*Family is the building block of the community while the building block of matter is

atom
Atom: from idea to theory
Democritus developed the idea of atoms without proofs or facts. Smallest
particle of an element that retains the chemical identity of that element
Derived from Greek word atomos which means indivisible
5 main points of Daltons Atomic Theory: (proved through a series of
experimentation)
All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atom
All atoms of a given element are identical having the same size, mass and
chemical properties. Atoms of a specific element are different from those of
any other element
Atoms cannot be created, divided into smaller particles or destroyed
Different atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds
In a chemical reaction, atoms are separated, combined or rearranged
Weaknesses:
Atoms consist of even smaller particles called electrons (-), protons (+) and
neutrons
Atoms can be created and destroyed in the nuclear reactions such as nuclear
fusion and nuclear fission
Atoms of the same element can have different physical properties (ex.
Isotopes)
Isotopes atoms that have the same number of protons but different number of
neutrons
Eugene Goldstein
Proved the existence of protons (1886) through canal ray tube
Joseph John Thomson
Discovered electrons (1897) through cathode ray tube experiment
Ernest Rutherford
The atom is mostly empty space
Most of the atoms mass concentrated in a tiny center, the nucleus and
electrons being held in orbit around it by electrostatic attraction
Niels Bhor
Electrons in an atom of an element are not randomly distributed around the
atomic nucleus but move around the nucleus in fixed orbits forming a circle
and with a fixed distance from the nucleus
James Chadwick
Discovered the presence of neutrons (1932) in the nuclear (neutrons make
protons stick together when they repel)

This tiny particle has no charge with mass is almost similar to the proton
mass
All nuclei contain protons and neutrons except for the hydrogen only has
proton

The subatomic particles of an atom:

PARTICLE
Proton
Neutron
Electron

SYMBOL
P
n
e

RELATIVE CHARGE
+1
0
-1

RELATIVE MASS
1
1
1/1840 or
0.0005435

The change of particles

A neutral atom contains the same number of electrons as the protons
The + and charges of the protons and electrons respectively neutralize each
other
(ex. +4+(-4)=0
*If no positive or negative its 0
Ions when atoms lose or gain one or more electrons it acquires a net electrical
charge
Proton number
Proton number (z) represents the number of protons found in the nucleus of
an atom proton number = number of protons
The proton number is also known as the atomic number
In an atom of neutral charge, the number of electrons also equals the atomic
number
Hence, the proton number of an atom can also represent the number of
electrons
Atom no = #p
Neutral atom = 0 = p + e
Net charge
Nucleon number/Mass number/Atomic mass
The nucleon number (A) also called atomic mass number or mass number is
the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atomic nucleus
Mass no = p + n
Neutral atom:
p=e
p+e=0
Ion: p + e = charge
*Ion is if neutron has charge

Where:
X element
Z atomic no
A mass no
C charge it applied
Nuclear Chemistry
Radioactivity
Spontaneous emission of radiation from an element (ex. U, Ra, Po)
Chemical properties of radioactive element change as it gives off radiation
(happens in nucleus)
Radioactive elements emits radiation
Alpha rays (x) alpha have (+) charged particles
Beta (b) rays have (-) charged particles
Gamma (Y) rays do not have particles (like xrays)
2 types of Nuclear Reactions
Changes occur in the nucleus
Reactions change the composition of an atoms nucleus
2 types of Nuclear Reactions
Nuclear Fission
Splitting the nucleus releasing great amount of energy
Nuclear Fusion
2 nuclei collide to form another nucleus releasing great amount of
energy
NAME
Alpha (x)
Beta (B)
Gamma (Y)

TYPES OF RADIATION
CHARGE
+2
-1
none

PENETRATING ABILITY
Low, stopped by paper
Medium, stopped by heavy
clothing
High, stopped by lead

*In nuclear reaction, the change is happening in the nucleus and the protons and
neutrons are affected by it while in chemical reaction the changes occur outside the
nucleus but the electron is affected
Elements with nuclear ability
Z = (1-20) -> stable nuclei protons neutrons
Z > 20 -> need more neutrons to be stable
Z> 83 -> unstable nuclei (radioactive elements) number of neutrons is
sufficient to glue the protons together
*What happens if the nucleus contain too few or too many neutrons?
There is nuclei reaction

3.00 x 108 m/s speed of light

Light

travels as a form of radiant energy through space

behaved like a stream of extremely tiny, fast-moving particles
has both properties of waves and particles
it is a wave and the same time a particle

*Light waves are electromagnetic waves and is a form of electromagnetic radiation

4 characteristics:

wavelength the distance between peaks of consecutive waves

() lambda symbol for wavelength; measured in nanometer
(nm) nanometer usual unit for wavelength

amplitude distance from the origin going to the highest peak

oscillation one turn of the wave

frequency the number of oscillation per second

() nu/new symbol for frequency; measured in /s
(Hz) Hertz ; (1/s) s-1 unit of frequency

speed speed of light

C symbol for speed
Speed of light measured in m/s

What is the relationship of wavelength and frequency?

= c/
nm = usual unit for wavelength
= measured in nanometer
Speed of light = measured in m/s
= measured in /s
*Frequency will increase if wavelength will decrease and vice versa
*Speed is constant, it will not change
*400-700 nm is the visible light
*different colors have different wavelengths
Red highest wavelength so it has the lowest frequency
Violet lowest wavelength so it has the highest frequency
*Light consists of tiny particles or photons that always travels at the speed of light
and has an associated wavelength and frequency
Line spectra

a spectrum that contains only certain colors or wavelengths

samples of elements emit light when they are vaporized in an intense flame
or when electricity passed through their gaseous state

*When electricity passed through the atoms, electrons get excited and release
energy through visible light.
*For every element emitted, light contains only certain wavelengths which gives
each element a unique spectrum
Quantum Mechanical Model
Bohrs Planetary Model of an Atom
each orbit is assigned a certain value called energy levels or energy shells
that is fixed
*Atoms will always find its stable state
de Broglies Description of Electron Behavior
particles of matter behave like waves and exhibit wavelength just as waves of
light behave like particles of matter
Can we locate an electron? NO
How do we locate an electron in an atom if it is in constant motion?
Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle
States that there is no way to determine both the precise location and
momentum (mass x velocity) of small particles at the same time
Led to the quantum-mechanical model of an atom through wave/quantum
mechanics
Quantum Mechanical Model
This model allow scientists to determine the probability of finding electron at
a particular time in specified regions in the atom
These regions are known as atomic orbitals
Quantum numbers used by scientists to locate/describe an electron
What are the quantum numbers used to describe an electron and its location?
Principal quantum number (n)
Correspond to the main energy level of an orbital
Orbital/ Azimuthal quantum number ( )
Represents the energy sublevels
Describes the shape (s,p,d,f) of the atomic orbital

Sharp

Principle
Diffuse
Fundamental

Sublevels; light
they emit

Magnetic Quantum number ( )

Describe the orientation of the atomic orbital
Position of electrons in space
Electron spin quantum number ( )
Spin direction of an electron, represented by arrows up
down

and arrows

Paulis Exclusion Principle

States that no 2 electrons can be described by the same four quantum
numbers
Each orbital in an atom can hold at most 2 electrons with opposite spins
The capacity of an atom is orbital to hold a maximum of 2 electrons
determines the maximum number of electrons allowed on each energy level
and sublevel
n
# orbitals
#e

1
1
2

2
4
8

3
9
18

4
16
32

*As you go up, the energy increases

*For every orbital, 2 electrons will only fit
Energy level
1
2
3

Number of Atomic Orbitals per Sublevel

Sublevels
No. of Orbitals
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
4f

1
1
3
1
3
5
1
3
5
7

Max no. of
electrons
2
2
6
2
6
10
2
6
10
14

What is a valence?

Valence shell the outermost principal energy level of an atom that includes
at least one electron
Valence electrons the electrons in the valence shell

Kernel of the atom the nucleus including all the energy level except for the
valence shell; innermost

What is Aufbau principle?

From the German word aufbau means building up
Describes the hypothetical process in which electrons are imagined as
entering the atomic orbitals one by one
The distribution of electrons among the orbitals of an atom
Electron configuration
Represented by a number, a letter and a superscript
Ex. 2s2 two s two 3p6 three p six)
Br35 = 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
*4s2 comes first than 3d10