ME6602 Notes

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Unit 1
VEHICLE STRUCTURE AND ENGINES
ENGINE:
Engine block assembly
Very sophisticated casting.
Made of cast iron or aluminum with cast iron cylinder liners.
A great deal of machining involved in the process of manufacturing.
Becomes the frame of the engine.

Bottom end parts:
Block
Crankshaft
Connecting Rod
Pistons, Rings, & Wrist Pin
Bearings (Main and Connecting rod)
Caps (main and Connecting Rod)
Fly Wheel and nuts and
bolts Cylinder block configurations:
Common cylinder configurations:

Vee, inline, opposed
And slant.
Number
from
farthest
front
backwards Crankshaft:
Converts reciprocating motion into rotary motion.
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Made of either nodular iron, forged steel, or billet steel
Crankshaft bearings:
Known as friction or precision insert bearings.
Uses a steel backing with soft metal on crankshaft side.(lead, tin, copper,
silver, cadmium)
Oil clearance between crankpin and bearing very critical. (.001)
Oil Clearance measured with plastigauge.
The flywheel (known as the flex plate when used with an automatic
transmission) carries the engines inertia in between power strokes.
It is the powers take off for the engine. The clutch or torque converter bolts
to it. Lastly it has the starter motors ring gear
Vibration damper:
The vibration damper smoothes the vibrations caused by the power strokes.
It has a pulley on it the run auxiliary systems.
It may contain timing marks or crankshaft timing sensors.
Balancer shafts:
Used to counteract the normal vibrations inherent to piston engines.
Found on 4 cylinder and 6 cylinder engines mostly.
Cover and pans:
Made of steel metal, aluminum, or plastic materials.
Usually use gaskets or seals
Gaskets seals and sealers:
Gaskets seal two stationary surfaces.
Seals do it when one surface moves.
Many types of materials: rubber, paper, aluminum, steel, cork and more.
Sealers adhere gaskets to one of the surfaces.
Pistons:
Pistons harness the energy of the power stroke and transfer the force toward the crankshaft.
Head or crown
Ring grooves
Ring lands
Oil return holes
Skirt
Pin hole
Pin boss
Pin
offset Piston rings:
Rings seal the compression in the combustion chamber and the motor oil
in the crankcase.
Automotive engines use 3 rings: 2 compression and 1 multi-piece
oil ring Types:
Rings are usually made of cast iron
can be plated with chrome or molybdenum.
Help seal the ring to the cylinder wall.
Shapes of the ring vary to also help the ring seal better.
Piston pin:
Hollow polished steel pin.
Attached in a variety of ways.
Pinned to piston.
Clamped to rod small end.
Snap ring free floating.
Press fit.
Connecting rods:
I-beam style rod use to transfer the pistons force to the crankshaft.
Small end contains the piston pin and the big end has a removable cap to
install it to the Crank.
Nuts and bolts are usually of a very high quality.
Installation of pistons:
Cylinder number
Piston number
Notch to the front
Position ring gaps
Remove rod cap check bearing inserts
Cover bolts with fuel line if needed
Crankshaft at TDC or BDC
Install ring compressor
Oil piston, cylinder wall, & crank journal
Carefully tap in piston with hammer handle.
Properly replace rod cap
Automotive chassis:
Introduction of Chassis Frame: Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote
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the frame parts or Basic Structure of the vehicle. It is the back bone of the
vehicle. A vehicle with out body is called Chassis. The components of the
vehicle like Power plant, Transmission System, Axles, Wheels and Tyres,
Suspension, Controlling Systems like Braking, Steering etc., and also electrical
system parts are mounted on the Chassis frame. It is the main mounting for all
the components including the body. So it is also called as Carrying Unit.
The following main components of the Chassis are
1. Frame: it is made up of long two members called side member riveted
together with the help of number of cross members.
2. Engine or Power plant: It provides the source of power
3. Clutch: It connects and disconnects the power from the engine fly
Wheel to the transmission system.
4. Gear Box 5.U Joint 6. Propeller Shaft 7. Differential
FUNCTIONS OF THE CHASSIS FRAME:
1. To carry load of the passengers or goods carried in the body.
2. To support the load of the body, engine, gear box etc.,
3. To withstand the forces caused due to the sudden braking or acceleration
4. To withstand the stresses caused due to the bad road condition.
5. To withstand centrifugal force while cornering
TYPES OF CHASSIS FRAMES:
There are three types of frames
1. Conventional frame
2. Integral frame
3. Semi-integral frame
1. Conventional frame: It has two long side members and 5 to 6 cross members joined
together with the help of rivets and bolts. The frame sections are used generally.
a. Channel Section - Good resistance to bending
b. Tabular Section - Good resistance to Torsion
c. Box Section - Good resistance to both bending and Torsion

2. Integral Frame: This frame is used now days in most of the cars. There is no frame
and all the assembly units are attached to the body. All the functions of the frame
carried out by the body itself. Due to elimination of long frame it is cheaper and due to
less weight most economical also. Only disadvantage is repairing is difficult.
3. Semi - Integral Frame: In some vehicles half frame is fixed in the front end on
which engine gear box and front suspension is mounted. It has the advantage
when the vehicle is met with accident the front frame can be taken easily to
replace the damaged chassis frame. This type of frame is used in FIAT cars and
some of the European and American cars.
VARIOUS LOADS ACTING ON THE FRAME:
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Various loads acting on the frame are
1. Short duration Load - While crossing a broken patch.
2. Momentary duration Load - While taking a curve.
3. Impact Loads - Due to the collision of the vehicle.
4. Inertia Load - While applying brakes.
5. Static Loads - Loads due to chassis parts.
6. Over Loads - Beyond Design capacity.
STATE THE DIFFERENT BODIES USED IN AUTOMOBILES:

The Automobile bodies are divided in two groups
Passenger Body
Commercial body
REQUIREMENTS OF BODIES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF VECHILE:
The body of the most vehicle should fulfill the following requirements:
1. The body should be light.

2. It should have minimum number of components.
3. It should provide sufficient space for passengers and luggage.
4. It should withstand vibrations while in motion.
5. It should offer minimum resistance to air.
6. It should be cheap and easy in manufacturing.
7. It should be attractive in shape and color.
8. It should have uniformly distributed load.
9. It should have long fatigue life.
10. It should provide good vision and ventilation.
Unit 2
Engine Auxiliary systems
Gasoline Electronic Fuel Injection System:
A modern gasoline injection system uses pressure from an electric fuel pump to spray
fuel into the engine intake manifold. Like a carburetor, it must provide the engine with
the correct air-fuel mixture for specific operating conditions. Unlike a carburetor,
however, PRESSURE, not engine vacuum, is used to feed fuel into the engine. This
makes the gasoline injection system very efficient.
A gasoline injection system has several possible advantages over a carburetor type of fuel
system.
Some advantages are as follows:
1. Improved atomization. Fuel is forced into the intake manifold under pressure
that helps break fuel droplets into a fine mist.
2. Better fuel distribution. Equal flow of fuel vapors into each cylinder.
3. Smoother idle. Lean fuel mixture can be used without rough idle because of
better fuel distribution and low-speed atomization.
* Lower emissions. Lean efficient air-fuel mixture reduces exhaust pollution.
* Better cold weather drivability. Injection provides better control of mixture
enrichment than a carburetor.
* Increased engine power. Precise metering of fuel to each cylinder and increased air
flow can result in more horsepower output.
* Fewer parts. Simpler, late model, electronic fuel
injection system have fewer parts than modern computer-controlled carburetors
Types:
* single- or multi-point injection
* indirect or direct injection
The point or location of fuel injection is one way to classify a gasoline injection system. A
single-point injection system, also call throttle body injection (TBI), has the injector nozzles
in a throttle body assembly on top of the engine. Fuel is sprayed into the top center of
the intake manifold .

A multi-point injection system, also called port injection, has an injector in the port (air-fuel
passage) going to each cylinder. Gasoline is sprayed into each intake port and toward each
intake valve. Thereby, the term multipoint (more than one location) fuel injection is used
System component:
Fuel tank
Electric fuel pump
Fuel filter
Electronic control unit
Common rail and Pressure sensor
Electronic Injectors
fuel
line Fuel Tank:
is safe container for flammable liquids and typically part of an engine system in
which the fuel is stored and propelled (fuel pump) or released (pressurized
gas) into an engine.
Typically, a fuel tank must allow or provide the following:
Safe (UL Approved) fuel storage, there is some concern that UL
(Underwriters Laboratories) is not the final arbiter of safety.
Filling (the fuel tank must be filled in a secure way) No Sparks.
Storage of fuel (the system must contain a given quantity of fuel and must
avoid leakage and limit evaporative emissions)
Provide a method for determining level of fuel in tank, Gauging (the remaining
quantity of fuel in the tank must be measured or evaluated)
Venting (if over-pressure is not allowed, the fuel vapors must be managed
through valves)
Feeding of the engine (through a pump)
Anticipate potentials for damage and provide safe survival potential.
Electronic fuel pump:
An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to
the injectors. The pump must deliver the fuel under high pressure (typically 30 to 85 psi
depending on the application) so the injectors can spray the fuel into the engine.
Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank,
Some vehicles may even have two fuel pumps (a transfer pump inside the tank, and a
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main fuel pump outside).
An electric fuel pump is used on engines with fuel injection to pump fuel from the tank to
the injectors. The pump must deliver the fuel under high pressure (typically 30 to 85 psi
depending on the application) so the injectors can spray the fuel into the engine.
Electric fuel pumps are usually mounted inside the fuel tank,
Some vehicles may even have two fuel pumps (a transfer pump inside the
tank, and a main fuel pump outside).
Most newer vehicles use a "turbine" style fuel pump. A turbine pump has an impeller ring
attached to the motor. The blades in the impeller push the fuel through the pump as the impeller
spins. This type of pump is not a positive-displacement pump, so it produces no pulsations, runs
very smoothly and quietly. It is also less complicated to manufacture and is very durable. Some
aftermarket pump supplies use this type of pump to replace the older designs.
Fuel Filter:
The fuel filter is the fuel system's primary line of defense against dirt, debris
and small particles of rust that flake off the inside of the fuel tank.
Many filters for fuel injected engines trap particles as small as 10 to 40 microns in size.
Fuel filter normally made into cartridges containing a filter paper.
Electronic Control Circuit:

In automotive electronics, electronic control unit (ECU) is a generic term for any
embedded system that controls one or more of the electrical systems or
subsystems in a motor vehicle.
An engine control unit (ECU), also known as power-train control module (PCM), or
engine control module (ECM) is a type of electronic control unit that determines the
amount of fuel, ignition timing and other parameters an internal combustion engine
needs to keep running. It does this by reading values from multidimensional maps
which contain values calculated by sensor devices monitoring the engine.
Working of ECU:
Control of fuel injection: ECU will determine the quantity of fuel to inject based on a
number of parameters. If the throttle pedal is pressed further down, this will open the
throttle body and allow more air to be pulled into the engine. The ECU will inject
more fuel according to how much air is passing into the engine. If the engine has
not warmed up yet, more fuel will be injected.
Control of ignition timing: A spark ignition engine requires a spark to initiate
combustion in the combustion chamber. An ECU can adjust the exact timing of
the spark (called ignition timing) to provide better power and economy.
Control of idle speed: Most engine systems have idle speed control built into the
ECU. The engine RPM is monitored by the crankshaft position sensor which
plays a primary role in the engine timing functions for fuel injection, spark events,
and valve timing. Idle speed is controlled by a programmable throttle stop or an
idle air bypass control stepper motor.
Common rail and Pressure sensor:
The fuel injectors are typically ECU-controlled. When the fuel injectors are
electrically activated a hydraulic valve (consisting of a nozzle and plunger) is
mechanically or hydraulically opened and fuel is sprayed into the cylinders at the
desired pressure. Since the fuel pressure energy is stored remotely and the injectors
are electrically actuated the injection pressure at the start and end of injection is very
near the pressure in the accumulator (rail), thus producing a square injection rate. If
the accumulator, pump, and plumbing are sized properly, the injection pressure and
rate will be the same for each of the multiple injection events.
The term "common rail" refers to the fact that all of the fuel injectors are
supplied by a common fuel rail which is nothing more than a pressure
accumulator where the fuel is stored at high pressure. This accumulator
supplies multiple fuel injectors with high pressure fuel.
Electronic injectors:
The injectors can survive the excessive temperature and pressure of
combustion by using the fuel that passes through it as a coolant
The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and opens to inject pressurized
fuel as long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil.
When the injector is turned on, it opens, spraying atomized fuel at the combustion
chamber. Depending on engine operating condition ,injection quantity will vary.
Fuel line:
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Fuel line hoses carry gasoline from the tank to the fuel pump, to the fuel filter, and
to the fuel injection system. While much of the fuel lines are rigid tube, sections of it
are made of rubber hose, which absorb engine and road vibrations.
There are two basic types of fuel hose: Fuel and oil hoses that meet the SAE
30R7 standard, and fuel injection hose that meets the requirements of SAE 30R9.
Gasoline direct injection:

In internal combustion engines, gasoline direct injection is a variant of fuel injection
employed in modern two- and four- stroke petrol engines. The petrol/gasoline is
highly pressurized, and injected via a common rail fuel line directly into the
combustion chamber of each cylinder, as opposed to conventional multi-point fuel
injection that happens in the intake tract, or cylinder port.
Gasoline direct injection:

When the driver turns the ignition key on, the power train control module (PCM)
energizes a relay that supplies voltage to the fuel pump. The motor inside the pump
starts to spin and runs for a few seconds to build pressure in the fuel system. A
timer in the PCM limits how long the pump will run until the engine starts.
Fuel is drawn into the pump through an inlet tube and mesh filter sock
The fuel then exits the pump through a one-way check valve and is pushed
toward the engine through the fuel line and filter.
The fuel filter traps any rust, dirt or other solid contaminants that may have passed
through the pump to prevent such particles from clogging the fuel injectors.
The fuel then flows to the fuel supply rail on the engine and is routed to the
individual fuel injectors. A fuel pressure regulator on the fuel rail maintains fuel
pressure, and recirculates excess fuel back to the tank.
The fuel pump runs continuously once the engine starts, and continues to run as
long as the engine is running and the ignition key is on. If the engine stalls, the
(PCM) will detect the loss of the RPM signal and turn the pump off.
Unit-3
11
Transmission systems
Front wheel drive:
Most automobiles today have front-wheel drive
FWD car has transaxle
Drive axles extend to front wheels out of each side of transaxle
Each end of the drive axle is a CV joint
Transaxle can be either manual or automatic
Advantages
More efficient drivetrain
Better fuel economy
Combined with MacPherson struts: less unsprung weight for better handling
Transmission hump is eliminated

A few FWD engines have been mounted longitudinally
Most transaxles mounted sideways
Manual Transaxle:
Manual transaxles and transmissions
Use same kind of clutch
Three parallel paths for power flow
Input shaft located above intermediate shaft
Input shaft gears directly drive output shaft gears
Differential assembly
Gear shafts
Supported by larger ball, roller, or tapered roller bearings
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End play is controlled by thrust

washers Shift linkage:
Transverse transaxles
Shifted by cables or shift linkage
Two shift cables or rods
One moves a selector on transaxle
Other moves shift fork back and forth
Advantage
Engine shake is not transmitted back to drivers hand on shift
lever Transaxle differential:
Allows wheels to turn at different speeds when rounding corners
Same as rear-wheel-drive differential
Ordinary helical gearset
Used instead of bevel gears
Power from differential side gears is transmitted to front drive axles
through axle shafts
Transaxle power flow:
Five-speed power flow
Fixed gears for first, second, and reverse on input shaft
Fixed gears for third, fourth, fifth on intermediate shaft
Power flow leaves transmission intermediate shaft
Continues through drive pinion to axles
Engine is mounted sideways
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Axles run parallel to input shaft
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Automatic transaxle:
Combination of automatic transmission and differential
Same parts and operation apply
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Transverse engine
Power flow is through gears or sprocket and chain
Chain drive
Allows transaxle to be mounted slightly below and to the side of the engine
Front drive axles:
Difference between rear-wheel drive and front-wheel drive axles
Front-wheel drive axles have CV joints at ends
Axles driven at sharper angles
Allow steering front wheels during power transmission
Universal joint changes output speed twice in every revolution when run
at an angle
Rear-wheel drive vehicle drive shaft turns very fast
Positioned before gear reduction of differential
Axle shaft parts:
Drive axle is called half shaft or axle shaft
Stub shaft (stub axle)
Short shaft at outside end
Splined to front hub so it can drive front wheels
CV joint classifications
Inboard and outboard
Fixed and plunge
Ball and tripod
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17
Axle shafts:
Characteristics
May be solid or hollow
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May have damper weights to absorb vibration
Turn much slower than rear-wheel drive shaft
Balance not as important
When different lengths: long one twists and lags before puts its
torque to the wheel
Torque steer is prevented by longer axle shaft of larger
diameter tubing
CV joint boots:
Boots at each end of axle contain grease
Protect joint from the elements
CV joint boot
Attached to axle and stub shafts with plastic or steel bands or straps
Made of natural rubber, neoprene, silicone, or urethane
Unit 4
Steering, Brakes and Suspension systems
Steering systems:
Any mode of transportation used by people must have some means of control.
For the automobile, two primary control systems are at the driver's disposal: (1)
the steering system, and (2) the braking system.
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The steering mechanism converts the driver's rotational input at the steering
wheel into a change in the steering angle of the vehicle's steering road wheels.
For a car to turn smoothly, each wheel must follow a different circle. Since the
inside wheel is following a circle with a smaller radius, it is actually making a
tighter turn than the outside wheel. If you draw a line perpendicular to each
wheel, the lines will intersect at the center point of the turn. The geometry of the
steering linkage makes the inside wheel turn more than the outside wheel.
Steering behavior
The requirements in terms of steering behavior can be summarized as follows:
1. Jolts from irregularities in the road surface must be damped as much as
possible during transmission to the steering wheel. However, such damping
must not cause the driver to lose contact with the road.
2. The basic design of the steering kinematics must satisfy the Ackermann
conditions: the extensions of the wheel axes of the left and right front wheels,
when at an angle, intersect on an extension of the rear axle.
3. When the steering wheel is released, the wheels must return automatically
to the straight-ahead position and must remain stable in this position.
4. The steering should have as Iow ratio as possible (number of steering-wheel
turns from lock to lock) in order to obtain ease of handling. The steering forces
involved are determined not only by the steering ratio but also by the front
suspension load, the turning circle, the suspension geometry (caster angle, kingpin
angle, kingpin offset), the properties of the tire tread and the road surface.
The steering ratio is the ratio of how far you turn the steering wheel to how far
the wheels turn. For instance, if one complete revolution (360 degrees) of the
steering wheel results in the wheels of the car turning 20 degrees, then the
steering ratio is 360 divided by 20, or 18:1. A higher ratio means that you have
to turn the steering wheel more to get the wheels to turn a given distance.
However, less effort is required because of the higher gear ratio.
Generally, lighter, sportier cars have lower steering ratios than larger cars and trucks.
The lower ratio gives the steering a quicker response -- you don't have to turn the
steering wheel as much to get the wheels to turn a given distance -- which is a desirable
trait in sports cars. These smaller cars are light enough that even with the lower ratio,
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the effort required to turn the steering wheel is not excessive.
Some cars have variable-ratio steering, which uses a rack-and-pinion gearset
that has a different tooth pitch (number of teeth per inch) in the center than it has
on the outside. This makes the car respond quickly when starting a turn (the rack
is near the center), and also reduces effort near the wheel's turning limits.
Linkage steering system (worm) gear parts:

Steering Wheel used by the driver to rotate a steering shaft that passes
through the steering column.
Steering Shaft transfers turning motion from the steering wheel to the
steering gearbox.
Steering Column supports the steering column and steering shaft.
Steering gears are enclosed in a casing known as steering gear box.
A steering box must have the following qualities:
- no play in the straight-ahead position,
-low friction, resulting in high efficiency,
- high rigidity,
- readjustability.
For these reasons, two types have become established:
Rack and pinion streering:
Basically, as the name implies, the rack-and-pinion steering consists of a rack
and a pinion, The steering ratio is defined by the ratio of pinion revolutions
(steering-wheel revolutions) to rack travel. Suitable toothing of the rack allows
the ratio to be made variable over the travel. This lowers the actuating force or
reduces the travel for steering corrections.
Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on
cars, small trucks. It is actually a pretty simple mechanism. A rack-and-pinion gearset is
enclosed in a metal tube, with each end of the rack protruding from the tube. A rod,
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called a tie rod, connects to each end of the rack.
The pinion gear is attached to the steering shaft. When you turn the steering
wheel, the gear spins, moving the rack.
The rack-and-pinion gearset does two things:
It converts the rotational motion of the steering wheel into the linear motion
needed to turn the wheels.
It provides a gear reduction, making it easier to turn the wheels.
On most cars, it takes three to four complete revolutions of the steering wheel to
make the wheels turn from lock to lock (from far left to far right).
The primary components of the rack and pinion steering system are:
Rubber bellows
Pinion
Rack
Inner ball joint or socket
Tie-rod
Rubber Bellows:
This rubber bellows is attached to the Rack and Pinion housing. It protects the
inner joints from dirt and contaminants. In addition, it retains the grease
lubricant inside the rack and pinion housing. There is an identical bellows on
the other end of the rack for the opposite side connection.
Pinion:
The pinion is connected to the steering column. As the driver turns the
steering wheel, the forces are transferred to the pinion and it then causes
the rack to move in either direction. This is achieved by having the pinion in
constant mesh with the rack.
Rack:
The rack slides in the housing and is moved by the action of the meshed pinion into the
teeth of the rack. It normally has an adjustable bush opposite the pinion to control their
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meshing, and a nylon bush at the other

end. Inner ball or socket:
The inner ball joint is attached to the tie-rod, to allow for suspension
movement and slight changes in steering angles
Tie rod:
A tie rod end is attached to the tie-rod shaft. These pivot as the rack is
extended or retracted when the vehicle is negotiating turns. Some tie-rods and
tie-rod ends are left or right hand threaded. This allows toe-in or toe-out to be
adjusted to the manufacturer's specifications.
Toe:
Toe is defined as the difference of the distance between the leading edge of the
wheels and the distance between the trailing edge of the wheels when viewed
from above. Toe-in means the front of the wheels are closer than the rear; toeout implies the opposite. Figure 7.20 shows both cases.
For a rear-wheel-drive vehicle, the front wheels normally have a slight amount of toein.. When the vehicle begins to roll, rolling resistance produces a force through the
tire contact patch perpendicular to the rolling axis. This force produces a torque
around the steering axis that tends to cause the wheels to toe-out. The slight toe-in
allows for this, and when rolling, the wheels align along the axis of the vehicle.
Conversely, front-wheel-drive vehicles require slight toe out. In this case, the tractive
force of the front wheels produces a moment about the steering axis that tends to toe
the wheels inward. In this case, proper toe-out absorbs this motion and allows the
wheels to parallel the direction of motion of the vehicle.
Power rack and pinion:

When the rack-and-pinion is in a power-steering system, the rack has a slightly
different design.
Part of the rack contains a cylinder with a piston in the middle. The piston is
connected to the rack. There are two fluid ports, one on either side of the piston.
Supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the piston forces the piston to
move, which in turn moves the rack, providing the power assist.
Re- circulating ball streering:
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The forces generated between steering worm and steering nut are transmitted
via a low-friction recirculating row of balls. The steering nut acts on the steering
shaft via gear teeth. A variable ratio is possible with this steering box,
Recirculating-ball steering is used on many trucks and SUVs today. The linkage that turns
the wheels is slightly different than on a rack-and-pinion system.
The recirculating-ball steering gear contains a worm gear. The first part is a block
of metal with a threaded hole in it. This block has gear teeth cut into the outside
of it, which engage a gear that moves the pitman arm (see diagram above). The
steering wheel connects to a threaded rod, similar to a bolt, that sticks into the
hole in the block. When the steering wheel turns, it turns the bolt. Instead of
twisting further into the block the way a regular bolt would, this bolt is held fixed
so that when it spins, it moves the block, which moves the gear that turns the
wheels.
Instead of the bolt directly engaging the threads in the block, all of the threads
are filled with ball bearings that recirculate through the gear as it turns. The balls
actually serve two purposes: First, they reduce friction and wear in the gear;
second, they reduce slop in the gear. Slop would be felt when you change the
direction of the steering wheel -- without the balls in the steering gear, the teeth
would come out of contact with each other for a moment, making the steering
wheel feel loose.
Power steering in a recirculating-ball system works similarly to a rack-and-pinion system. Assist
is provided by supplying higher-pressure fluid to one side of the block.
Power steering helps drivers steer vehicles by increasing steering effort of the
steering wheel. Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the
steering mechanism, so the driver needs to provide only slight effort regardless
of conditions. Power steering helps considerably when a vehicle is stopped or
moving slowly. As well, power steering provides some feedback of forces acting
on the front wheels to give an ongoing sense of how the wheels are interacting
with the road; this is typically called "rad feel"
Representative power steering systems for cars increase steering effort via an
actuator, a hydraulic cylinder, which is part of a servo system. These systems
have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage
that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure still
permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.
In other power steering systems, electric motors provide the assistance instead
of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in
this case) is controlled by the rest of the power-steering system.
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Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the
middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to
steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame
relative to each other to steer.
Hydraulic power assisted steering:
Energy source
The energy source consists of a vane pump (generally driven by the engine) with
an integral oil-flow regulator, an oil reservoir and connecting hoses and pipes.
The pump must be dimensioned so that it generates sufficient pressure to

enable rotation of the steering wheel at a speed of at least 15 m/s even when
the engine is only idling.
The compulsory pressure-limiting valve required on hydraulic systems is
usually integrated. .
The pump and the system components must be designed such that the
operating temperature of the hydraulic fluid does not rise to an excessive level
(<100C) and such that no noise is generated and the oil does not foam.
Control Valve:
All power steering pumps have a flow-control valve to vary fluid flow and power
steering system pressures. A pressure relief valve prevents excessive pressures
developing when the steering is on full-lock, and held against its stops. The flow
control valve is located at the outlet fitting of the pump.
During slow cornering, or when parking, pump speeds are normally low. There is less
demand for fluid flow, but to provide the required assistance, high pressure is needed.
Discharge ports direct the fluid to the outlet, and then to the steering gear. The outlet
fluid pressure is slightly lower than the internal high pressure coming from the pump.
Pump:
The hydraulic power for the steering is provided by a rotary-vane pump. This
pump is driven by the car's engine with a belt and pulley. It contains a set of
retractable vanes that spin inside an oval chamber.
As the vanes spin, they pull hydraulic fluid from the return line at low pressure and
force it into the outlet at high pressure. The amount of flow provided by the pump
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depends on the car's engine speed. The pump must be designed to provide
adequate flow when the engine is idling. As a result, the pump moves much
more fluid than necessary when the engine is running at faster speeds.
The pump contains a pressure-relief valve to make sure that the pressure does not get
too high, especially at high engine speeds when so much fluid is being pumped.
Rotary Valve:
A power-steering system should assist the driver only when he is exerting force on the
steering wheel (such as when starting a turn). When the driver is not exerting force
(such as when driving in a straight line), the system shouldn't provide any assist. The
device that senses the force on the steering wheel is called the rotary valve.
Electric power assisted with pull drift :

Pull-Drift Compensation starts with EPAS technology, which replaces the traditional
hydraulic-assist powersteering pump with an electric motor. This increases fuel economy
because the electric motor operates only when steering assistance is required.
Sensors constantly measure steering wheel torque applied by the driver to
maintain the vehicles path. Continuous adjustments are made as the system resets to
adapt to changing road conditions or maneuvers, such as the vehicle turning a corner.
When the system detects a pulling or drifting condition, such as a

crowned road surface, it provides torque assistance to help make steering easier.
For drivers, this assistance is seamless and imperceptible.
EPAS technology can be fine-tuned by engineers to fit the driving
characteristics of varying products, whether its a luxury sedan or sporty compact SUV.
Unit-5
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES
Alternative fuels:
As the cost of conventional fuels goes up, the interest in other fuel sources increase.
26
In some cases, alternative fuels are more environmentally friendly. Some
alternative fuels are more energy efficient
Types of alternative fuels:
Ethanol
Natural gas
Propane
Hydrogen
Biodiesel
Electricity
Methanol
Ethanol:
Ethanol is an alcohol-based alternative fuel produced by fermenting and
distilling starch crops or cellulose that have been converted into simple sugars
Ethanol is most commonly used to increase octane and improve the

emissions quality of gasoline.
Ethanol can be blended with gasoline to create E85, a blend of 85%
ethanol and 15% gasoline.
Ethanol can degrade quickly in water, therefore, posing less
environmental harm than oil in the case of a spill
Ethanol is an excellent, clean-burning fuel, potentially providing more
horsepower than gasoline. In fact, ethanol has a higher octane rating (over
100) and burns cooler than gasoline
One acre of corn can produce 300 gal. Of ethanol per growing season.
So, in order to replace that 200 billion gal. Of petroleum products,
American farmers would need to dedicate 675 million acres, or 71 percent
of the nation's 938 million acres of farmland, to growing feedstock.
Natural gas:
27
Natural gas is produced either from gas wells
Or in conjunction with crude oil production.
Because of the gaseous nature of this fuel, it must be stored onboard a
vehicle in either a compressed gaseous state or in a liquefied state
A natural gas vehicle can be less expensive to operate than a comparable
conventionally fueled vehicle depending on natural gas prices.
The United States has vast natural gas reserves across the country
Vehicles tend to cost $3500 to $6000 more than gasoline
powered ones Propane:
Propane or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a
Popular alternative fuel choice for vehicles because there is already
an infrastructure of pipelines, processing facilities, and storage for
its efficient distribution.
LPG produces fewer vehicle emissions than gasoline.
Propane is produced as a by-product of natural gas processing and
crude oil refining.
Propane vehicles can produce fewer ozone-forming emissions than
vehicles powered by reformulated gasoline
The cost of a gasoline-gallon equivalent of propane is generally less
than that of gasoline, so driving a propane vehicle can save money.
Hydrogen, a gas, will play an important
role in developing sustainable transportation
In the United States, because in the future it may be produced in
virtually unlimited quantities using renewable resources.
Hydrogen:
Hydrogen and oxygen from air fed into a proton exchange membrane fuel cell
produce enough electricity to power an electric automobile, without producing
28
harmful emissions. The only byproduct of a hydrogen fuel cell is water.
Currently there are no original equipment manufacturer vehicles available for sale to
the general public. Experts estimate that in approximately 10-20 years hydrogen
vehicles, and the infrastructure to support them, will start to make an impact.
Bio diesel:
Biodiesel is a domestically produced, renewable fuel that can be manufactured
from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases.
Biodiesel is safe, biodegradable, and reduces serious air pollutants

such as particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and air toxics.
Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form but it may require certain
engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems
and may not be suitable for wintertime use.
Pure biodiesel, B100, costs about $3.50--roughly a dollar more per
gallon than petro diesel.
Need to heat storage tanks in colder climates to prevent the fuel from gelling
Like E85, biodiesel began with farm co-ops and local entrepreneurs.
High fuel prices affect farmers, too, and here was an opportunity to
make money from otherwise fallow farmland
Electricity:
Electricity can be used as a transportation fuel to power battery electric
and fuel cell vehicles. When used to power electric vehicles, electricity
is stored in an energy storage device such as a battery.
EV batteries have a limited storage capacity and their electricity must
be replenished by plugging the vehicle into an electrical source.
EVs have lower "fuel" and maintenance costs than gasoline-powered vehicles.
Vehicles that operate only on electricity require no warm-up, run almost

silently and have excellent performance up to the limit of their range.
Also, electric cars are cheap to "refuel." At the average price of 10 cents
per kwh, it costs around 2 cents per mile. Pure electric cars still have
limited range, typically no more than 100 to 120 miles.
29
Methanol:
Methanol, also known as wood alcohol, can be used as an
alternative fuel in flexible fuel vehicles that run on M85
It is not a commonly used fuel at this time as methanol produces a high
amount of formaldehyde in emissions.
The benefits include lower emissions, higher performance, and lower
risk of flammability than gasoline. Methanol can easily be made into
hydrogen for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the future
Methanol is extremely corrosive, requiring special materials for delivery and
storage. Methanol, in addition, has only 51 percent of the BTU content of
gasoline by volume, which means its fuel economy is worse than ethanol's.
Methane also can be produced by processing biomass such as grass

clippings, sawdust and other cellulose sources.

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Becomes the frame of the engine.

Common cylinder configurations:

c. Box Section - Good resistance to both bending and Torsion

STATE THE DIFFERENT BODIES USED IN AUTOMOBILES:

1. The body should be light.

the intake manifold .

Fuel filter normally made into cartridges containing a filter paper.

Electronic Control Circuit:

Gasoline direct injection:

Gasoline direct injection:

Transmission hump is eliminated

End play is controlled by thrust

Linkage steering system (worm) gear parts:

meshing, and a nylon bush at the other

Power rack and pinion:

The pump must be dimensioned so that it generates sufficient pressure to

Electric power assisted with pull drift :

When the system detects a pulling or drifting condition, such as a

Ethanol is most commonly used to increase octane and improve the

Biodiesel is safe, biodegradable, and reduces serious air pollutants

Vehicles that operate only on electricity require no warm-up, run almost

Methane also can be produced by processing biomass such as grass

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