAE
22. - 0.75
= 90c (+in semicircle)

= 90c (similarly)
= +DAE (+s in same segment)
= 90c - +DBC (+ sum of D BDC)
= 90c - +DAE
= 90c - +BDC
23. 5x 2 - 54x + 5y 2 + 20y - 79 = 0
24. a = 2, b = 1, c = 0
26. -
25. x = 33, y = 57
37. Centre ^ -5, 3 h, radius 2

38.
9 - x2
27. (a) y - px + ap 2 = 0
(b) R = f
a _ p2 - 1 i
p
, - ap
(c) 2px + _ p 2 - 1 i y + a - ap 2 = 0
28. x 2 - 4x - 16y + 20 = 0
29.
`
AC = BC and CD = CE (given)
AC
BC
=
CD
CE
+ACB = +ECD (vertically opposite angles)
` since two sides are in proportion and their included
angles are equal, ABC is similar to CDE

y = 5.3 cm
30. x - y - 4 = 0
39. a 2 0
D = b 2 - 4ac
= ] -1 g2 - 4 (1) (3)
= -11
10
Since a 2 0 and D 1 0, x 2 - x + 3 2 0 for all x
31. x 2 + 2x - 16y - 15 = 0
33.
Let +DBA = x and +EBC = y

Then +EDB = x and +DEB = y (alternate +s, DE < AC)
+FDE = 180c - x (+FDB straight +)
+GED = 180c - y (+GEB straight +)
+FGB = +DBA = x (+s in alternate segment)
+GFB = +EBC = y (similarly)
` +FDE = 180c - +FGB and
+GED = 180c - +GFB
Since opposite angles are supplementary, FGED is a
32. x = 0, 2
a 10
D = b 2 - 4ac
= 1 2 - 4 (- 1) (- 9)
= - 35
10
Since a 1 0 and D 1 0, - x 2 + x - 9 1 0 for all x
34. 8 (3x - 1) (2x + 5) + 3 (2x + 5) = ] 30x + 7 g (2x + 5) 3

3
40. k = 1
41. 3x + 2y - 9 = 0
42. (a) 217 km
(b) 153c
43. a = 3, b = - 18, c = - 34
45. (a) y = x 2 - 1
44. x 2 4, x 1 3
(b) ^ - 4, 15 h
(c) x - 8y + 124 = 0
46. i = 95c 44 47. x = 11c
35. sec x cosec x

36.
48. T = 361 ^ 2 0 and a perfect square h

49. x + 2y + 9 = 0
50. k # 3
51.
Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral of circle, centre O.

Join AO and CO.
52. 5x - 4y - 41 = 0
55. - 1
1
# y 1 -1
4
1+ 3
2
2
53. d 3 , -2 n 54.
5
5
3-1
56.
3 6 - 10 + 3 3 - 5
22
835
836
57. x = 4.9 cm, y = 11.1 cm

60. 4.5 m
128
2187
61.
59. 8.25 units
1
1
64. y = 1 , 3
2
65. 162c
b 2 - 4ac = -104 1 0
So Pl(x) has no real roots
15. Ql] x g = 3x 2 - 6x + 3
b 2 - 4ac = 0
So Ql] x g has equal roots
+ACB = 90c (+ in semicircle)

`+DCA = 90c (+DCB straight +)
` AD is a diameter of the circle
Exercises 12.2
67. x = 45, 135, 225, 315

1
1
68. x = - 1, y = 2 or x = - , y = 4
4
4
69. ] a - 2b g ^ a 2 + 2ab + 4b 2 h
70. x = 43
71. -
1
31
73. tan i
72. 1.8 units
14. Pl] x g = 3x 2 - 2x + 9
62. x = 60, 120, 240, 300
63. 2x + 3y - 3 = 0
66.
58. x = 1
1.
3x 2 + 2x + 5 = ] x + 4 g ] 3x - 10 g + 45
2.
x 2 - 7x + 4 = ] x - 1 g ] x - 6 g - 2
3.
x 3 + x 2 + 2x - 1 = ] x - 3 g ^ x 2 + 4x + 14 h + 41
74. 8x ] 2x + 5 g (x 2 - 1) 3 + 2 (x 2 - 1) 4
= 2 (x 2 - 1) 3 (9x 2 + 20x - 1)
4.
4x 2 + 2x - 3 = ] 2x + 3 g ] 2x - 2 g + 3
5.
x 3 - 5x 2 + x + 2 = ^ x 2 + 3x h ] x - 8 g + ] 25x + 2 g
1
75.
4
6.
x 3 + x 2 - x - 3 = ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 3x + 5 h + 7
77. Focus (2, 1), directrix y = 5
7.
5x 3 - 2x 2 + 3x + 1 = ^ x 2 + x h ] 5x - 7 g + ] 10x + 1 g
78. px - y - 9p 2 = 0
8.
x 4 - x 3 - 2x 2 + x - 3
= ] x + 4 g ^ x 3 - 5x 2 + 18x - 71 h + 281
9.
2x 4 - 5x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x - 5 = ^ x 2 - 2x h ^ 2x 2 - x h + ] 2x - 5 g
76. x + 2x + y - 3y - 25 = 0
2
79. x - 2y - 36 = 0
1
^ p + q h x + apq = 0 (b) x 2 = 2a ^ y - 2a h
2
(c) Concave upward parabola, vertex (0, 2a)
80. (a) y -
81. (c)
82. (d)
83. (b)
88. (a)
87. (c)
84. (a)
89. (a), (d)
85. (c)
86. (a)
10. 4x 3 - 2x 2 + 6x - 1 = ] 2x + 1 g ^ 2x 2 - 2x + 4 h - 5
11. 6x 2 - 3x + 1 = ] 3x - 2 g d 2x +
90. (c)
1
2
n+ 1
3
3
12. x 4 - 2x 3 - x 2 - 2 = ^ x 2 - x h ^ x 2 - x - 2 h + ] -2x - 2 g
5
4
3
2
13. 3x - 2x - 3x + x - x - 1
4
3
= ] x + 2 g ^ 3x - 8x + 13x 2 - 25x + 49 h - 99
Exercises 12.1
14. x 2 + 5x - 2 = ] x + 1 g ] x + 4 g - 6
1.
(a) 7 (b) 4 (c) 1
2.
(a) -19 (b) -10 (c) -1

3. (a) -6 (b) 5
(c) 2 (d) 1 (e) 2
4. (a) 5 (b) 4 (c) -3 (d) 0
5.
(a) !3
6.
(a) P l ] x g = 12x 3 - 6x 2 - 2x + 4; 3 (b) Pl] x g = 10x; 1

(c) Pl] x g = 108x 11 - 35x 4 + 8; 11
(d) P l ] x g = 7x 6 - 9x 2 + 2x - 7; 6 (e) Pl] x g = 8; 0
7.
(b) -5
(d) 11 (e) 3 (f) 0 (g) 4
(c) -2, 1
(a), (b), (g) 8. (a) a = 0

(d) a = -1
(c) 3
10. (a)
(d) 3
(e) a = 4
(e) x 5
(c) c = -6
(b) x = 2, -1
(d) 9
11. (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 2

12. x = -3, 2
4
3
2
19. x - 2x + 4x + 2x + 5
= ^ x 2 + 2x - 1 h ^ x 2 - 4x + 13 h + ] - 28x + 18 g
20. 3x 5 - 2x 3 + x - 1 = ] x + 1 g ^ 3x 4 - 3x 3 + x 2 - x + 2 h - 3
Exercises 12.3
2.
` f ] x g has no zeros
(c) - 2
18. 2x 3 + 4x 2 - x + 8 = ^ x 2 + 3x + 2 h ] 2x - 2 g + ] x + 12 g
1.
D = b 2 - 4ac
= -8
-8 1 0
(b) 9x 3
16. 2x 4 - x 3 + 5 = ^ x 2 - 2x h ^ 2x 2 + 3x + 6 h + ] 12x + 5 g
17. x 3 - 3x 2 + 3x - 1 = ^ x 2 + 5 h ] x - 3 g + ] - 2x + 14 g
(d) 4 (e) 0
(b) b = 10
1
9. (a) -2
2
15. x 4 - 2x 2 + 5x + 4 = ] x - 3 g ^ x 3 + 3x 2 + 7x + 26 h + 82
(e) x =
(d) 0
13. x = 0, 1
2
, -1
3
(e) 2 (f) 4
3.
(g) 3
(a) 41 (b) -3 (c) -43 (d) 9424 (e) 0

(g) 47 (h) 2321 (i) 31 174 (j) - 3
2
(a) k = 8 (b) k =
7
(e) k = !2
(c) k = 15 299
(f) 37
(d) k = 6
(a) 0 (b) Yes

(c) x 3 - 4x 2 + x + 6 = ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 - 2x - 3 h
(d) f ] x g = ] x - 2 g ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
8
9
ANSWERS
4.
5.
(a) P ] - 3 g = 81 - 81 - 81 + 81 = 0
` x + 3 is a factor
(b) P ] x g = x ] x + 3 g 2 ] x - 3 g
7
17
a = -1 , b = -1
12
48
Exercises 12.4
1.
(a)
6. a = - 6
7.
(a) P ] 3 g = 140 ! 0
` x - 3 is not a factor of P ] x g
(b) k = - 39 8. a = -2, b = -1
9.
(a) a = 3, b = 11
(b) f ] x g = ] x + 1 g ^ 3x 3 + 8x 2 + 7x + 2 h
(c) g ] -1 g = 0 (d) f ] x g = ] 3x + 2 g ] x + 1 g3
-1
10. (a) ] x + 2 g ] x - 4 g (b) x ] x + 2 g ] x - 1 g

(c) ] x - 1 g ] x + 4 g ] x - 2 g (d) ] x + 5 g ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g
(e) ] x - 3 g ] x - 1 g ] x - 7 g (f) ] x + 2 g ] x - 9 g ] x - 5 g
(g) ] x - 3 g ] x - 2 g2 (h) x ] x + 4 g ] x + 1 g 2
(i) ] x - 1 g ] x + 2 g2 (j) ] x + 1 g ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g
11. (a) P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x + 3 g ] x - 2 g (b) -3, 1, 2
(b)
(c) Yes
12. (a) Dividing f ] x g by ] x + 5 g ] x - 2 g gives

f ] x g = ] x + 5 g ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 7x + 12 h
` ] x + 5 g ] x - 2 g is a factor of f ] x g
(b) f ] x g = ] x + 5 g ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g ] x + 4 g
-4
13. P ] x g = ] x + 1 g ] x - 4 g ] x + 3 g2
14. (a) P ] -6 g = P ] 5 g = 0
(b) P ] x g = ] x - 4 g ] x + 6 g ] x - 5 g
15. (a) P ] u g = ] u - 2 g ] u - 1 g 2
(b) x = 2, 3
16. (a) f ^ p h = ^ p - 1 h ^ p + 2 h ^ p - 3 h
17. (a) P ] k g = ] 2k - 1 g ] k + 1 g2
(c)
1
(b) x = 0, -1 , 1
2
(b) x = 30c , 150c , 270c
18. (a) f ] u g = ] u - 1 g ] u - 3 g ] u - 9 g (b) x = 0, 1, 2

19. x = -5, -4, -2
20. i = 0c, 90c, 120c, 240c, 270c, 360c

21. (a) a = 1, b = 3, c = 4, d = - 2
(b) a = 1, b = -1, c = 8, d = -12
(c) a = 2, b = 0, c = -1, d = 6
(d) a = 1, b = 1, c = 11, d = -12
(e) a = 3, b = 0, c = -1, d = 8
(f) a = 1, b = 1, c = -4, d = -7
(g) a = 5, b = -2, c = -19, d = -43
(h) a = -1, b = 4, c = -1, d = -1
(i) a = -1, b = 3, c = 6, d = -4
(j) a = -1, b = -10, c = -27, d = -20
22. P ] x g = x 3 - x 2 - 12x
23. a = 1, b = -3, c = -6
24. P ] x g = 2x 4 - 4x 3 - 10x 2 + 12x

25. P(x) has degree 3.
Suppose P(x) has 4 zeros, a1, a2, a3 and a4.
Then _ x - a 1 i _ x - a 2 i _ x - a 3 i _ x - a 4 i is a factor of P(x).
So P ] x g = _ x - a 1 i _ x - a 2 i _ x - a 3 i _ x - a 4 i Q ] x g.
` P(x) has at least degree 4
But P(x) only has degree 3.
So it cannot have 4 zeros.
(d)
-2
837
838
(e)
(d) (i) A ] x g = x ] 2x - 5 g ] x + 3 g
-5
(ii)
50
-2
2.
(a) (i) P ] x g = x ] x - 4 g ] x + 2 g
(e) (i) P ] x g = - x 2 ] x - 3 g ] x + 1 g
(ii)
1
22
-3
(ii)
-2
-1
(b) (i) f ] x g = - x ] x - 1 g ] x + 5 g
(ii)
3.
(a) x = 0, 1, -2
y
(b)
-5
-2
(c) (i) P ] x g = x 2 ] x + 1 g ] x + 2 g
4.
(ii)
(a) P ] 2 g = 8 - 12 - 8 + 12
=0
(b) P ] x g = ] x - 2 g ] x - 3 g ] x + 2 g
y
(c)
12
-2
-1
x
-2
ANSWERS
5.
(a)
-4
(e)
-2
-24
-3
-18
y
(f)
(b)
-3
-1
-2
-8
-9
y
(c)
(g)
12
-4
(d)
(h)
12
3
-4
x
-3
839
840
(i)
(c) P ] 4 g = ] 4 + 1 g ] 4 - 4 g2
=0
Pl(x) = 3x 2 - 14x + 8
Pl(4) = 3 ] 4 g2 - 14 (4) + 8
=0
-2
6.
(a) ] x + 3 g 3 = x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27
Dividing by x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27 gives
x 4 + 7x 3 + 9x 2 - 27x - 54 = ^ x 3 + 9x 2 + 27x + 27 h ] x - 2 g
so ] x + 3 g 3 is a factor
(b) f ] x g = ] x - 2 g ] x + 3 g 3
(c) f ] -3 g = ] -3 - 2 g ] -3 + 3 g 3
=0
f l(x) = 4x 3 + 21x 2 + 18x - 27
f l(-3) = 4 ] -3 g3 + 21 ] -3 g2 + 18 (-3) - 27
=0
7.
(a) P ] x g = ] x - k g3 Q ] x g where Q(x) has degree n - 3

(b) P ] k g = ] k - k g3 Q ] k g
=0
Pl(x) = ulv + vlu
= Ql(x) ] x - k g3 + 3 ] x - k g2 Q (x)
Pl(k) = Ql(k) ] k - k g3 + 3 ] k - k g2 Q (k)
=0
8.
(a)
(j)
-1
Exercises 12.5
1.
(a) x = 3, double root (b) x = 0, 2, 7, single roots

(c) x = 0, double root, x = 3, single root
(d) x = - 2, single root, x = 2, double root
(e) x = - 2, triple root (f) x = 0, 2, single roots,
x = 1, double root
(g) x = - 1, 3, double roots (h) x = 0, triple root,
x = 4, double root (i) x = 1, triple root, x = - 5,
1
single root (j) x = 1 , triple root
2
2.
(a) (i) Positive (ii) Even (b) (i) Negative (ii) Odd
(c) (i) Negative (ii) Even (d) (i) Negative (ii) Odd
(e) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (f) (i) Positive (ii) Even
(g) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (h) (i) Negative (ii) Even
(i) (i) Positive (ii) Odd (j) (i) Positive (ii)Even
3.
P ] x g = ] x + 4 g 2 Yes, unique
4.
(a) P ] x g = k ] x - 1 g Not unique
5.
(a) ] x - 4 g2 = x 2 - 8x + 16
Dividing by x 2 - 8x + 16 gives
x 3 - 7x 2 + 8x + 16 = ^ x 2 - 8x + 16 h ] x + 1 g so ] x - 4 g 2 is
a factor
(b) P ] x g = ] x + 1 g ] x - 4 g2
(b)
x
(b) P ] x g = 5 ] x - 1 g3
ANSWERS
(c)
-1
11.
(d)
10.
12.
y
(e)
-3
13.
9.
841
842
14.
17. Odd function with positive leading coefficient starts

negative and turns around at the double root. It then
becomes positive as x becomes very large so it must
cross the x-axis again. So there is another root at k 2 -1
y
-1
15.
-2
18. Even function with negative leading coefficient is

negative at both ends. The triple root has a point of
inflexion so the curve must cross the x-axis to turn
negative again. So there is another root at k 2 -2
y
16.
-2
x
19. Odd function with positive leading coefficient starts
negative and turns around at both the double roots.
It then becomes positive as x becomes very large so it
must cross the x-axis again. So there is another root at
k 22
y
-3
ANSWERS
20. Odd function with negative leading coefficient starts

positive and turns around at the double root. It then
becomes negative as x becomes very large so it must
cross the x-axis again. So there is another root at k 2 1
y
Test yourself 12
1.
p ]xg = ]x + 3g]x - 3g]x + 5g]x - 1g
2.
(a) 3
3.
P (x) = (x - 6) (x - 1) (x + 2)
= x 3 - 5x 2 - 8x + 12
4.
(a) x 2 + 3x + 2
5.
(a) 3 (b) - 3
(b) 9
(c) 1
(d)
1
9
(b) p ] x g = ] x - 5 g ] x + 3 g ] x + 1 g ] x + 2 g
(c) - 3, 0, 1
(d) x 3
6.
k
Exercises 12.6
1.
(d) (i) 2
3.
(b) (i) -2 (ii) -
(a) (i) 2 (ii) 8
1
(ii) -3
4
2
3
(c) (i) -7 (ii) 1
(e) (i) -3 (ii) 0
2. (a) (i) -1 (ii) -2
1
(c) (i) (ii) 3
2
(iii) -8
(b) (i) 3 (ii) 5 (iii) 2
(iii) -1
(d) (i) -3 (ii) 0 (iii) -11 (e) (i) 0 (ii) 7 (iii) 3
(a) (i) -2 (ii) -1 (iii) 1 (iv) 5
(b) (i) 1 (ii) -3
(iii) -2 (iv) -7
(c) (i) 1 (ii) -3 (iii) -2 (iv) -4

1
(d) (i) 1 (ii) -2 (iii) -1 (iv) -1 (e) (i) 6 (ii) 0
2
1
(iii) 0 (iv) 3
4. (a) 5 (b) -5 (c) -1 (d) 35
2
3
5
1
1
(e) 200
5. (a)
(b) (c) (d) 2
2
2
3
1
(e) 2
2
6. (a) - 3 (b) - 5 (c) 1
7. k = - 26
3
1
1
8. a + b = 2, ab = -7 9. a + b = 2 , ab = 2
2
1
10. (a) k = 0 (b) k = 4 (c) k = 1 (d) k = - , 1
2
3
1
(e) k = 0
11. m = -9
12. a = -1 , b = -9
4
8
13. (a) P ] 1 g = 0
15. (a)
4
2
, q = -17
15
15
1 1
18. x = - , 1
2 2
(a) a = 3
(b) - 5
8.
p (-7) = ] -7 g3 - 7 ] -7 g2 + 5 (-7) - 4
= - 725 ! 0
9.
x = - 1, !3
10. a = 2, b = - 18, c = 40
11. x-intercepts -3, 2, 4; y-intercept 24

12. 3x 5 - 7x 3 + 8x 2 - 5
= (x - 2) (3x 4 + 6x 3 + 5x 2 + 18x + 36) + 67
13. x = 60c, 90c, 180c, 270c, 300c
15. 4, 5
16.
(b) a + b + c = 1, abc = -6
14. a = 1; a + b = -2
(b) p = 8
7.
19. x =
4
15
16. 1
1
1
,!
3
2
17. -5
1 2
20. x = ! 3 , -1 ,
2 3
17. k = - 14
18. 4
14. k = 7.4
843
844
19. P (a) = A (a) ] a - a g3

=0
Pl(x) = A (x) 3 ] x - a g2 + Al(x) ] x - a g3
Pl(a) = A (a) 3 ] a - a g2 + Al(a) ] a - a g3
=0
24.
20. f ] 5 g = 5 3 - 6 ] 5 g 2 + 12 ] 5 g - 35 = 0
x
21. (a) f ] 5 g = 5 3 - 7 ] 5 g 2 - 5 ] 5 g + 75
=0
(b) f l] x g = 3x 2 - 14x - 5
f l(5) = 3 ] 5 g2 - 14 (5) - 5
=0
(c) Double root at x = 5 (d) f ] x g = ] x + 3 g ] x - 5 g 2
y
22.
25. (a) a = 2, b = - 3, c = 4, d = 5
1.
P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x + 1 g2 ^ x 2 + x + 1 h
2.
(a) P (b) = ] b - b g7 Q (b)

=0
Pl(x) = ] x - b g7 Ql(x) + Q (x) 7 ] x - b g6
Pl(b) = ] b - b g7 Ql(b) + Q (b) 7 ] b - b g6
=0
(b) a = -7, b = - 1
23. (a) P ] x g = ] x + 6 g 3Q ] x g
(b)
3.
i = 0c , 45c , 60c , 120c , 180c , 225c , 240c , 300c , 360c
4.
(a) 3x - y + 2 = 0
(b) ^ 2, 8 h
5. (a)
a - 33
4
(b) a = -14
6.
(a) - 3
(b) 17
7. i = 90c, 210c, 330c
8. a = - 5
If x - a is a factor of P ] x g
Then P (x) = (x - a) Q (x)
P (a) = (a - a) Q (a)
`
=0
10. ^ - 1, -1 h, ^ -3, 5 h 11. P ] x g = - ] x + 1 g 2 ] x - 2 g 3
9.
-6
12.
a1
a2
ANSWERS
Chapter 13: Permutations and combinations
Exercises 13.1
16
33
1.
1
10 000
2.
5.
98.5%
6. (a)
8.
1
3
1
9. (a)
6
2
9
3.
4
7
3
7
7.
1
(b)
3
5
(c)
6
(b)
1
20 000
4.
3
20
6.
(a) 39 916 800
8.
5040
9. 6
12. 1.3 # 10 12
14. (a) 720
16. (a)
(b) 479 001 600
1
4
10. 720
13. (a) 39 916 800
(b) 120
(b)
(c) 48
3
31
(c)
(b)
8
15
(c)
3
5
(b)
19
43
(c)
67
86
1
62
(b)
11. (a)
1
15
13. (a)
29
86
15. (a)
1
6
(b)
4
5
(b) 36
17. (a)
20.
329
982
22. (a)
14
59
1
2
1
3
(c)
24. 19%
35
59
20. (a)
14. 32
1
2
24
59
(b)
20
31
(b)
(d)
(b)
1
2
(e)
23
44
16. (a)
21
44
(c)
38
59
4
31
23.
19.
(d)
5
18
(b) 91
(c)
6
19
11
31
5
24
(d)
1.
Exercises 13.2
456 976
5.
26 10 # 10 15
8. 300
3. 26 5 # 10 4
2. 67 600
6. 1 000
1
11. (a) 84 (b)
84
1
67 600 000
14.
1
17.
5184
18. 6
24. (a) 9900 (b)
1
9900
16. Yes
20. 360
23. 271 252 800

25.
1
720
Exercises 13.3
1.
2.
(a) 720 (b) 3 628 800 (c) 1 (d) 35 280 (e) 120
(f) 210 (g) 3 991 680 (h) 715 (i) 56 (j) 330
362 880
3. 720
1
12
18.
1
120
4. 479 001 600
8!
8 # 7 # 6 #...# 2 # 1
=
4#3#2#1
4!
=8#7#6#5
11!
11 # 10 # 9 #...# 2 # 1
=
6#5#4#3#2#1
6!
= 11 # 10 # 9 # 8 # 7
n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ... ] r + 1 g r ] r - 1 g ... 3.2.1
n!
=
r!
r ] r - 1 g ] r - 2 g ... 3.2.1
= n # ] n - 1 g # ] n - 2 g #...# ] r + 1 g
= n (n - 1) (n - 2) #...# (r + 1)
n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ... ] n - r + 1 g ] n - r g ... 3.2.1
n!
=
]n - r g!
] n - r g ] n - r - 1 g ] n - r - 2 g ... 3.2.1
= n ] n - 1 g ] n - 2 g ... ] n - r + 1 g
5. 120
5!
= 20
]5 - 2 g!
6!
= 120
]6 - 3 g!
(d)
10!
= 640 800
] 10 - 7 g !
(f)
7!
= 2520
]7 - 5 g!
(h)
11!
= 6 652 800
] 11 - 8 g !
(j)
15. 7
19. 6840
22. 210
(b)
(a)
7. 1 000 000
12. (a) 10 000 000 (b) 1000
13. Yes
21. 7 880 400
4. 260
3
10.
10 000
9. 64
15. 5040
Exercises 13.4
25. 0.51
1.
(b) 3 628 800
19. 6 227 020 800
12. 8
(d)
19
31
(c)
99
124
(d)
18. (a)
21. (a)
(b)
1
2
11. 5040
1
24
17. (a) 479 001 600

10. (a)
7. 40 320
(b)
(g)
(e)
8!
= 336
]8 - 3 g!
(c)
9!
= 60 480
]9 - 6g!
8!
= 20 160
]8 - 6g!
(i)
9!
=9
]9 - 1 g!
6!
= 720
]6 - 6 g!
2.
(a) 650
(b) 15 600
3.
(a) 648 (b) 432 (c) 144 4. (a) 20 (b) 4 (c) 12 (d) 8
5.
(a) 24
7.
(a) 120
8.
(a) 479 001 600 (b) 1320
9.
(a) 56 (b) 336 (c) 1680
(b) 24
(c) 358 800
6. (a) 4536
(b) 48
(c) 96
(d) 7 893 600
(b) 2016
(d) 72
(c) 3528
(e) 60
10. (a) 60 480 (b) 2520 (c) 907 200 (d) 151 200
(f) 453 600 (g) 360 (h) 2520 (i) 59 875 200
(j) 90 720
11. (a) 24 (b) 5040
(e) 39 916 800
12. (a) 6
(b) 720
(c) 40 320
(c) 5040
(e) 60
(d) 3 628 800
(d) 362 880
(e) 3 628 800
845
846
13. (a) 181 440 (b) 19 958 400 (c) 20 160

(d) 1 814 400 (e) 239 500 800
n!
' (n - r) !
]n - n + r g!
n!
1
=
#
]n - r g!
r!
n!
=
] n - r g !r!
n
n
Pn - r
Pr
=
]n - r g!
r!
=
14. (a) 720 (b) 120 15. (a) 362 880 (b) 40 320
16. (a) 3 628 800 (b) 362 880 (c) 181 440
17. (a) 24 (b) 12 (c) 24
18. (a) 720 (b) 240 (c) 480 (d) 144
20.
2
9
21. (a) 20! (b) 5!8!7!3! (c)
22. (a) 60 (b) 48 (c) 36 (d)

24.
1
336
P3
=
=
=
=
P5
5!
=
=
=
=
Pr + r n Pr - 1 =
=
1
6
=
=
3!
27. (a) 720 (b) 120 (c) 192
28. (a) x! (b) ] x - 1 g !

(e) ] x - 3 g ] x - 2 g !
29. (a)
23.
7
20
Pr =
25. (a) 40 320 (b) 30 240 (c) 21 600
26. (a) 20 (b) 60
1
5
n+1
30.
19. (a) 3 628 800 (b) 362 880 (c) 28 800
P3
3!
3!
8!
' 3!
5!
8!
1
#
5!
3!
8!
5!3!
8!
]8 - 5 g!
5!
8!
' 5!
3!
8!
1
#
3!
5!
8!
5!3!
8
=
=
=
=
`
1.
P5
Pr
=
=
=
=
Pn - r
]n - r g!
n+1
Pr = Pr + r Pr - 1
Exercises 13.5
n!
]n - r g!
r!
n!
' r!
]n - r g!
n!
1
#
]n - r g!
r!
n!
] n - r g !r!
n!
(n - 5 n - r ? ) !
]n - r g!
(a)
9!
= 126
] 9 - 5 g !5!
(c)
8!
= 56
] 8 - 3 g !3 !
(e)
11!
= 462
] 11 - 5 g !5!
(b)
(d)
12!
] 12 - 7 g !7!
(a) (i) 1 (ii) 1 (iii) 1 (iv) 1

n
n
(b) (i) C 0 = 1 (ii) C n = 1
3.
(a) 28
4.
(a) Number of arrangements = 15
(b) 84
(c) 462
= 792
10!
= 210
] 10 - 4 g !4!
2.
5!
r!
(d) 3! ] x - 2 g !
8!
]8 - 3g!
(b)
(c) 2! ] x - 2 g !
]n + 1g!
]n + 1 - r g!
n!
n!
+r
]n - r g!
^n - 5r - 1?h !
n!
n!
+r
]n - r g!
^n - 5r - 1?h !
n!
rn!
+
]n - r g! ]n - r + 1g!
] n + 1 - r g n!
rn!
+
]n + 1 - r g]n - r g! ]n + 1 - r g!
] n + 1 - r g n!
rn!
+
]n + 1 - r g!
]n + 1 - r g!
n $ n! + n! - rn! + rn!
]n + 1 - r g!
nn! + n!
]n + 1 - r g!
] n + 1 g n!
]n + 1 - r g!
]n + 1g!
]n + 1 - r g!
(v) 1
(d) 5005
(e) 38 760
R1R2
R2R3
R3B1
B1B2
R1R3
R2B1
R3B2
B1B3
R1B1
R2B2
R3B3
R1B2
R2B3
R1B3
(b) 77 520
B2B3
ANSWERS
5.
15 504
6. 210
8.
(a) 720 (b) 120
10. 296 010
7. 2 598 960
10!
b 10 l =
4
] 10 - 4 g !4!
10!
=
6!4!
9!
9!
b9 l + b9 l =
+
4
3
] 9 - 4 g !4! ] 9 - 3 g !3!
9!
9!
=
+
5!4! 6!3!
6 # 9!
4 # 9!
=
+
6 # 5!4! 4 # 6!3!
6 # 9! 4 # 9!
=
+
6!4!
6!4!
6 # 9! + 4 # 9!
=
6!4!
10 # 9!
=
6!4!
10!
=
6!4!
10 l b 9 l b 9 l
b
`
4 = 4 + 3
28.
n!
bn l =
r
] n - r g !r!
n!
b n l=
n-r
(n - 5 n - r ? ) ! ] n - r g !
n!
=
]n - n + r g! ]n - r g!
n!
=
r! ] n - r g !
n
n
` br l = bn - r l
9. (a) 2184 (b) 364
11. 4845
13. 23 535 820
27.
12. 2925
14. (a) 792 (b)
5
12
(c)
5
33
15. (a) 100 947 (b) 462 (c) 924 (d) 36 300 (e) 26 334
(f) 74 613 (g) 27 225
16. $105
17. (a) 2 042 975 (b) 55 (c) 462 462 (d) 30 030
18. (a) 3003 (b) (i) 2450 (ii) 588 (iii) 56 (iv) 1176
19. (a) 1.58 # 10 10
(e) 12 271 512
(b) 286 (c) 15 682 524 (d) 5 311 735
20. (a) 395 747 352 (b) 32 332 300 (c) 4 084 080
(d) 145 495 350 (e) 671 571 264
21. (a) 170 544 (b) 36 (c) 20 160 (d) 17 640 (e) 6300
22. (a) 7 (b) 27 132 (c) 13 860 (d) 20 790 (e) 27 720
23. (a) 5 (b) 360 (c) 126
24. (a) 792 (b) 792
(c)
25.
12!
] 12 - 5 g !5!
12!
=
7!5!
12!
12
C7 =
] 12 - 7 g !7!
12!
=
5!7!
12
12
` C5 = C7
12
9
8
C5 =
C 6 = 84
C 6 + C 5 = 28 + 56
= 84
9
8
8
`
C6 = C6 + C5
26.
13!
b 13 l =
7
] 13 - 7 g !7!
13!
=
6!7!
13!
b 13 l =
6
] 13 - 6 g !6!
13!
=
7!6!
13
13
`b 7 l=b 6 l
29.
Pr =
n!
]n - r g!
n!
] n - r g !r!
n!
=
]n - r g!
r! n C r = r! #
` n Pr = r! n C r
n!
n
30. b l =
k
] n - k g !k!
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
bn - 1 l + bn - 1 l =
+
k-1
k
] n - 1 - ] k - 1 g g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - 1 - k g !k!
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - 1 - k g !k!
]n - k g]n - 1 g!
k ]n - 1 g!
=
+
k ] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - k g ] n - 1 - k g !k!
k ]n - 1 g! ]n - k g]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g !k!
] n - k g !k!
]k + n - k g]n - 1 g!
=
] n - k g !k!
n ]n - 1 g!
=
] n - k g !k!
n!
=
] n - k g !k!
n
=b l
k
847
848
Test yourself 13
1.
13
(b)
22
4
2. (a)
11
(a) 5040 (b) 720
3.
(a) 24 (b) 12
5.
(a) 65 780 (b) 25 200 (c) 252
7.
120
17
(c)
22
4.
(a) ] n - 1 g !
(b)
6.
(a) 792
5
44
4. (a) 720 (b) 120
8. 2.4 # 10 18
9.
7.
6. 29%
1
9
10. 142 506
11. 990
12. (a) 40 320 (b) 362 880
(c) 80 640 (d) 168
13. (a) 19 958 400 (b) 4 989 600 (c) 181 440
(d) 9 979 200 (e) 181 440
n!
n
14. b l =
k
] n - k g ! k!
15. (a) 151 200 (b) 881 280
16. 1.08 # 10 17
20. (a) 1
n
n!
c m=
] n - 0 g ! 0!
0
n!
=
n! 0 !
=1
n!
n
c m=
n
] n - n g ! n!
n!
=
0!n!
=1
n
n
` c m=c m
0
n
(a) 60 (b) 72 (c) 30
3.
n!
bn l =
k
] n - k g ! k!
Pr =
(d)
21
40
9.
(a) 94 109 400 (b) 7920 (c) 5 527 200

(e) 37 643 760 (f) 23 289 700
(b)
(c)
3
40
(a) 1 860 480
4
35
(b)
1
4
8.
(d) 93 024
17
35

1.
1
2
4.
(a) 362 880
2. P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x + 1 g ] x + 4 g 3. y = 3x 4
(b) 4320
7. (a) - 4
5. -1, 2
(c) 282 240

3
(c)
4
6.
^ 19, 10 h
8.
x 2 + y 2 = 2; circle centre ^ 0, 0 h radius
9.
3060c; 161c3l
d=
(b) 2
(d) 10
2
| ax 1 + by 1 + c |
a2 + b2
40
10
=4
= radius
` line is tangent
=
2. (a) 360 (b) 60
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
bn - 1 l + bn - 1 l =
+
k-1
k
(n - 1 - 5 k - 1 ? ) ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - 1 - k g ! k!
]n - 1 g!
]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - k - 1 g ! k!
]n - k g]n - 1g!
k ]n - 1g!
=
+
k ] n - k g ! ] k - 1 g ! ] n - k g ] n - k - 1 g ! k!
k ]n - 1 g! ]n - k g]n - 1 g!
=
+
] n - k g ! k!
] n - k g ! k!
k ] n - 1 g !+ ] n - k g ] n - 1 g !
=
] n - k g ! k!
] n - 1 g !5 k + n - k ?
=
] n - k g ! k!
] n - 1 g !n
=
] n - k g ! k!
n!
=
] n - k g ! k!
n
n-1
n-1
` bk l = bk - 1 l + b k l
(b) 246
10. Distance from centre ^ 0, 0 h to line is
1.
5. (a) 90 720
` n Pr = r! n C r
10. (a)
18. (a) 15 (b) 181 440 19. 37 015 056
k!
n!
]n - r g!
n!
r! n C r = r!
] n - r g !r!
n!
=
]n - r g!
n
17. (a) 1 709 316 (b) 203 490 (c) 167 580
(b)
(b)
]n - k + 1g!
11. k = -2
1
2
12. x = 74c (+s in alternate segment)

y = (180c - 74c) ' 2
= 53c (+ sum in isosceles D)
13. 120
14. x 1 - 2, x 2 2
15. P ] x g = ] x - 2 g2 Q ] x g
Pl(x) = ] x - 2 g2 Ql(x) + 2 (x - 2) Q (x)
P (2) = ] 2 - 2 g 2Q (2)
=0
Pl(2) = ] 2 - 2 g2 Ql(2) + 2 (2 - 2) Q (2)
=0
16. (a) 1
17. 126
(b) 3
(c) ab = -
18. 7
1
,a+b=0
10
19. 7.1 m
20. 131c 38l
ANSWERS
31. Domain: all real x; range: y $ - 3
21. (a) P ] x g = ] x - 1 g ] x - 3 g2
(b)
y
32.
+ACB
+ABC
AC
` by AAS, DABC
33. 46 m2
1
= +ECD ^ vertically opposite angles h

= +CED (alternate angles AB||ED)
= CD ^ given h
/ DCDE
34. x + y - 3 = 0
35. x 2 - 12x + 36 = ] x - 6 g2
36. 41c 38l
37. y $ 2.5, y # - 6.5

38.
-9
22.
4 1
39. d - 1 , 7 n
7 7
40. (a) 9x - y + 16 = 0
(c) Q = ^ - 20, 0 h
(b) x + 9y + 20 = 0
(d) 27c 21l
41. Domain: all real x ! ! 2; range: all real y

42. (a) sin ^ a - b h
43. (a) 149.1 m
23. P ] -2 g = - 55
P ] x g = ] x + 2 g ^ 2x 2 - 11x + 23 h - 55 on division
` P ] - 2 g is the remainder
24. (a) abc + acd + bcd + abd = -
d
=0
a
(b) 1 (c) -1
25. P ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2 Q ] x g
P ]3 g = ]3 - 3 g 2 Q ]3 g
= 0Q ] 3 g
=0
Pl] x g = 2 ] x - 3 g Q ] x g + ] x - 3 g 2 Ql] x g
Pl(3) = 2 (3 - 3) Q (3) + ] 3 - 3 g 2 Ql(3)
= 2 (0) Q (3) + 0Ql(3)
=0
45.
(b) cos 45c =
(b) 46c 48l
(c)
^ 3 + 1 h2
8
44. X = ^ 7.5,17.5 h
46. x 11, x 21.6
48. (a) x - 8y + 129 = 0
47. x = 150c
1
1
n
(b) R = d 7 , 17
64
8
t 4 + 2t 3 - 6t 2 + 2t + 1
^ 1 + t2 h 2
50. f ] x g = 3x 3 - 7x 2 - 5x - 3
f ]3g = 3]3g3 - 7]3g2 - 5]3g - 3
= 81 - 63 - 15 - 3
=0
So x - 3 is a factor of f ] x g = 3x 3 - 7x 2 - 5x - 3
49.
51. a = 1, b = - 3, c = -1
52. 3x - y - 1 = 0, x + 3y - 7 = 0
26. 1 884 960 27. Radius 3; x 2 + y 2 = 9
53. 2175 cm3; 1045 cm2
28. a = 3, b = -14, c = 9
54. y 1 - 3, - 2 1 y 1 -1
29. (a) 8.1 m (b) 35c 46l
55.
56. (a) x = 60c, 120c, 240c, 300c
30. (a) !1
(b) P (1) = ^ 1 2 - 1 h (1 2 + 5)
=0
2
3
Pl(x) = 6x ^ x 2 - 1 h (x 2 + 5) + ^ x 2 - 1 h $ 2x
3
Pl(1) = 6 (1) ^ 1 2 - 1 h (1 2 + 5) + ^ 1 2 - 1 h $ 2 (1)

=0
2
(c) x = 270c
56
65
(b) x = 0c, 90c, 360c
849
850
57. (a) 0
(b)
60. x = - 6.5, y = 2.8
61. y = - x 4
62. (a) 4
(d) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
63. P ] x g = ] x - 2 g ^ x 2 + 1 h + 5
65. P ] x g = - ] x - 5 g ] x + 1 g 2
58. i = 90c # n + ] - 1 g n # 135c
59. 8c 8l
1
2
(e) 22
64. 15 504
66. 63
68. (b)
69. (c)
70. (a), (b), (d)
71. (b)
72. (b)
73. (a)
75. (d)
67. (a)
74. (d)

Maths in Focus Ext 1 Preliminary-4

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Maths in Focus Ext 1 Preliminary-4

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Mathematics Extension 1

Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course

Text 2010 Grove and Associates Pty Ltd

FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

Chapter 1: Basic Arithmetic

Practice Assessment Task Set 1

Chapter 7: Linear Functions

Chapter 11: Locus and the Parabola

FEATURES OF THIS BOOK

Chapter 1: Basic arithmetic

Real functions (4.1 4.4)

Chapter 5: Functions and graphs

Trigonometric ratios (5.1 5.5)

Linear functions (6.1 6.5, 6.7)

Chapter 7: Linear functions

The quadratic polynomial and the parabola (9.1 9.5)

Chapter 10: The quadratic function

Plane geometry (2.1 2.4)

Tangent to a curve and derivative of a function (8.1 8.9)

Chapter 8: Introduction to calculus

Circle geometry (2.6 2.10E)

Chapter 9: Properties of the circle

Further trigonometry (5.6 5.9E)

Angles between two lines (6.6E)

Chapter 7: Linear functions

Internal and external division of lines into given ratios (6.7E)

Chapter 7: Linear functions

Parametric representation (9.6E)

Chapter 11: Locus and the parabola

Permutations and combinations

Chapter 13: Permutations and combinations

Polynomials (16.1 16.3E)

Chapter 12: Polynomials 1

I hear and I forget

Study in a quiet environment

Assessment tasks and exams

Good luck with your studies!

Indices: More than one index (plural)

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

Integers are whole numbers that may be positive, negative or zero.

Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course

What is the correct answer?

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

` 24 629 = 25 000 to the nearest thousand

Different calculators use

Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course

2. Write 850 to the nearest hundred.

Drop off the 2 and all digits

Check this on your

= 1.70 correct to 2 decimal places

Chapter 1 Basic Arithmetic

While using a xed number of decimal places on the display, the

State which numbers are rational

Dont round off at

Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course

A crowd of 10 739 spectators

A school has 623 students. What

A bank made loans to the value

Evaluate correct to 2 decimal

13. Round off 32.569148 to the

1.7 2 + 8.9 2 - 3.94 2

Round off 1289 to the nearest

Write 947 to the nearest ten.

Round off 3200 to the nearest