4.

5 Scalar and Vector Fields

Many processes in the real world involve
continuous medium with their properties
varying continuously in 3-D space and
time.
An example would be the density of a gas
or fluid which is written as (x, y, z, t ).
Examples of continuous medium are
fluids, such as water
gases, for example air, clouds
electromagnetic fields, namely electric
field, magnetic field
plasmas like the solar atmosphere,
magnetosphere.
A field is a function that describes a
physical quantity at all points in space.

 use fixed right-handed Cartesian frame

of reference 0xyz with the origin 0.
z

(x, y, z)
j

In this frame, the coordinates of a point P

are (x, y, z) so that OP xi y j zk
where i, j and k are unit vectors
specifying x, y, and z-axes

4.5.1 Scalar Fields

Suppose you hear that the temperature in
Johor Bahru is 32 degrees, does it mean
that it is 32 degrees everywhere in JB?
The temperature is different at every
location in the vast city and it changes
also as time goes.
Temperature is in fact a function of
location (space) and time.
Temperature is an example of a scalar
field, T (x, y, z, t ) measured in Kelvin
Other examples
pressure p(x, y, z, t ) measured in
Nm 2 .
density i.e. mass per unit volume
(x, y, z, t ) measured in kgm 3
speed, potential etc

Scalar field is one that can be described in

terms of magnitude alone.
Definition 4.10 Scalar field
A scalar field in 3D is an assignment of a
number f (x, y, z, t ) at each point P in
space and at a moment of time t.
In general, a scalar field is simply a
scalar quantity that is a function of
space and time.
scalar - one single value (at a
certain location at a certain time)
scalar field - exists in all points of
space and at any moment of time

4.5.2 Vector Fields

Now think about a vector quantity, for
example the flow vector that determines
the direction of water flow at a certain
point in a river.
can assign such a vector to any point in
the river at any moment of time.
For a vector field the physical quantity is
specified by a vector, giving a direction as
well as a magnitude.
Examples:
velocity, v(x, y, z, t ) measured in ms

magnetic field, B(x, y, z, t ) measured

in tesla.
force, acceleration etc.

Definition 4.11 Vector field

A vector field in 3D is an assignment of a
vector F (x, y, z, t ) at each point r in space
and at a moment of time t.
A vector field is simply a vector
quantity that is a function of space and
time.
a vector is one single vector
vector field is a distribution of
vectors in space and time
Example: Magnetic Field of a bar magnet

A vector field (in the plane) corresponding

to the vector valued function:

F (x, y )

(sin x cos y)i

(cos x )j

Example 4.20
Sketch the graph of the vector field

F (x, y )

yi

xj.

Solution
Evaluate F (x, y )
points: F (1, 0) j

yi

x j at various

F (0, 1)
i
3
F , 2
2i
2

3
j
2

F ( 1, 2)

F (3, 4)

2i
4i

3j

Note
If f is a scalar function of two variables,
its gradient f (or grad f)

f (x, y )

fx , fy

is really a vector field in

gradient vector field.

and is called

Similarly, if f is a scalar function of three

variables, its gradient

f (x, y, z )
is a vector field in

fx , fy , fz
3

More Complex Examples

Velocity field for Pacific Ocean currents

Gravitational force field

10

4.6 Divergence and Curl

Recall: The del-operator,
x

is a vector operator that acts on a field

f (x, y, z ).
We have seen how the operator act on a
scalar field to give the gradient.
Other main operations of vector calculus:
the divergence
the curl
the Laplacian
can also be constructed from the del
operator. The entities on which we operate
may be either scalar fields or vector fields.

11

4.6.1 Divergence
The divergence is a measure for how
the vector field F spreads out
(diverges) from a point.
Suppose that F is the velocity field of a
flowing fluid. Then divF represents the
net rate of change of the mass of the fluid
flowing from the point (x, y, z) per unit
volume. The divergence is a measure of
the tendency of fluid to diverge from a
point.
if divF
source

0 , the point is called a

if divF
sink

0 , the point is called a

if divF 0, then the fluid is said

to be incompressible and vector F
is called a solenoid vector
12

Flow of a fluid across the plane region

(i) div > 0

Fluid arrives through a source point.

(ii) div < 0

Fluid leaves through a sink point.

(iii) div = 0

Fluid is incompressible.
13

div A

The flux leaving the one end must exceed the

flux entering at the other end.
The tubular element is divergent in the
direction of flow.

14

Definition 4.12
The divergence of a vector field
F (x, y, z )

f (x, y, z )i

g(x, y, z )j

h(x , y, z )k

is denoted by divF and is given by

divF

f
x

g
y

h
z

Another notation of divF : as a dot

product of with F
f
g
h
divF
x
y
z

f , g, h

F
Example 4.21
Calculate the divergence of the vector
field F xi y j .
15

divF

divF

The flow lines of this field are straight

lines directed away from the origin.
If this flow lines are those of a fluid, the
fluid is expanding as it moves out of the
origin.
16

Example 4.21a
Calculate the divergence of the vector field

(i) F

xi

yj

(iii) F

yi

xj

(ii) F

xi

yj

Solution
(i) divF

The flow lines of this field are straight lines

directed to the origin.
If this flow lines are those of a fluid, the fluid
is compressing as it moves towards the origin.
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(ii) divF

Whether we have expansion or compression

is less clear. If this flow lines are those of a
fluid, it is neither compressing, nor
expanding.(iii) divF
0

18

Note
Notice that the divergence of a vector field
is a scalar function and not a vector field.
Example 4.21b
Find the divergence of the vector field
F (x, y, z ) x 2yi 2y 3z j 3zk

19

4.6.2 Curl
The curl is a measure for how much
the vector curls around a point.
Consider a fluid moving about a region in
the xy-plane. The curl can be thought as
circulation of the fluid. To measure the
magnitude and direction of the circulation:
use paddle wheel
The curl measures the rate of the fluids
rotation at the point where the paddle
wheel is placed and in the direction of the
wheels axis.

The tendency of the fluid to swirl (or

spin):
20

Curl > 0 rotation is counterclockwise

Curl < 0 rotation is clockwise
Curl = 0 no rotational motion

21

In the flow of an incompressible fluid over

a plane region, the k-component of the
curl measures the rate of the fluids
rotation at a point. The k-component of
the curl is positive at points where the
rotation is counterclockwise and negative
where the rotation is clockwise.

22

If for a vector field F , curlF 0 , then

such a vector field is called irrotational.
For example, it has been shown on
experiment that fluid draining from the
tub is usually irrotational except right at
the center, even though the fluid is
rotating around the drain. Being free
from rigid rotations except at the center
means that it has no whirlpools.

Figure shows flow lines of such fluid

vector field showing that although the
latter are circles about the origin yet the
flow is irrotational.
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Definition 4.12
The curl of a vector field
F (x, y, z )

f (x, y, z )i

g(x, y, z )j

h(x , y, z )k

is denoted by curlF and is given by

curlF

h
y

g
i
z

f
z

g
x

h
j
x

f
k
y

This can be remembered in the following

form:

curlF

x
f

y
g

z
h

Another notation of curlF : as a cross

product of with F

curlF

F
24

Example 4.22
Find the curl of the vector fields
(i) F (x, y, z )
(ii) G

x 2yi

(x cos y )i

2y 3z j

3zk

xy 2 j

25

Note
div is a scalar, and curl is a vector
Example 4.22a
Determine curl F at the point (2, 0, 3)
given that

ze 2xy i

2xz cos y j

(x

2y )k

Solution

curlF

ze 2xy
(2

2x cos y)i

2xz cos y

2y

(1 e 2xy )j

(2z cos y

4)i

1)j

2xze 2xy )k

At (2, 0, 3),

curlF

(2
2i

(1

(6

12)k

6k
26

Derivative Operations
directional derivative - value of the rate
of change of scalar quantity in a given
direction
gradient - direction and value of the
maximum rate of change of scalar
quantity
divergence - source or sink of a vector
field
curl - direction and magnitude of
rotation

27

Summary of grad, div and curl

(a) grad operator acts on a scalar field
to give a vector field
(b) div operator

acts on a vector field

to give a scalar field

(c) curl operator

acts on a vector

field to give a vector field

(d) with a scalar function f (x, y, z )

grad f

f
i
x

f
j
y

(e) with a vector function F

(i) divF

(ii) curlF

f
k
z
f , g, h

f
x

g
y

h
z

x
f

y
g

z
h
28

4.6.3 Multiple Operations

We can combine the operators grad, div
and curl in multiple operations.
If f (x, y, z ) is a scalar field and
F
f , g, h a vector field, then
1. div grad f =

( f)

( f)

2. curl grad f =
3. grad div F =
4. div curl F =
5. curl curl F =

F)

F)

F)

29

Some interesting results:

(a) curl grad f =

( f) = 0

(b) div curl F =

F) = 0

( f)

(c) div grad f =

2

f
x2

f
y2

f
z2

The last operation is called Laplacian

operator and is sometimes denoted as
2
f.
2

The equation f
0 is called Laplaces
equation and the function f that satisfies
such an equation is said to be harmonic.
Note

)f

( f)

30

Example 4.23
Let f be a scalar field and F a vector
field. Determine which of the following
are scalar fields, vector fields or
meaningless.
i.

div f

ii.

grad f

iii. div (div F )

iv. curl (curl F )
v.

grad (div F )

vi. div (grad f)

31

Example 4.24
(a) If F x 2yi
grad div F .

yz 3 j

zx 3 k , determine

(b) If f xyz 2y 2z x 2z 2 , determine

div grad f at the point (2, 4, 1).
(c) If F x 2yzi xyz 2 j y 2zk ,
determine curl curl F at the point
(2, 1, 1).

32