Nature Inspired Design

Application over aircraft design & geometry

Authors: Vincent Audoire, Sahire Dogru, Chi-Ju Chiu

Content
I. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 3
II. GENETIC ALGORITHM & AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY......................................... 5
I. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 5
II. DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................. 7
1. Genetic Algorithm ................................................................................................................. 7
By maintaining a population of solutions, genetic algorithms can search for many Pareto-optimal
solutions in parallel. This characteristic makes GA very attractive for solving MO problems. ............... 8
2. Multi-Objective optimization .................................................................................................. 8
Multi-Objective optimization & Evolutionary Algorithm: ........................................................................... 8

3.

Artificial Neural Network (ANN) ........................................................................................... 8

CASE OF STUDY ................................................................................................................... 9
1. Multi Target Optimization of Turbojet Engine with Multi Target Genetic Algorithm ................. 9
The model used .......................................................................................................................................... 9
NSGA-II .................................................................................................................................................. 10
Two-by-Two optimization : Optimization of Thermal efficiency ( ) and specific fuel Consumption (SFC) 12
Two-by-Two optimization : Optimization of Specific Thrust (ST) and thermal efficiency ( ) .................... 13
Two-by-Two optimization : Optimization of Specific Thrust (ST) and specific fuel Consumption (SFC) ..... 13
Optimization according to the three target (Specific thrust, specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency) ... 14

2. Multiobjective Evolutionary Computation for Supersonic Wing-Shape Optimization ................ 15

3. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization of Aircraft Wing Planform Based on Evolutionary
Algorithms ................................................................................................................................. 17
Elitist Models ............................................................................................................................. 18
4. Application of Micro Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks for Airfoil Design Optimization 20
III. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 23

Figures
Figure 1 Engraving from the edition "mthamorphoses". Translation by Renouard. .............................................. 3
Figure 2 Leonardo Da Vinci's conceptual design for a flapping-wing flying machine (1490) ................................ 4
Figure 3: Dassault mirage G and an eagle diving .................................................................................................... 4
Figure 4 the procedure of genetic algorithm ............................................................................................................ 7
Figure 5 : Artificial neural network scheme ............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 6 : NSGA-II procedure................................................................................................................................ 11
Figure 7 Pareto points of Specific fuel consumption and Thermal efficiency ....................................................... 12
Figure 8 Pareto points of specific thrust and thermal efficiency ............................................................................ 13
Figure 9 Pareto points of specific thrust and specific fuel consumption................................................................ 13
Figure 10: Pareto point of three target function: SFC & etta T .............................................................................. 14
Figure 11: Pareto point of three target function: ST & etta T ................................................................................ 14
Figure 12: Pareto point of three target function: SFC & ST .................................................................................. 14

I. Introduction
This paper will deal with evolutionary computation and aircraft geometry design. But what is exactly aircraft
geometry design?
Aircraft geometry design is a really wide area. The process of designing an aircraft start at the very basic
aspect of the aircraft. Obviously, a commercial airliner will be different than a fighter or a bomber. The
difference between an airliner and a fighter will be because of the needs and constraints. We dont want to have
a commercial airliner that can carry only 2 passengers; we dont want a fighter who can hold 400 people. We can
say that the process of designing an aircraft takes all the needs and all the constraints in order to make a scope
statement.
How can we relate aircraft geometry design to nature inspired design?
Obviously, humanity has always tried to build the first aircraft as taking inspiration from the nature. For
example, the Greek mythology, Icarus has tried to escape from the Minotaur by building two pairs of wings by
taking inspiration of the birds.
The myth of Icarus is an ancient Cretan myth that was first transcribed by Ovid, a Latin poet who lived from 43
B.C to A.D 17. In fact, we estimate the origin of the myth around -750 B.C.

Figure 1 Engraving from the edition "mthamorphoses". Translation by Renouard.

In his work, Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 1519), has also take inspiration over the nature in order to design the
first sketch of something that look like an aircraft.

Figure 2 Leonardo Da Vinci's conceptual design for a flapping-wing flying machine (1490)

But, Its not only the early aircrafts sketch who have taken inspiration over nature in order to design aircraft.
Nowadays, we still use nature as a source of inspiration in order to build aircraft. As an example we can suggest
the bat-like aircraft Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit
But we dont only take inspiration over the nature for the global shape of the aircrafts; we are also using the
behaviours of the animals in order to improve our aircraft. For example, variable geometry wings aircrafts has
taken inspiration over eagles (such as the golden eagle that can reach the speed of 320 km/h1 during a dive when
they hold theirs wings close to their body in order to minimize the air resistance.

Figure 3: Dassault mirage G and an eagle diving

But birds or other living form is not the only source of inspiration for designing aircrafts. Nowadays, the
evolutionary algorithms are used in order to optimize the aircraft geometry and shape.
As we can see, the bird that are flying nowadays are the result of a long natural selection that take thousands
years. Why not use this natural selection and use it in order to optimise the shape of our aircrafts?

Source: http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Aquila_chrysaetos.html

II. Genetic Algorithm & Aircraft Industry

i.

Introduction, what is the evolutionary computation

Evolutionary computation is a field that has grown rapidly in recent years. It is consist of some of major
branches such as evolution strategies, evolutionary programming, genetic algorithm and genetic programing.
Evolutionary computation that consists of theory of evolution as an algorithm is the study of computational
systems that use ideas and get inspiration from natural evolution and adaptation. It aims at understanding such
computational systems and developing more robust and efficient ones for solving complex real-word problems.
Evolutionary computation system related to problem that is generation of a population of structure and repeat is
steps until satisfied
1.
2.
3.
4.

Test the structure for quality

Select structures to reproduce
Produce new variations of selected structures
Replace old structures with new ones

The problems that are real-word problems deal with by such computational systems are generally highly
nonlinear and contain inaccurate and noisy data.
Traditional computational systems contain systems interested in accurate and exact computation but brittle. They
are designed for processing inaccurate, noisy and complex data. For instance, the classical simplex method is
invaluable mathematical programming technique that has been applied to numerous mathematical programming
techniques successfully. On the other hand, a problem has to be formulated in exact and accurate mathematical
concepts. If objective function is be expressed mathematically, it dose not very well. Evolutionary computation
is a area where problems should be studied in depth.
Evolutionary computation techniques consist of ideas and inspirations from molecular evolution, population
genetics, and immunology. The terminology in evolutionary computation has similarities in these fields.
Evolutionary computation helps us understand some biological phenomena in a better way and its main purpose
is not to develop a biologically plausible models. The main purpose is to develop robust and efficient
computational for solving real word problems.
Evolutionary programming was first proposed by Fogel in mid 1960s as one way to achieve artificial
intelligence. After, late 1980s, evolutionary programming included various combinatorial and numerical
optimization problems.

Evolution strategies represent a problems natural representation instead of the genetic representation of
individuals. An individual is represented as a vector of real numbers rather than a binary string for numerical
optimization problems. Evolution strategies generally related to Gaussian Mutation, a deterministic selection
scheme, discrete or intermediate recombination. Evolution strategies do not simulate evolution at the genetic
level.
Evolutionary programming similar to evolution strategies in terms of algorithm. It uses vectors of real numbers
as individuals, Gaussian mutation and self-adaptation. The most noticeable differences between evolutionary
programming and evolution strategies are recombination and selection.
Genetic algorithms are quite different from evolution strategies and evolutionary programming in terms of
individual representation and search operators. Genetic algorithms emphasise genetic encoding of potential
solutions into chromosomes and apply genetic operators to these chromosomes and apply. This is equivalent to
transforming the original problem from one space to another space. It is obvious that the genetic representation
will be crucial to the success of genetic algorithms. A good representation will make a problem easier to solve. A
poor representation will do the opposite. The issues faced by genetic algorithms in general are the same as those

that have haunted many artificial intelligence problems for years, representation and search. In other words, a
crucial issue in applying genetic algorithms to a problem is how to find a representation that can be searced
efficiently.
The theorical work in evolutionary computation has concentrated on three main topics. The first one is the
theoretical analysis of convergence rate and convergence rate of evolution strategies, evolutionary programming,
and genetic algorithms. The second main topic in evolutionary computation theory is the study of problem
hardness with respect to evolutionary algorithms. That, is the aim is to investigate what kind of problems is hard
for evolutionary algorithms and what is easy for them. The third main topic in evolutionary computation theory
is computational complexity of evolutionary algorithms. Evolutionary algorithms have been used extensively in
both combinational and numerical optimization in spite of the original emphasis on search and adaptation.
Evolutionary optimization is probably the most active and productive area in evolutionary computation.
Evolutionary optimization work belongs to numerical optimization. When genetic algorithms are applied to
numerical function optimization, vector of real numbers are usually encoded into binary bit strings. Evolution
strategies and evolutionary programming use vectors of real numbers directly as individuals and thus avoid the
burden of finding a suitable encoding method for individuals. Also, numerical optimization, evolutionary
algorithms have been used to tackle various combinational optimization problem, such as the travelling salesman
problem, transportation problem, switchbox routing in integrated circuits, cutting stock problem, lecture room
assignment problem.
Evolutionary learning includes many topics, such as learning classifier systems, evolutionary artificial neural
networks, co-evolutionary learning, and self-adaptive systems. Evolutionary learning can be regarded as the
evolutionary approach to machine learning. Evolutionary learning classifier systems consists of several steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Allow the detectors to code the current environment status and place the resulting messages on the
message list.
Determine the set of classifiers that are matched by the current messages.
Resolve conflicts caused by limited message list size or contradictory actions.
Remove those messages that match the conditions of firing classifiers from the message list.
Add the messages suggested by firing messages to the list.
Allow the effectors that are matched by the current message list to take actions in the environment.
If a payoff signal is received from the environment, assign credit to classifiers.
Goto Step 1.
MUTATION OPERATORS
Mutation operators used for vectors of real values are usually based on certain probability
distributions, such as uniform, lognormal, Gauss and Cauchy distribution. Mutation for binary
strings is a lot simpler. It is usually a bit-flipping operation. There are different kind of mutations;
Gaussian Mutation, Cauchy Mutation.

Gaussian A mutation operator that adds a unit Gaussian distributed random value to the chosen gene. The
new gene value is clipped if it falls outside of the user-specified lower or upper bounds for that gene. This
mutation operator can only be used for integer and float genes.2

Source: http://www.nd.com/products/genetic/mutation.htm

ii.

Definitions
1.

Genetic Algorithm

Through the progress of computer computation ability and electronic technology, there are more and more
efficient approaches that are inspired by the nature used to solve or seek the best-N solution sets. For example,
Simulated Annealing (SA), Great Deluge Algorithm (GDA), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Neural Network
(NN), and Genetic Algorithms (GAs).
Genetic algorithm is one of the best mechanisms for multi-objective optimization. It imitates the rules in the
nature --Strongest the fittest. Through competing and surviving, species left would have better chances to live
and get rid of worse genes gradually. Moreover, genes need Crossover and Mutation to make the evolution have
explosive breakthrough to get the best change to adjust to suit in the environment now.
Like Chromosome contains a string of genes to decide its genotype in genetics or phenotype in nature, strings of
genes represent sets of problems, and use them to identify the type of the problems according to the gene values
and chromosomes length. It is called Encoding. It could be implemented by multiple methods. One is coded by
a finite-length string of binary numbers, or use real numbers corresponds to the number of design variables.
After using Encoding, Crossover, Mutation, Ranking, and Choosing are operations that will be continuously
done afterwards in genetic algorithms repeatedly to make evolution that leads to the optimal solution sets.

Figure 4 the procedure of genetic algorithm

As written above, there is no best solution, but only Trade-off solution set, also called Pareto-optimal Front
Solution Set, according to different circumstances in each case. Genetic Algorithms here could be very efficient
by sampling solutions uniformly from Pareto-optimal set. Each point in this set is optimal in the sense that no
improvement can be achieved in one objective component that leads no degradation in at least one of the
remaining components. In Pareto-optimal Front Solution Set, non-dominated solution sets are found to choose
optimal solution set within them. Non-dominated solution sets are decided by comparing one solution set with
another. If solution set A is superior to set B in every condition, then, set A dominates set B. Therefore, optimal
solution set is chosen within non-dominated solution sets.
Fitness Value is another main factor of judging if the set is the optimal solution set other than non-dominated
solution sets. There are several methods to choose in practical due to different background and needs. For

example, judging by distance between individuals is one way, or deducts dominated sets number by the number
of total solution sets to get the fitness value.
By maintaining a population of solutions, genetic algorithms can search for many Pareto-optimal solutions in
parallel. This characteristic makes GA very attractive for solving MO problems.
2.

Multi-Objective optimization

A Multi-objective Optimization problem (MOOP) is a problem that deals with several objectives, several
constraints and several variables. The objectives are related to each other and could be conflicting, that mean that
increasing a certain objective could decrease another one. In opposition with a single-optimization problem
where the solution will be to find a unique solution (most of the time a minima or a maxima), with a mutliobjective optimization we will not end up with a single solution but several different solutions.
Then, the solution that we will judge optimal will be regarding to the criteria that we judge more important than
the other one. This is part of the pareto-optimal solution.
Theses particular types of optimization are widely used in the industry, we can find them in fields such as
Economy, Finance
Multi-Objective optimization & Evolutionary Algorithm:
Natures inspired Algorithm (Evolutionary Algorithm) are very popular to solve MOOP. The main advantage of
using evolutionary algorithms to solve MMOP is that in opposition with classical optimization method where a
point-by-point approach is used, at each iteration we take the last solution, modify it in order to end up with a
(hopefully) better solution. That available optimized method could only find a single optimized solution in a
single simulation run. EAs uses a population of solution in each integration instead of a single solution. If The
optimization problem has only a single optimum, we can expect the EAs algorithm to converge to this optimum
(like a classical optimization method), if there are several optimum, the EAs algorithm will also converge to
them an we are going to end with a bunch of solutions (where classical optimization method can only converge
to just one of the optima).
3.

Artificial Neural Network (ANN)

Usually called neural network (NN), is a mathematical model or computational model that is inspired by the
structure and/or functional aspects of biological neural networks. A neural network consists of an interconnected
group of artificial neurons, and it processes information using a connectionist approach to computation. In most
cases an ANN is an adaptive system that changes its structure based on external or internal information that
flows through the network during the learning phase. Modern neural networks are non-linear statistical data
modeling tools. They are usually used to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs or to find
patterns in data.

Figure 5: Artificial neural network scheme

Case of study
1.

Multi Target Optimization of Turbojet Engine with Multi Target Genetic Algorithm

Nature inspired design is not only used for optimising the global shape of the aircraft. The industry also uses
evolutional computation in order to optimize the aircraft engine. In the paper of M.R Andalibi, S.H Azizi,
P.Mohajeri.Khameneh and M.Abdollahi its the turbojet engine thats been optimised using nature inspired
design techniques.
In non-continues or non-derivatives functions, using gradient methods in order to optimise the solution seems
impossible. Therefore, genetic algorithm can solve those particular kinds of problems.
As we already said, evolutionary algorithms take their inspiration from the natural selection and the main
difference with classical optimisation methods (such as gradient method) is that in nature inspired optimization,
we optimise by the function and not by their gradients. And with that we will find some solutions that will be
impossible to find using classical optimisation technique.
Because a Turbojet engine is a very complex system, the optimization will be a multi-target optimisation. That
target may be related to each other making the system even more complex to solve, therefore changing a target
could suffer another one. Then, we will not necessarily end up with a unique good solution with several different
solutions that are going to be good in some way. The final selected solution will be regarding to our criteria that
we judge more important that other (a criteria could be: the fuel consumption, the noise, the thrust ). The
tentative solutions that we will end up are going to be called non-dominated, Pareto optimal or Pareto efficient.
The model used
The model used in this paper will be optimized in ideal condition.
The input parameters of the paper are the following:

Heating value:
Temperature coefficient
Burner exit total temperature
Inlet air temperature
Flight Mach temperature
because we are working on a subsonic turbojet

The output parameters are the following:

Specific thrust
Fuel/air ration
Thrust specific fuel consumption

NSGA-II
The genetic algorithm used in order to solve this problem is the NSGA-II (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm-II).
The NSGA-II work over a population of size N. population mean the entire group of genotypes or as we can
say variables that we are going to work on. Each solution (each individual of the population) will be compared
with every other solution to find if it is dominated.
On each solution we will calculate two entities:

, The numbers of solutions who dominate this solution p

, A set of solution that the solution p dominate

Main loop of the NSGA-II.

We create an initial random population P0. After that we will sort the population using the fast-non-dominated
sort algorithm (as follow)
the algorithm of the fast-non-dominated-sort :
FAST-NON-DOMINATED-SORT ALGORITHM
for each

for each
if

// if p dominate q
// add q to the set of solutions dominated by p

else if
//increment the counter of solutions that p dominate
if

// if we are in the first-front case

i=1
while
for each
for each
if

//q belong to the next front

i=i+1

each solution get a fitness or a rank assigned. Basically, 1 is the best level, 2 the second best level After that
we use a binary tournament selection / recombinaition and mutation are used in order to create an offspring
population Q0 the same size of the initial population P0.

For the tth generation the algorithm work as follow:

1.
2.
3.

4.

We combine the offspring and the parent in order to form a unique population
the
size of this population is: 2N
The new population
is sorted according to nondomination3
Now we are sorted all of the individuals of the population in different set: The best nondominated
set is named
and must be emphasized more than any other solution in the combined
population. If the size of
is smaller than N, then, we will choose all the members of
in order
to build the new population
. If we still need some individuals to complete our population
(because
) we choose some indivuals from the subsequent nondominated front ( , ,)
One we have a new population
of size N, we use the new population in order to create a new
offspring population
and the algorithm is going back to step 1.

Figure 6 : NSGA-II procedure

See figure 3 and the fast-non-dominated-sort algorithm

Here is the pseudo code about the NSGA-II over the tth generation :

Two-by-Two optimization : Optimization of Thermal efficiency (

) and specific fuel Consumption (SFC)

Figure 7 Pareto points of Specific fuel consumption and Thermal efficiency

This is the collection of point resulting from the optimization of two target function SFC and !t generated by
NSGA-II. We can see 5 optional design vector. If we make a comparison between vector 2 and 3 we can see that
increasing 94% in specific fuel consumption will only increase the thermal efficiency of 13.6%
What we really want is to decrease as much as possible the specific fuel consumption and increase the thermal
efficiency. Therefore, its obvious that design vector number 2 is much more important than design vector 3.

Two-by-Two optimization : Optimization of Specific Thrust (ST) and thermal efficiency (

Figure 8 Pareto points of specific thrust and thermal efficiency

Figure 6 is about specific thrust and thermal efficiency. As we can see, vector one amount all design vectors has
the least specific thrust and the most !t
Two-by-Two optimization : Optimization of Specific Thrust (ST) and specific fuel Consumption (SFC)

Figure 9 Pareto points of specific thrust and specific fuel consumption

We want to find the design vector with the maximum specific thrust and the minimum specific fuel
consumption. Considering to the figure 7, increasing ST will happen with increasing SFC.

Optimization according to the three target (Specific thrust, specific fuel consumption, thermal efficiency)

Figure 10: Pareto point of three target function: SFC & etta T

Figure 11: Pareto point of three target function: ST & etta T

Figure 12: Pareto point of three target function: SFC & ST

Fire 8, 9 and 10 represent the production of the optimization with all the target function put together. The current
curves and showed two-by-two ways.
If we make a comparison between vector two and vector three its seems that increasing 18% on specific thrust
will make decrease 8% on specific fuel consumption but it will also make the thermal efficiency fall to 47%.
If we now compare vector one and two, increasing 85% in specific thrust will result in a lost of 5.6% in thermal
efficiency and a lost of 66% in specific fuel consumption. Therefore we can guess that design vector two seems
more important than design vector one.

2.

Multiobjective Evolutionary Computation for Supersonic Wing-Shape Optimization

In this case, Multi Objective Genetic Algorithm (MOGA) is used to achieve multi objective optimization
(MOOP)4, as mentioned above, for supersonic transport.
Encoding here is using real-number string corresponds to the number of design variables.

Crossover and Mutation are using two equations sets below in order

where Child1,2 and Parent1,2 denote encoded design variables of the children(member of the new population)
and the parents(a mated pair of the old generation), respectively.

where ran2 is also a uniform random number in [0,1] and m determines the range of possible mutation.

The ranking selection method can be extended to identify the near-Pareto-optimal set within the population of
GA. To do this, the following definitions are used: suppose xi and xj are in the current population, and f =
(f1,f2,,fq) is the set of objective functions to be maximized.

Non-dominated solutions within the feasible region in the objective function space give the Pareto-optimal set.
Let us consider the following optimization:

The Pareto front of the present test case becomes a quarter arc of the circle.

Consider an individual xi at generation t which is dominated by

Then, its current position in the individuals rank can be given by

See Multi objective optimization definition (chapter II- ii 2)

individuals in the current population.

All non-dominated individuals are assigned rank 1, like figure shown below.

The fitness values are reassigned according to rank as an inverse of their rank values. Then, the stochastic
universal sampling(SUS) method takes over with the reassigned values.

Fitness Sharing is the model used here to sample Pareto-optimal set uniformly to maintain genetic diversity. It is
known that the genetic diversity of the population can be lost due to their stochastic selection process. This
phenomenon is called random genetic drift. To avoid this, the niching method has been introduced. In this case,
it is Fitness Sharing.
Since a global tradeoff surface is sought here using phenotypic sharing by measuring the distance between the
designs objective function values.
Below is the equation that adds a new parameter:

where the new parameter,

, the niche size has a significant impact on the performance of MOGAs, N
is a population size, q is a dimension of the objective vector, and Mi and mi are the maximum and minimum
values of each objective, respectively. Niche counts can be consistently incorporated into fitness assignment
according to rank by using them to scale individual fitness within each rank.

In this case, MOGA is used as a design optimizer to cooperate with flow calculations that were parallelized on
32 processing elements of an NEC SX-4 computer at the Computer Center of Tohoku University using the
simple Master-Slave concept. Flow calculations are based on the physical model. It is about aerodynamic forces
acting on aircraft can be obtained from integrating the pressure and friction of air on the aircraft surface.
Moreover, the pressure and friction can be calculated by solving governing equations of fluid. For transonic and
supersonic flow, the fluid model and Euler equations are used respectively. In this calculation, population size
was set to 64, and 70 generations were running. The evolution was stopped after the progress of the Pareto front
was saturated for several generations. The rest of settings in physical model are evading here, such as drag,
chord length, wing tip, camber line, and thickness, etc.
Below figure shows the resulting Pareto solutions in the three-dimensional objective function space. They form
an approximate tradeoff surface.

The extreme Pareto solutions are denoted as bending moment minimum, CD,s(Supersonic Drag Coefficient )
minimum, CD,t(Transonic Drag Coefficient) minimum, and they have physically reasonable shapes. These
results indicate the validity of the present optimization.

3.

Multidisciplinary Design
Evolutionary Algorithms

Optimization

of

Aircraft

Wing

Planform

Based

on

In this case, the way genetic algorithm processed is very similar to the prior case in Coding , Crossover,
Mutation, and the Ranking. The main difference is that this case one more niching methods, which is
Coevolutionary Shared Niching(CSN), is used to be the same character that Fitness Sharing is. Moreover, to
example effects of generational models, three models, which are Simple Generational Model(SG), Elitist
Recombination Model(ER), and Best-N Model(BN), are considered here. The comparison of the performance of
the combination of two niching methods and elitist models are conducted here.

Coevolutionary Shared Niching (CSN) is an alternative niching method that is loosely inspired by the economic
model of monopolistic competition. Simply stated, businessmen are chosen from the best of the customer
population.

Elitist Models
1) Simple Generational Model(SG) would replace N parents simply with N children.
2) Elitist Recombination Model (ER) would select two best individuals among two parents and two
offsprings.
3) Best-N Model(BN) would select N individuals among N parents and N children.

Five Figures below are the comparing results of conducting the combination of two niching methods and elitist
models. As what presenting here, it is clear that Pareto solutions obtained from BN+FS is the best result,
although CSN provides a significant improvement over FS.

Physical models are also evaded here, but the main points are shown below:
Transonic Wing Planform Design
1) Minimize aerodynamic drag(induced + wave drag)
2) Minimize wing weight
3) Maximize fuel weight(tank volume) stored in wing
Under these constraints:
a.

Lift to be greater than given aircraft weight

b.

Structural strength to be greater than aerodynamic loads

As written above, since Pareto solutions obtained from BN+FS is the best one, the figure below shows that
Pareto solutions in objective function space which are the resulting Pareto front obtained from BN+FS.

4.

Application of Micro Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks for Airfoil Design
Optimization

Aerodynamic design problems in the transonic regime are characterized by multi-model topology in the design
parameter space with possibilities of non-smooth variations. The ability of genetic algorithms(GAs) to handle
non-smooth topology and overcome local critical points in its search for a global optimum makes the method
ideal for use in aerospace design optimization. Although the ease of implementing Gas makes the method
attractive, the use of the algorithm is hampered by the large number of fitness evaluations which is particularly
costly for aerodynamic design problems. Therefore, two methods to improve the performance of genetic
algorithms are studied in this case, the first is the use of micro genetic algorithms(GA) and the second is the
application of artificial neural networks(ANNs).
The GA strategy is to explore the use of small population sizes in genetic algorithm applications to make rapid
convergence to a possible suboptimal solution. The effective use of GAs is to repeatedly generate new
population members as soon as a measure of convergence has been achieved in a cycle of GA operation.
The second GA improvement strategy studied here is the use of artificial neural networks to supplement detailed
computational analysis to provide fitness information for Gas to process. A properly trained ANN can provide
fast and inexpensive data to assist engineering designs. In this case, ANN is used as a quantitative alternative to
provide aerodynamic coefficients for fitness evaluation so as to reduce the overall computational time of GA
operation. The Computational Fluid Dynamics(CFD) results obtained during part of the GA operation are used
to train the ANN in order to construct the response surface representing the design parameter space. With the
topology of the design parameter space accurately represented, the fitness information can be obtained readily.
Coding Representation of Airfoils: In this case, airfoils should be represented by as small a parameter set as
possible so the search space can be kept small. Also the smoothness of the profile forming an airfoil should be
controllable to avoid inadmissible shapes. Genetic algorithm which formulates here for airfoil design problems
uses the coordinate points on the airfoil as control variables. Open B-spline representation of airfoils is used in
the present study as only a small number of control points are needed to represent satisfactorily a typical airfoil
profile.
To fit a B-spline curve to a prescribed profile, the order and number of nodes for the B-spline are specified first
and then the resulting coordinates of the nodes are determined by the least square solution method.

Crossover: A simple one-point crossover scheme is applied. An arbitrary cutting point is chosen in one parent,
and interchange with another parents.
Mutation: Mutation is carried out by randomly selecting a gene and then changing its value by a random amount
chosen within a prescribed range. Let {B1,,B10} be part of a chromosome that describes one side of an airfoil,
with B1 and B10 being the fixed nodes at the leading and trailing edges, respectively.

In Figure 2, the two end nodes B1 and B10 are left unchanged.

Selection Method: Parents are chosen based on the Roulette wheel method , and each pair of parents produces
one offspring. And, after a new population is produced, their fitness is compared to that of the parent generation
so the best members are assigned to the new generation.

Fitness Evaluation: An Euler flow solver is used as the primary means for obtaining aerodynamic information.
This information is made available to train ANN which then acts as a source for aerodynamic data for evaluating
fitness. To maintain physical realism, the airfoils should not have too many infection points where concavity
changes sign. If an airfoil exhibits too many inflection points, the fitness for that airfoil is assigned a very low
value to ensure it has a low chance of surviving the genetic algorithm.
In this case, three methods are used to evaluate fitness:
(1) Direct CFD Solution An efficient CFD solver is needed to yield aerodynamic data quickly for GA
processing. A two-dimensional Euler flow solver is used as a compromise between physical realism and
computational efficiency.
(2) ANN-CFD Coupled Fitness Evaluation CFD is used for fitness evaluation and the results are stored for
training the ANN, ANN training is commenced as soon as the CFD evaluation phase is over.

III. Conclusion
As we can see in this paper, the aircraft industry is a field where human has taken inspiration from nature in
order to build and to optimize their aircrafts. As we can see, from the simplest aircraft who has been invented by
looking at the birds and other flying form of life; to the state of the art aircraft that are using the latest
evolutionary algorithm in order to optimize their shape and characteristic.
In this paper we have given as example some evolutionary algorithms and how could they be related to aircraft
design. But actually there are much and much more genetic algorithms and much more way to use them in the
aircraft industry. For example, we can use swarm algorithm in order to optimize the emergency exit of the
commercial aircraft
How about the future?
We are now optimizing aircraft by using evolutionary algorithm. But, why not try to build an aircraft from the
start using a natural selection process? This could be very interesting and we probably end up with aircrafts that
nobody will ever think about. Our algorithm are perhaps not strong enough and our computers arent fast enough
to be able to do that, but, maybe in the future we will be able to fully let a computer design and optimize an
aircraft or whatever by itself.

References
Evolutionary Computation for Modeling and Optimization
Daniel Ashlock
Multi-Objective Optimization using Evolutionary Algorithm
Kalyanmoy Deb
Multidisciplinary Design Optimization of Aircraft Wing Planform Based on Evolutionary Algorithms

Shigeru Obayashi
A Fast Elitist Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm for Multi-Objective Optimization: NSGA-II
Kalyanmoy Deb, Samir Agrawal, Amrit Pratap, and T Meyarivan
Multiobjective Evolutionary Computation for Supersonic Wing-Shape Optimization
Shigeru Obayashi, Daisuke Sasaki, Yukihiro Takeguchi, and Naoki Hirose
Multi Target Optimization of Turbojet Engine with Multi Target Genetic Algorithm
M.R.Andalibi, S.H.Azizi, P.Mohajeri.Khameneh, M.Abdollahi
A Fast and Elitist Multiobjective Genetic Algorithm: NSGA-II
Kalyanmoy Deb, Associate Member, IEEE, Amrit Pratap, Sameer Agarwal, and T. Meyarivan
(II)

Application of Micro Genetic Algorithms and Neural Networks for Airfoil Design Optimization
Daniel C.M. Tse and Louis Y.Y. Chan
Evolutionary computing in manufacturing industry: an overview of recent applications
V. Oduguwa*, A. Tiwari, R. Roy
A Gentle Introduction to Memetic Algorithms
Pablo Moscato
http://www.nd.com/