Dibujo Mecánico - Elemental y Avanzado (English)

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MECHANICAL DRAWING,
ELEMENTARY AND ADVANCED.
BY
JOHN
S.
Instructor in Mechanical
Armour
REID,
Drawing and Designing,
Institute of Technology.
FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

FIRST THOUSAND.
NEW YORK.
JOHN WILEY & SONS.
London CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited.
:
1910
T^ 3
Copyright, 1898, 1908, 1910,
BY
JOHN
S.
RE ID.
THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS

ROBERT DRUMMOND AND COMPANY
BROOKLYN,
N. Y.
A2732C4
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

The
third
edition
of "
was enlarged and improved by
"A Course
problems,
Drafting
In
Room
this,
Course
in
Mechanical Drawing "
the addition of a
Lettering " and
in
"Present Practice in
Methods."
the fourth edition, the
and improved by adding courses
work has been

in
Drawing,
Machine
Architectural
Details,
further enlarged
Advanced Mechanical Draw-
ing consisting of short elementary courses in

rical
concrete
set of
Drawing,
Advanced jsomet-
Sheet Metal
Drafting,
and Working Drawings made from freehand
sketches of small machine parts.
This arrangement
will
preclude the necessity of using several
text-books in high schools, manual-training high schools, university
preparatory schools, technical colleges, and evening classes
where a variety
of courses are given to
meet the needs of students
preparing for different trades and professions.
With the addition
of these
has been thought desirable
"A
Course
in
to
new
courses in advanced
change the
Mechanical Drawing "
title
to "
of the
work
it
book from
Mechanical Drawing,
Elementary and Advanced."

It
ments
was very
gratifying to the writer to learn that the improve-
in the third edition
and students and

edition will
it
is
meet with a
were well received by both teachers
hoped that the additions
to
the /fourth
like approval.
John
S.
Reid.
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.
To meet
schools,
the
it
set of
to
add
training high
colleges,
to
"A
and
Course
problems covering the
requirements in mechanical drawing for entrance to the more
advanced classes
sign,
machine drawing, elementary machine de-
in
The minimum
and architectural drawing.
in a definite
number
of
working hours
plate, as introduced in this edition,
much
of
technical
has been found necessary
Mechanical Drawing" a concrete
full
manual
of high schools,
university preparatory schools,
evening classes,
in
demands
appreciated by Instructors
work
to require
from
is
time allowed
for the finishing of
new
feature,
when determining
and
the
each
will
be
amount
their students in a given term.
The
time allowed for the different plates has been carefully deter-
mined by taking note

large
numbers
same
conditions,
young man
finish
of students
of hours taken
working on the same
of fair intelligence
The Course
number
plates,
by
under the
and a conservative average taken, so that any
any of the plates
edition, will
of the actual
and with an honest endeavor may
in the time given.
in Lettering,
which has
also
been added
to this
be found to be of great practical benefit to students
in all kinds of engineering drafting,
and
will
be seen to embrace
PREFACE.
vi
the most approved practice in drafting
room methods
at
the
present time.
The
report
on the "Present Practice
Methods," which
new, and
will
be found
at the
system in their drawing courses that
in the
Drafting
and enable them
will interest Instructors
best practice in the leading
in
end of the book,
may
closely
Room
is
also
adopt a
to
approximate the
and most progressive drafting rooms
United States.
The thanks
extended
of the author are
to those
encouraged and
who have used

:
ass isted
due and are most cordially
this
him by
book
in the past
gracious
and have
words and timely
suggestions.
John
Armour Institute of Technology.
Chicago,
111.,
September, 1908.
S.
Reid.
PREFACE.
In the course of a large experience as an instructor

drawing and designing, the author of
called
this
work has often been
to teach the elements of mechanical
upon
in
drawing to
students in marine, electrical, railway, and mechanical engi-
Having
neering.
ject that
tried
and
failed to find a
was entirely suitable
has found
for his use as a text-book,
This course contains,
in
the
author's
ful
judgment, a com-
by examples,
concise statement, accompanied
the essential principles of mechanical
young man
he
necessary to prepare the present work.
it
plete and
book on the sub-
drawing
all
of ordinary intelligence needs to master,
study, the
more advanced problems met with
construction and design.
Such works
in
that
by
of
any
care-
machine
as the author has tried,
although most excellent from certain standpoints, were either

incomplete
some
in
of the divisions of the subject or too volu-
minous and elementary
in the
treatment of details.
The author does not imagine

believes that
it
comes nearer what
elements of mechanical drawing

schools, evening drawing schools,
work
this
is
is
needed
in
perfect, but he
in
teaching the
technical schools, high
and colleges than any work
he has examined.
The chapter on Conventions will be
appreciated by students
PREFA CE.
Vlii
when
called
upon
to execute working drawings in practical
The methods
work.
described are considered by the author
to be those which have
met with general approval by the
experienced American draftsmen of the present time.
My
of
acknowledgments are due to E. C. Cleaves, professor
drawing, Sibley College, Cornell University, for reading
the manuscript and
making some valuable suggestions.
The Author.
April
i,
1898.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
The Complete Outfit, Illustrated
CHAPTER
I.
Instruments
Use of Instruments
7
7
Pencil
Drawing Pen
T Square
n
n
Triangles
Drawing Board
11
Sibley College Scale
12
Guard
Compasses
13
Dividers or Spacers
Spring Bows
14
Scale
12
13
Irregular Curves
14
Protractor
14
CHAPTER
II.
Geometrical Drawing
16
CHAPTER
III.
Conventions
56
CHAPTER
IV.
Lettering and Figuring
64
ix
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
V.
Orthographic Projection
74
Shade Lines, Shades, and Shadows
103
Conventions
104
Shades
ic6
Shadows
1 1
Drawing
Working Drawings
122
Isometrical
'
Problems in Mechanical Drawing (Course
CHAPTER
I)
129
135
VI.
z^2
Architectural Drawing
CHAPTER
VII.
I 75
Architectural Design
CHAPTER
VIII.
216
Sheet Metal Pattern Drafting
CHAPTER
IX.
Elementary Machine Details, Including Screws, Nuts, Bolts, Keys,

228
Cotters and Gibs, Coupling Springs, etc
Problems in Mechanical Drawing (Course
II)
277
in
Present Practice in Drafting Room Conventions and Methods
Making Practical Working Drawings
289
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
INTRODUCTION.
A NEED has been felt by instructors and students, especially

in technical courses, for a text-book that
fundamental principles
mechanical drawing
in
illustrate the
such a prac-
and progressive way as to enable the
direct
lucid,
tical,
of
would
instructor to teach, and the student to acquire, the greatest
number
of the essential principles involved,
apply them,
in a draftsman-like
manner,
in
and the
ability to
the shortest space
of time.
With
this in
mind, the present work has been prepared
from the experience
of the writer, a practical
draftsman and
teacher for over fifteen years.
THE COMPLETE OUTFIT.

The
is
outfit for students in
mechanical and machine drawing
as follows
(i)
The Drawing-board
i6"X2i"x",
the
same
as
for
academy and freshman work
that used for free-hand drawing.
The
material should be soft pine and constructed as
Fig.
i.
(2)
is
Scribbling Pencil with rubber
tip.
shown by
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
6H and
(3)
Pencils, one
(4)
The T-Square; a
head
is all
that
is
one
plain
necessary.
Instruments.
recommended
Koh-i-noor or Faber.
pearwood T-square with a fixed
Length 21".
Fig.
(5)
4H
" Pocket
i.
Book"
Set,
shown by
Fig. 2,
as a first-class medium-priced set of instruments.
It contains
Fig.
Compass, 5}" long, with
2.
fixed
needle-point, pencil,
pen
a
and lengthening bar; a Spring Bow
Spring Bow Pen, 3" long; a Spring Bow Spacer, 3" long;
Pencil,
3" long;
INTRODUCTION.
2
Drawing-pens, medium and
small,
5" long; a nickel-plated box with
Hair-spring Divider*
leads.
Fig.
Fig. 4.
(6)
A Triangular Boxwood
4" and
(7)
2",
1
Scale graduated as
3" and ij", 1" and J", f" and f",
Triangle 3ox6o,
"
45,
celluloid,
"
10" long.
7"
"
A"
follows:
and A".
Fig. 4.
MECHA NIC A L DRA WING.

Irregular Curve.
No.
(8)
(9)
Emery Pencil Pointer.
Fig. 5.
13.
(10)
Ink, black waterproof.
(11)
Ink Eraser, Faber's Typewriter.
(12)
Pencil Eraser, "Emerald" No. 211.
Fig.
Fig.
7.
No. 104.
Fig. 9.
Fig.
Fig. 8.
7.
(13)
Sponge Rubber or Cube of "Artgum."
(14)
Tacks, a small carton
small
thumb
of
1 oz.
copper tacks, and
doz.
tacks.
/,
Xi XrV "
(15)
Arkansas Oil Stone.
(16)
Protractor, German
silver,
(17)
Figs. 10, ii,
Scale Guard,
"
".
//
about 5" diam.

Fig. 13.
Fig. 12,
INTRODUCTION.
(18)
(iq)
2 sheets of
2
"
"
Cream" Drawing Paper.
" Imperial Tracing Cloth.
(20)
Cross-section Pad.
(21)
Scribbling Pad.
[5"X2o'\
i$"X2q"
8"Xio".
yl|^
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12
(22) i
Erasing Shield,
nickel plated.
(23)
(24)
(25)
Lettering Pens, "Gillott" No. 303.

"
"
"Ball Point," No. 506.
"
"
"
"
No. 516.
(26)
Two-foot Rule.
CHAPTER
I.
INSTRUMENTS.
It
is
common
cheap instrument
among
belief
will
students that any kind of
do with which to
mechanical
learn
drawing, and not until they have acquired the proper use of
the instruments should they spend
This
class set.
Many
made.
money
buying a
in
first-
one of the greatest mistakes that can be
is
been discouraged and disgusted
a student has
make
because, try as he would, he could not
using a set of instruments with which
it
good drawing,
would be
difficult for
even an experienced draftsman to make a creditable showing.

If
it is
necessary to economize in this direction
better
it is
and easier to get along with a fewer number, and have them
of the best, than
\t is
to have an elaborate outfit of question-
able quality.
The
price,
made
instruments shown in Fig. 2 are well
and with care and attention
will give
of a
moderate
good satisfaction
for
a long time.
USE OF INSTRUMENTS.
The
Pencil.
in pencil
first,
Designs
and
if
of all kinds are usually
to be finished in pencil, then

center,
and kept they are inked
to be finished
and sometimes colored and shaded
and dimension
lines
all
worked out
but
if
the drawing
is
in
only
the lines except construction,
should be
made broad and
dark,
6
INSTRUMENTS.
so that the drawing will stand out clear
be noticed that this
made with
a thin, even line
first
pencil, not less than
two kinds
for
calls
6H
It will
of pencil-lines, the
a hard, fine-grained lead-
The
the following manner:
in
should be carefully bared of the

n',
distinct.
Koh-i-noor or Faber's), and
(either
sharpened to a knife-edge
and
wood with
a knife for about
and the wood neatly tapered back from that point
lay the lead

outfit,
upon
lead
then
the emery-paper sharpener illustrated in the
and carefully rub
to
wood
long taper from the
and
fro until the pencil
to the point
do the same with the other
side,
now
turn
assumes a
it
over and
using toward the last a
slightly oscillating
motion on both sides
assumed a sharp,
thin, knife-edge
until the point has
endwise and an
elliptical
contour the other way.
This point should then be polished on a piece of scrap
drawing-paper until the rough burr
left
by
the emery-papei
is
removed, leaving a smooth, keen, ideal pencil-point for drawing straight lines.
With such
a point but
little
pressure
is
required in the
hands of the draftsman to draw the most desirable

that can be easily erased
much
blunt point, because,

nation
when necessary and inked
better advantage than
is
when
to press hard
forms a groove
in
pencil, say
upon
it
it
4H, and
is
makes
it
made with
blunt the
when drawing
in
a line.
very
to
a
incli-
This
difficult to
line.
The second kind

;
the line had been
the paper which
draw an even inked
explained above
if
the pencil-point
one
line,
of a pencil-line
is
the broad
line,
as
should be drawn with a somewhat softer

a thicker point.
All lines not necessary to explain the drawing should be
MECHA NIC A L DRA WI NG
erased before inking or broadening the pencil-lines, so as to
make
minimum
of erasing
and cleaning
after the
drawing
is
finished.
When
plane
drawing
passing
pencil-lines, the pencil should be held in a
through the edge of the T-square perpen-
making an angle with
dicular to the plane of the paper and
the plane of the paper equal to about 6o.
Lines should always be drawn from
left to right.
soft
conical-pointed pencil should be used for lettering, figuring,
and
all
free-hand work.
The Draiving-pen.
is
that
shown
in
The best form,
Fig.
The
14.
in the writer's opinion,
spring on the upper blade
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
spreads the blades sufficiently apart to allow for thorough

cleaning
and sharpening.
unnecessary.
The hinged
The pen should be
through the edge of the T-square

of the paper,
blade
held in a
is
therefore
plane passing
at right angles to the plane
and making an angle with the plane
paper ranging from 6o to 90
of the
INSTRUMENTS.
The
and
point,
teacher
of
best
until
how
drawing-pens will
the
in
time wear dull on the
has learned from a competent
student
to sharpen his pens
it
would be better to have
them sharpened by the manufacturer.

It is difficult to
explain the
method
of sharpening a draw-
ing-pen.
one blade has worn shorter than the other, the blades
If
should be brought together by means of the thumb-screw, and

placing the pen in an upright position draw the point to and
fro
on the oil-stone
in a
plane perpendicular to
it,
raising
and
lowering the handle of the pen at the same time, to give the
proper curve to the point.

of "
The Complete
The
The Arkansas
oil-stones (No. 15
Outfit ") are best for this purpose.
blades should next be opened slightly, and holding
the pen in the right hand in a nearly horizontal position, place

the lower blade on the stone and
slightly turning the
handle a
little at
lower blade a
pen with the
points,
it
fingers
the end of each stroke.
little,
quickly to and
fro,
and elevating the
Having ground the
turn the pen completely over and grind
the upper blade in a similar

of time
move
manner
for
about the same length
then clean the blades and examine the extreme
and
if
there are
still
bright spots to be seen continue
the grinding until they entirely
disappear,
and
finish
the
sharpening by polishing on a piece of smooth leather.
The
paper.
blades should not be too sharp, or they will cut the
The grinding should be continued only
bright spots
When
show on the points
of the blades.
inking, the pen should be held- in about the
position as described for holding the pencil.
men
as long as the
hold the pen vertically.
The
position
Many
may be
same
drafts-
varied
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
10
with good results as the pen wears.
should only be drawn from
Lines made with the pen
left to right.
THE TRIANGLES.
The
shown
triangles
at Fig.
il
(in
The Complete
are 10" and j" long respectively, and are
The
celluloid.
very
little
when
made
Outfit ")
of transparent
black rubber triangles sometimes used are but
cheaper (about 10 cents) and soon become dirty
in use; the
rubber
is
brittle
and more easily broken than
the celluloid.
Angles of
15
drawn with the
75
30
triangles
45
and 90 can readily be
6o,
and T-square.
Lines parallel to
oblique lines on the drawing can be drawn with the triangles
by placing the edge representing the height

so as to coincide with the given
resenting
the
line,
of
hypotenuse of the other against the corre-
sponding edge of the
first,
and by
The
of lines
may
upper on the
sliding the
lower when holding the lower firmly with the
number
one of them
then place the edge rep-
left
be drawn parallel to the given
hand any
line.
methods of drawing perpendicular lines and making
angles with other lines within the scope of the triangles and T-
square are so evident that further explanation
is
unnecessary.
THE T-SQUARE.
The
plished
the
use of the T-square
lines.
very simple, and
by holding the head firmly with the
left-hand
hand
is
left
is
accom-
hand against
end of the drawing-board, leaving the right
free to use the
pen or pencil
in
drawing the required
INSTRUMENTS.
II
THE >RAWING-BOARD.
the left-hand edge of the drawing-board
If
rven and the paper
is
tacked
is
down square with
that edge and
Ihe T-square, then horizontal lines parallel to the
drawn with the T-square, and

can be
made by means
sometimes
are
upper edge
paper and perpendicular to the left-hand edge
of the
lines
and
straight
may be
perpendicular to these
of the triangles, or set squares, as they
called.
THE TRIANGULAR SCALE.

This
fit"),
illustrated
scale,
was arranged
drawing,
edges
It
to suit the
triangular
is
Fig.
1" and \"
ft.,
(in
"The Complete Out-
needs of the students in machine
and made
graduated as follows;
are
and f" =
4" and 2"
in
ft.,
of
The
boxwood.
TV' or full
3" and \\"
f/
size,
z\
ft.,
six
f"
and
ft.
Drawings of very small objects are generally shown enlarged
e.g.,
it is
if
determined to make a drawing twice the
an object, then where the object measures one inch

the drawing would be made 2" etc.
full size of
',
Larger objects or small machine parts are often drawn

size
ing
is
i.e.,
the same size as the object really
said to be
made
reduced scale
2"
ft.,
e.g.,
full
and the draw-
to the scale of full size.
Large machines and large

if
is
details are usually
a drawing
is
to be
made
made
to a
to the scale of
then 2" measured by the standard rule would be
divided into 12 equal parts and each part would represent 1".
See Fig. 8i.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
1J
THE SCALE GUARD.

This instrument
Outfit ").
It is
is
shown
employed
in
No. 17
(in
"The Complete
to prevent the scale
so that the draftsman can use
it
from turning,
without having to look for
the particular edge he needs every time he wants to Jay off

a measurement.
THE COMPASSES.
When
about to draw a
circle
or an arc of a circle, take
hold of the compass at the joint with the

fingers,
thumb and two
first
guide the needle-point into the center and set the
pencil or pen leg to the required radius, then
move
and forefinger up to the small handle provided
at
the
thumb
the top of
the instrument, and beginning at the lowest point draw the

line clockwise.
down
The weight
of the
compass
will
be the only
pressure required.
Fig. 16.
The sharpening
of the lead for the
compasses
is
a very im-
portant matter, and cannot be emphasized too much.
commencing
drawing
it
Before
pays well to take time to properly
sharpen the pencil and the lead for compasses and to keep
them always
The
same
in
good condition.
directions for sharpening the
as has
compass leads are the
already been given for the sharpening of the
straight-line pencil.
INSTRUMENTS.
13
THE DIVIDERS OR SPACERS.

This instrument should be held
scribed for the compass.
It is
in
the same manner as de-
very useful
To
distances on straight lines or circles.

into
is
any number
in
laying off equal
divide a given line
of equal parts with the dividers, say 12,
best to divide the line into three or four parts
it
say 4,
first,
and then when one of these parts has been subdivided accurately
into
three equal parts,
it
will
be a simple matter to
step off these latter divisions on the remaining three-fourths
Fig. 17.
of the given line.
Care should be taken not to make holes
the paper with the spacers, as
it is
difficult to
ink over
in
them
without blotting.
THE SPRING BOWS.

These instruments are valuable
cles
and arcs of
circles.
It
is
for
drawing the small
very important that
all
cir-
the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
14
small arcs, such as
round corners,
fillets,
fully pencilled in before
etc.,
should be care-
Many
beginning to ink a drawing.
good drawings are spoiled because
bad joints between
of the
small arcs and straight lines.
When commencing
ink a drawing,
to
small circles should be inked

circles,
much
and the straight
easier to
This
lines last.
know where
the straight line tangent to
all
small arcs and
then the larger arcs and
first,
best, because
is
to stop the arc line,
it is
and to draw
than vice versa.
it,
IRREGULAR CURVES.
The
ing
irregular curve
irregular
curves
shown
Fig.
in
through points
found by construction, such as

as in the cases of gear-teeth,
useful
is
that
have
for draw-
already
been
ellipses, cycloids epicyloids, etc.,
cam
outlines, rotary
pump
wheels,
etc.
When
using these curves, that curve should be selected
that will coincide with the greatest
number
of points on the
line required.
THE PROTRACTOR.
This instrument
It
is
shown
is
in Fig. 12.
for
measuring and constructing angles.
It is
used as follows when measuring
an angle: Place the lower straight edge on the straight
which forms one
of the sides of
exactly on the point of the angle to be measured.
number
the
left,
of degrees contained in
line
the angle, with the nick
the angle
may
Then
the
be read from
clockwise.
In constructing an angle, place the nick at the point from
which
it is
desired to draw the angle, and on the outer circum-
INSTR UMEN TS.
ference of the protractor, find the figure corresponding to the
number
of degrees in the required angle,
and mark a point on
the paper as close as possible to the figure on the protractor;

after
removing the protractor, draw a
to the nick,
which
line
through
will give the required angle.
this point
CHAPTER
II.
GEOMETRICAL DRAWING.
The
pose
following problems are given to serve a double pur-
to teach the use of drawing instruments,
and to point
out those problems in practical geometry that are most useful

in
mechanical drawing, and to impress them upon the mind of
the student so that he
may
The drawing-paper
readily apply
for this
made
may be
directed
as large as
in practice.
work should be divided tem-
porarily, with light pencil-lines, into as
tangles as
them
by the
many
instructor,
squares and rec-
and the drawings
The
the size of the squares will permit.
average size of the squares should be not

a sheet of drawings
is
finished these
less
When
than 4".
boundary
lines
may
be
erased.
It will
all
be noticed in the illustrations of this chapter that
construction lines are
made very narrow, and given and
required lines quite broad.
them, and employs
less
construction lines were

If
time will permit,
drawings toward the
This
is
sufficient
to
distinguish
time than would be necessary
made broken,
it is
last.
be red, the construction
as
is
if
often the case.
advisable to ink in
some
of these
In that event, the given lines

lines blue,
the
and the required
may
lines
black.
But even when inked
in
in black, the
broad and narrow

16
would serve the purpose very well without the use
lines
of col-
ored inks.
The
ings
principal thing to be
aimed
accuracy of construction.
is
laid off carefully, correctly,
at in
making these draw-
All dimensions should be
and quickly.
Straight lines join-
ing arcs should be exactly tangent, so that the joints cannot
be noticed.
the
It is
a drawing, and
if
The constant endeavor
make every drawing he
quicker and better
things like these that
in
every
way than
is
in a
should be the same, as saying This

I
cannot improve
make
it
is
a true
make
will
or
the preceding one.

in as finished until
drawing
is
it
in
any way
the same, or
the best that
measure of
the
my
can do;
ability to
this drawing.
If
these suggestions are faithfully followed throughout this
course, success awaits
To
Fig. i8.
A and B
AB
ing AB
of
it.
BlSECT A Finite Straight Line.
With
and a radius greater than the half
arcs intersecting at
E and
F.
Join
EF bisect-
at C.
may be bisected in the same way.

To Erect a Perpendicular at the End of
arc of a circle
b
pfg ii;
Assume the points above the
THE Line.
radius
any one who earnestly desires
in turn as centers,
draw
An
EB
point C.
D.
it
is
mar
of the student
perfectly sure that he cannot improve
whatever, for the act of handing
or
begins more accurate,
drawing should never be handed
student
make
attended to or neglected they
mar the draftsman.

should be to
little
describe an arc
From C draw
Draw
Fi^'ao!
DB
CBD
line as center
cutting the line
a line through
AB
in
and
the
cutting the arc in
the perpendicular.
The Same Problem: a Second Method.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
i8
With
center
and any radius as
with the same radius; measure
D and E
as centers
tersecting at F.
off
BC
describe an arc
the arcs CDa.nd
CDE
DE. With
and any convenient radius describe arcs
FB
is
in-
the required perpendicular.
'e
Fig. 21.
FiSî*.
To Draw a Perpendicular to a Line
from a Point above or below It. Assume the point

C above the line. With center C and any suitable radius
From E and F describe'arcs
cut the line AB in E and F.
cutting in D.
Draw CD
the perpendicular required.
GE OME 7 RICA L DRA WIN G.

b
Fi2, *22;
To Bisect A Given Angle.
and any convenient radius describe the
C as
at
arc
19
With A
BC.
as center
With
and
centers and any convenient radius draw arcs intersecting
D.
Join
AD,
then angle
BAD = angle DAC.
Fig. 22.
To Draw a Line Parallel to a Given

Fi^bf]
Line AB Through a Given Point C. From any point
on
AB
as
From C
AC as
lel
to
with radius
BC describe
an arc cutting
with the same radius describe arc
radius cut arc
BD in D.
AB
BD. From
Draw CD.
Line
CD
in
is
A,
with
paral-
AB.
T\
J?.
2)
Fig. 23.
PiâJ; From a Point D on the Line DE to set

off an Angle equal to the given Angle BAC. From
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
20
From
with any convenient radius describe arc BC.
the same radius describe arc
BC cut
arc
EF in
F.
Join
EF.
D wit*
is
E and radius
= angle BAC.
into
two equal
With center
DF. Angle
EDF
Fig. 24.
b
FiS.
25.'
To Divide an Angle
when the Lines do not Extend to a Meeting

Point. Draw the line CD and CE parallel and at equal dis-
Parts,
Fig. 25.
tances from the lines

radius
draw
arcs 1,2.
AB
and FG. With C as center and any

With 1 and 2 as centers and any con-
GEOMETRICAL DRAWIXG.
21
A line
venient radius describe arcs intersecting at//".
and
through
H divides the angle into two equal parts.

b
To Construct a Rhomboid having Adjacent Sides equal to two Given Lines AB and AC, and
an Angle equal to a Given Angle A. Draw line DE
Fi2
'2(3*.
F with
Make
AD.
equal to
line
AB
as radius
and from
describe arcs cutting in G.
b
'
Fi"g
27*.
Join
From
FG
radius
and EG.
To DlvIDE THE LlXE AB into any Number
OF EQUAL Parts, SAY
15.
of any convenient length.
number
DF AC.
E with line AC as
Make
angle A.
of equal parts into
Draw
a line
From C
CD
set off
parallel to
AB,
along this line the
which the lineABis to be divided.
Draw CA and DB and produce them until they intersect at

Through each one of the points 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., draw
E.
lines to
number
the point E, dividing the line
into the required
of equal parts.
This problem
required
AB
is
is
useful in dividing a line
difficult to find
the pitch of the
accurately
when
e.g., in Fig.
spur gear, partly shown,
the point
28
AB
is
which includes a
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
22
space and a tooth and

cast gears the space
is
measured on the pitch
is
made
In
circle.
larger than the thickness of the
tooth, the proportion being about 6 to
i.e.,
if
we
divide
the pitch into eleven equal parts the space will measure T6T
cP^
&
3 4 S 6
89
1.011
1213
U J>
Fig
Fig. 27.
and the tooth T5T

tooth
AB.
Draw CD
distance and set off on
1 .
Draw CA' and DB'
length.
5
parallel
it
draw
a line to
which
the space
is
larger than the
Let A'B' be the pitch chord
called the backlash.
is
the arc
The T T which
to
A'B'
any convenient
equal spaces of any convenient
From
intersecting at E.
will divide
one part yV and the other T6T
at
of
point
A'B' as required; the
2^ To DlvIDE A Given Line into any Number

of Equal Parts: Another Method. Let AB be the
From A draw A C at any angle, and lay off on it
given line.
'
Fi2.
the required
Join
to
CB
number
and through the divisions on
CB, dividing
b
Mg.
of equal spaces of
"
30."
AB as
any convenient length.
AC draw
required in the points
lines parallel
i', 2', 3',
4', etc.
To Divide a Line AB Proportionally to
the Divided Line CD.
Draw AB
parallel to
CD
at
any
distance from
them
till
divisions
it.
Draw
lines
I,
through
Draw
they meet at E.
2, 3, 4, etc., of line
CA and DB and
lines
from
CD, cutting
3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 111213
23
produce
through the
line
AB
in
the
Fig. 29.
points
5,
6, 7, 8, etc.
same proportion
AB has
to the
The
divisions on
to the divisions
whole
line
on
CD i.e.,
CD
AB
will
have the
that the whole line
the lines will be propor-
tionally divided.
Fi^'
31I
The Same
the divided line,
make any
Another Method.
angle with
BA,
Let
BC,
the line to be di-
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
24
Draw
vided at B.
Draw
lines
from
CA
line
5, 6,
joining the two ends of the lines.
7, 8, parallel
in points 1, 2, 3, 4, proportional to
CA, dividing
to
line
AB
BC
Ffg. 32! To Construct an Equilateral Triangle

on A Given Base AB, From the points A and B with AB
as radius describe arcs cutting in C.
Draw lines AC and BC.
The triangle ABC is equilateral and equiangular.
*
Fig. 32.
Mg
33.
To Construct an Equilateral Triangle
of a Given Altitude, AB.
From
both ends of
AB
draw
CA and DB. From A with any

radius describe a semicircle on CA and with its radius cut off
arcs 1, 2.
Draw lines from A through 1, 2, and produce
lines perpendicular to
them
it
as
until they cut the base
Ffg *34.
BD.
To Trisect a Right Angle
the angular point
ABC From
with any convenient radius describe an
arc cutting the sides of the angle in
with the same radius cut
off arcs
C and
and
2.
2B, and the right angle will be trisected.
From C and A
Draw lines \B and
A.
b
Fig.
To Construct any Triangle,
35!
AB
Sides
as
and
being given.
From one
describe an arc with the line
other end with line

first
arc in
D.
To
From D draw
lines to the
its
From
line
A, and a
sides equal to the sides
largest side
36
si!
BEING GIVEN
To Construct
B and
A.
Fig. 35.
Fig. 36.
the
arc, cutting the
construct any triangle the two shorter sides
Fig. 34.
'
end of the base
ends of
must together be more than equal to the
Ffg
Fig.
Three
its
as radius.
as radius describe an
triangle will be constructed having
given.
25
Fig. 37.
Square,
Erect a perpendicular at B.
its
Base
Make
AB
BC equal
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
26
From A and C with radius AB describe arcs cutting

DC and DA.
To Construct a Square, given its Di37.'
Fi*g
agonal AB. Bisect AB in C. Draw Z)/7 perpendicular to
AB at C Make CD and F each equal to CA. Join y2Z?,
to
AB.
in
D.
Join
b
*
>j5,
BF, and FA.

b
Fig.
To Construct
is!
Number of
GIVEN.
any point
to the given circle.

circle cutting
many
I,
Regular Polygon of any
the Circumscribing Circle being
Sides,
At
of contact, as
From C with any radius
the given
Draw
lines
a tangent
AB
describe a semi-
Divide the semicircle into as
circle.
equal parts as the polygon
2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
C draw
is
from
required to have sides, as
through each division,
cutting the circle in points which will give the angles of the
polygon.
AB
b
Draw a diameter
of
Fi2 io! Another Method.
Divide
into as many equal parts as
the given circle.
'
AB
the polygon
is
to
have
sides, say 5.
From A and B
with the
line
AB
as radius describe arcs cutting in C,
C through
27
draw a
line
from
the second division of the diameter and produce
cutting the circle in D.
The
polygon.
will
C must
line
second division of
BD
it
be the side of the required
always be drawn through the
the diameter,
whatever the number of
sides of the polygon.
To Construct any
'
Fi
to.'
Regular
Polygon
with A GIVEN Side AB. Make BD perpendicular and

AB. With B as center and radius AB describe arc
DA. Divide arc DA into as many equal parts as there are
equal to
sides in the
Bisect line
ting
B2
required polygon, as
AB
in C.
With
circle.
1,
2,
3, 4,
and erect a perpendicular
With C
AB
as center
Draw B2.
5.
at the bisection cut-
and radius
as a chord step off the
CB
describe a
remaining sides of
the polygon.
Fig. 41.
Fig. 40.
r b
Fi g 'fi:
center
Another Method. Extend
line
AB.
With
and any convenient radius describe a semicircle.
Divide the semicircle into as

sides in the required
many
polygon, say
every division except the
first.
equal parts as there are
Draw
6.
With
lines
as center
through
and
AB
as
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
28
A2
radius cut off
From C with the same

E.
From B, A$ in F.
in C.
A3
radius cut
From D, A\ in
in D.
Join AC, CD,
DE, EF, and FB.
b
Ffg ft.' To Construct a Regular Heptagon, the
Circumscribing Circle being given. Draw a radius AB.
'
With
i? as
1,2;
it
center and
BA
as radius, cut the circumference in
be bisected by the radius
will
Ci or C2
in C.
is
equal
to the side of the required heptagon.
Fig. 42.
To Construct a Regular Octagon, the
43
Ffs.
Circumscribing Circle being given.
AB.
CB
Bisect the arcs

in
and
2.
Draw
AB
in
lines
Draw
and D.
from
and
Bisect arcs
2
2
*
CA
and
through the center
of the circle, cutting the circumference in 3
iC, C2,
b
Ffg
a diameter
and
4.
Join A\,
i?3, etc.
BEING GIVEN.
To Construct a Pentagon, the Side
AB
Produce
radius, describe arc
AB. With B as center and BA as

AD2. With center A and same radius,
describe an arc cutting the
first
arc in
D.
Bisect
AB
in
E.
Draw
line
center
circle.
gon.
DE.
Draw
Bisect
bisection.
circle
it
line
it
The
will cut in G.
Bisect arc
and radius
BD
EF cut
B2
it
off
will
and draw a
in F.
arc
29
Draw
C\ and
1,
line
line
as center
will contain the
With
on the semi-
be a second side of the penta-
perpendicular to
perpendiculars from the sides
With G
EF.
and radius
pentagon.
Fig. 45.
it
AB
GA
at
the
and B2
describe a
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
^2h
To Construct a Heptagon on a Given
51'
4:0.
'
.rig.
LINE AB.
Extend
line
AB
With
describe a semicircle.
center
arc
line
DE.
With C
the heptagon.
Bisect
it
line
B\
D.
Bisect
DE as
as center and
Draw
on the semicircle.
AB
with radius
and same radius de-
scribe an arc cutting the semicircle in
Draw
From
to C.
AB
in
E.
radius, cut off
a second side of
it is
and obtain the center of the circum-
scribing circle as in the preceding problem.

15
Square.
A, B,
To Inscribe an
Hi
'
Fig*.
Draw diagonals AD,

and
C,
D with
Octagon
CB
radius equal to
cutting the sides of the square in
I,
Given
in
From
intersecting at O.
AO
describe quadrants
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8.
Join
these points and the octagon will be inscribed.
/ \
\/ ^
<
>
Fig. 47-
Fig. 46.
b
Fig.
To Construct a Regular Octagon on a
I?.'
Given Line AB.
Extend
perpendiculars at
AB describe
the semicircle
DF in
CE
more
sides of the octagon.
1.
and
2,
4 equal
to
CEB
and
AB.
AB in
With
and B.
rants
and
line
2,
both directions.
centers
and AF2.
then
and
Erect
and radius
Bisect the quad-
A\ and B2
will
be two
At 1 and 2 erect perpendiculars

Draw 1-2 and 3-4. Make the
perpendiculars at
and
equal to
3*
-2 or 3-4
viz.,
A$ and
Complete the octagon by drawing 3-5, 5-6, and 6-4.
i>6.
To Draw a Right Line Equal to Half
'
Fi-
s.
THE ClRCUxMFERENCE OF A Given CIRCLE. Draw a diamDraw line AC perpendicular to AB and equal to
eter AB.
Draw another perpen-
three times the radius of the circle.

dicular at
BD,
cut off arc
Line
circle
AB.
With
bisect
it
center
and draw a
and radius
line
through the bisection, cutting
the circle
EC.
to
EC
from the center of

line
Join
A.
.
"
Fig
49'.
equal to
scribe
CD.
To Find A Mean Proportional to two

Bisect
a semicircle.
Extend the
AE
At
in
F.
b
Fi|
'
line
From
AB to E making BE
F with radius FA de-
where the two given
joined erect a perpendicular to
BG
Given Right Lines.
AE
CD
io.
To FlND A Third Proportional
AB.
FG. From
with
(less)
to
AB and CD. Make EF= the

DC making an angle with EF.
EG as radius cut EF in H. Draw
Draw EG'=
are
and AB.
be a mean proportional to
given line
lines
cutting the semicircle in
will
two Given Right Lines

Join
E.
in
be equal to half the circumference of
will
G.
of the circle
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
32
H parallel
to
FG, cutting
tional (less) to the
EG
two given
in /.
EI is
the third propor-
lines.
Fig. 50.
b
Fi2.
ii!
Fig. 51.
To Find a Fourth Proportional to three
Given Right Lines AB, CD, and EF. Make ^^=the

given line AB.
Draw GI = CD, making any convenient
From G lay off GK = EF. From
angle to GH.
Join HI.
K draw
a parallel to
HI cutting GI in
L.
GL
is
the fourth
proportional required.
Fig. 53.
Fi
2!
Draw the
To Find the Center of

chords
AB
and
CD
the bisection lines to intersect in
a Given Arc ABC.
and bisect them.
Extend
the center required.
b
Fig
To Draw a Line Tangent to an Arc of a

(ist.) When the center is not accessible.
Let B
53.'
CIRCLE.
be the point through which the
From
ter
draw
given.
is
BD.
dicular to
h
tangent
lay off equal distances as
through
33
ABC
Draw
ABC
parallel to
BD
is
is
to
BE, BF.
EF.
(2d.)
and through
drawn.
be
EF
Join
When
draw
and
the cen-
ABC perpen-
tangent to the circle at the point B.
To Draw Tangents to the Circle C from

THE POINTS WITHOUT It. Draw^C and bisect it in E.
From E with radius EC describe an arc cutting circle C in B
mg
'
IS.'
and D.
Join CB, CD.
Draw
AB
and
AD
tangent to the
circle C.
Fig. 54.
r
Fi g.
55!
cles. -Join
from
with
Fig. 55.
To Draw a Tangent between two

the centers
and B.
A2 and make 1-2 =

radius A-2 describe a
as
Draw any
radial
the radius of circle B.

circle
C2D.
Cir-
From
line
From
center
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
34
BC
draw tangents
and
BD
to circle
by preceding problem.
the points
/^
and
F draw
parallels
EH are the tangents
and
Fi^' IS:
cles A AND
C2D
AC
Join
at the points
FG and EH to BD
and
and i?C.
required.
To Draw Tangents to two Given
B. Join ^
and ^4Z? and through
and B.
From
^4
with, a
Cirradius
equal to the difference of the radii of the given circles de-
Fig. 56.
scribe a circle
by Prob.
Through
37.
ii
and
respectively.
^'
From B draw the tangents BF and BG

Draw AF and ^4 extended to E and //.
GF.
H draw
EC and
i:C and
HD
parallel to
BF and BG
Z?77 are the tangents required.
To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given

Radius Tangent to two Straight Lines. AB and AC
are the
tance
I?;
two straight
draw
lines,
and r the given
parallels 1-2
and 3-4 to
radius.
AC
and
At
a dis-
^4Z?, inter-
secting
F as
With
From
F.
at
center and
draw perpendiculars
FD
FE
or
35
FD
and FE.
as radius describe the re-
quired arc, which will be tangent to the two straight lines at

the points
b
D and E.
To Draw an Arc of a Circle Tangent

to two Straight Lines BC and CD when the MidDraw CA the bisection of the angle
position G IS GIVEN.
'
Fi*
5^;
EF at
BCD
and
Next
bisect either of the angles
right angles to
through the given point G.
it
FEB
or
EFD. The
CA
at
A, which
line will intersect the central line
From A draw
center of the arc.
and with either

which
and
will
as a radius
be tangent to the
perpendiculars
bisection
will
be the
Ai and A2,
A as center describe an arc

lines BC and CD at the points
and
2.
f
J>A
Fig. 58.
Fig?'
ABC.
59'.
To
Bisect the angles A and B.
Draw Di
and radius = D\
in
Inscribe a Circle within a Triangle
D.
perpendicular to
will
meet
center
describe a circle which will be tangent to
the given triangle at the points
The bisectors
AB. Then with
I,
2, 3.
Ffg to'. To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given

Radius R tangent to two Given Circles A and B.
*
From A and
draw any
the circumference of each
radial lines
circle cut off
as
A$, B\.
Outside
distances 1-3 and 2-4
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
36
each =z the given radius R.
A 3,
C.
and center
Draw CA,CB
Then with center
and
and radius
and radius -4 describe arcs intersecting

cutting the circles at
and
and radius C$ or C6 describe an arc which
at points 5
6.
will
at
With centre
be tangent
6.
Fig. 60.
Prob. 43.
To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given

Radius R tangent to two Given Circles A and B
Fig.
61.
when the Arc includes the
Circles.
Through A and B
draw convenient diameters and extend them
indefinitely.
On
17
these measure off the distances 1-2 and 3-4, each
length to the given radius R.
A2
center
draw
dius
~5
C6
Then with
and radius 4, describe arcs cutting
and C6 through
and A.
or C$ describe the arc 6,
the circles at
center
the points 6 and
5,
equal in
and radius
at C.
From
With center C and
which
will
ra-
be tangent to
5.
Fi?' 62! To Draw an Arc of a Circle of Given

Radius R tangent to Two Given Circles A and B
when the Arc includes one Circle and excludes the
OTHER.
Through
draw any diameter and make 1-2
= R.
Fig. 62.
B draw any radius and extend

center A and radius A2 and center B
From
it,
arcs cutting at C.
describe the arc
Fi|
dius
CD.
'
63!
With C
as center
making 3-4
= R.
and radius
B4
and radius
= C$
With
describe
or
C6
5, 6.
Draw an Arc
of a Circle of Given Ra-
R tangent to a Straight Line AB and a Circle
From , the center
of the given circle,
draw an
arc of a
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
3
circle
concentric with
also a straight line 3,
from
^4i?.
dicular 06.
CD
at
parallel to
a distance
AB
at the
from
it,
and
same distance
Draw (2 intersecting CD at 5. Draw the perpenWith center O and radius (96 or 0$ describe the
required arc.
2
Fig. 63.
FiJ
'
64*.
To Describe an Ellipse Approximately
BY MEANS OF THREE RADII
(F. R.
Honey's method).
Fig. 64.
Draw
H.
at
straight lines
RH and //<2>
With center /f and
making any convenient angle
radii equal to the
semi-minor and
semi-major axes respectively, describe arcs
LO
of ZA
and draw
r
MK and NP parallel
Join
and draw
<9i
//3 for the longest radius
(=
E), and one-half the
M2
(=
sum
radius (= S), and use these
Let
follows:
off
AAr
=E
With
AB
A^
and
CD
and
as center
and G6
center 4 and radius 4,
Draw
5,
Gg and
the line
4 and extend
to 7
it
in the
arc 7^4.
of the semi-axes for the third
lay off
as radius
draw
arc
making
it
Lay
CG = T and C6 =
draw the
making 8
g, 7
= S.
CS.
With
With
5.
With
arc 6, g.
g, intersecting 6,
5,
as
ellipse
be the major and minor axes.
at g.
Draw g,
T.
center
With center - and
and
radius
center 4 and radius 4, 7
The remaining quadrants can be drawn
To Draw ax Ellipse having given the
65
Axes AB AND CD.
Draw AB and CD
bisecting each other at E.

in
=J
same way.
Fi2
AB
Join
Zi
off
radii to describe the
GC(=T) draw the arc

= 5) draw the arc 8, 7.
g 8
(=E) draw
NO.
and
Lay
^3 parallel to Oi. Take

H2 for the shortest radius
T),
produce
radius
LM
LO.
and
Then
5.
to
39
F and F the
parts as
shown
at
1,
foci.
at right angles to
and
EA
cut
With center C and

Divide
2, 3, 4, etc.
radius
EF or EF' into a number of

Then with F and F' as cen-
Fig. 67.
Fig. 65.
ters
and
^4
and
intersecting in
2?i,
i,
and
^2 and ^2,
etc., as radii describe arcs
5, etc., until a sufficient
number
of points
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
4o
draw the
are found to
(No.
of the
elliptic
curve accurately throughout.
"Sibley College Set"
To draw
very useful in drawing this curve.)

the ellipse at the point
b
'
'
Draw any
circles.
as center
Then
2,
1,
Fig
5, etc.,
and
Al
A4., etc.
Z>2,
E$,
are points
B.
and
BF into
the same
meet others drawn from
AB
FB
'
and
CD
Is!
as
42,
AB.
1,
2,
in
diameters as
on
Drawing No.
1.
1,
AB
2, 3
and
1,
GHK are
GHK.
AB
Divide
through points
Another Method. Place
shown
the
of equal parts as
intersecting in points
the curve.
b
Fi*g
3 1,
CDEF.
points
lines to
and
Make
on the curve.
number
Draw from C through
AC be the
AC describe
etc., parallel to
Another Method. Place
6?'.
and
AB, and
before, and construct the rectangle
DB
AB
radii
and
radii as
perpendicular to
etc.,
a tangent to
With
semi axes.
is
and draw the bisector
HGF'
KG is the tangent required.
el; Another Method. Let AB and
of the angle
pfg.
FG
G: Extend
irregular curves
of
2, 3
and
and
BD
on
points on
the diameters
AB
Draw any convenient
1
>L
,K
Fig. 68.
angle
RHQ, Drawing No.
2.
With
center //"and radii equal
to the semi-minor and semi-major axes describe arcs
LM and-
NO.
Join
from
C and
LO
and from
2'
the points 2
off
and
On
MK and NP parallel to LO.

= ///* lay
A and B with
Z> with a distance
the minor axis
2'
and draw
radii
on the major axis.

/
GE =
and
Then
I
1'on
= HK lay
centers l,l', 2 and
draw
off
arcs of circles.
from the point G,
the semi-minor and semi-major axes respec-
ôn
Place the point
tively.
a distance
With
7Tay
the points
off
i-Z> and 2 -2?, respectively,
a piece of transparent celluloid
GF
the minor axis.
the major axis and the point
the strip of celluloid
If
E on
now moved over
is
E is always in contact with

point F with the semi major axis,
the figure, so that the point
the
semi-minor axis and the
the
number
necessary
may
of points
hole in the celluloid at
be marked through a small
with a sharp conical-pointed pencil,
and thus complete the curve of the
ellipse
between the arcs of
circles.
To Construct a Parabola, the Base CD
'
FfS
I9!
AB
and the Abscissa
CD
and
AF, EC, and
FD
parallel to
CE
1,
AB, and through
EC
and
and
into
Through the points

to
being given.
DF parallel
the
2, 3
Draw EF through A
on
draw
to
AB.
same number
Divide
AE,
of
equal parts.
AF and AE draw
lines parallel
lines to the points 1,2, 3
intersecting the parallel lines in points 4,
on
FD
5, 6, etc., of
the curve.
Given the Directrix
BD and the
Focus C
to Draw a Parabola and a Tangent to It at the Point
The parabola is a curve such that every point in the curve
3.
Fr2
'
f ;
is
equally distant from the directrix
vertix
i.e.
CE
is
is
BD and
the focus C.
The
equally distant from the directrix and the focus,
= EB.
straight line
Any
line parallel to
drawn across the
the axis
is
a diameter.
figure at right angles to the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
42
axis
is
The
double ordinate, and either half of
distance from
an ordinate.
is
it
any point upon the curve,
to
as 2
is
always equal to the horizontal distance from that point to the
Thus Ci
directrix.
draw
ACF
i,
C2 to
i' ,
ACF
BD,
at right angles to
Through
2, 2', etc.
is
the axis of the
(6
kI
cS
Ai
2 3
1x
A
\E
'>
2
3
4
6
Fig. 70.
curve.
Draw
with center
parallels to
and
these parallels from

2, 3, 4, etc.
radii
BD
BD
through any points
AB, and
equal to the horizontal distances of

describe arcs cutting in the points
I,
The tangent
to
These are points
the curve at the point
in
in the curve.
may be drawn
as follows
Produce
Make EF = the horizontal distance of ordinate 33

from E.
Draw the tangent through $F.
b
FiJ 71! To Draw an Hyperbola, having given
the Diameter AB, the Abscissa BD, and Double Ordinate EF. Make F4 parallel and equal to BD. Divide DF
From B draw
and F4 into the same number of equal parts.
AB
to F.
lines to the points in

in
DF.
Draw
4F and
from
draw
lines to the points
the curve through the points where the lines
correspondingly numbered intersect each other.
F?g
b ?**
To Construct an Oval the Width AB
'
72.
Bisect
BEING GIVEN.
E as
and with
From
^4
AB
by the
center and radius
Fig.
F.
43
and
EA
CD
line
draw
a circle cutting
CD
in
Fig. 72.
71.
i>
the point E,
in
draw
lines
through F.
From A and
with
AB draw arcs cutting the last two lines in G

F with radius /l7 describe the arc 67/ to meet
radius equal to
From
and H.
AG and
the arcs
5
fTS!
Foci.
'
73!
Draw two
of these in
2.
This
Bisect
BH, which will complete the oval.

GlVEN AN Ellipse to Find the Axes and
I,
parallel chords
Draw
and F.
AB
and CD.
EF touching
Bisect each
the ellipse in
line divides the ellipse obliquely into

2 in G,
which
will
with any radius draw a
be the center of the
and
equal parts.
ellipse.
circle cutting the ellipse in
From
HIJK.
Join these four points and a rectangle will be formed in the

ellipse.
Lines
LM
and NO, bisecting the sides of the
rectangle, will be the diameters or axes of the ellipse.
N or O as centers and
scribe arcs cutting the
m^'
tion.
74'.
radius
= GL
major axis
in
With
the semi-major axis, de-
P and Q
the
foci.
To Construct a Spiral of one Revolu-
Describe
a circle using the widest limit of the spiral as
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
44
Divide the
a radius.
A, B,
parts as
From
to 12.
circle into
any number
the center with radius 12,
an arc cutting the radial
line
in
tinue to draw arcs from points 2,
sponding
D, B,
radii C,
12 trace the
of equal parts as
Divide the radius into the same number of equal
Cj etc.
i'.
From
3, 4, etc.,
describe
the center con-
cutting the corre-
From
etc. in the points 2', 3', 4', etc.
Archimedes
Spiral of one revolution.
Fi^' 75. To Describe a Spiral of any Number of

REVOLUTIONS, E.G., 2. Divide the circle into any num-
ber of equal parts as A, B, C,

the radius
into a
12
etc.,
number
and draw
radii.
Divide
of equal parts corresponding
with the required number of revolutions and divide these

into the
1
to
12.
same number
It will
of equal parts as there are radii, viz.,
be evident that the figure consists of two
separate spirals, one from the center of the circle to 12, and
one from
12 to
ing arcs from

radii,
first
A.
I,
Commence
2, 3, etc., to
as in the last problem, draw-
the correspondingly numbered
thus obtaining the points marked
1',
2',
3', etc.
revolution completed, proceed in the same
find the points 1",
2" 3",
,
etc.
the spiral of two revolutions.
The
manner
Through these points
to
trace
r
0.
Divide
Fi 2
cle
'
I?.'
and draw
On
To Construct the Involute of the

number
the circle into any
Draw
radii.
of the parts into
which the
the tangents set off the

of the radii.
Cir-
of equal parts
tangents at right angles to these
the tangent to radius
number
45
radii.
lay off a distance equal to one
circle is
number
Tangent
divided, and on each of
of parts corresponding to the

12 will then be the circumfer-
ence of the circle unrolled, and the curve drawn through the
extremities of the other tangents will be the involute.
b 52* To Describe an Ionic Volute.
E[
r iff.
Divide the
given height into seven equal parts, and through the point
the upper extremity of the third division draw
dicular to
3, 3
point on 33 as a cen-
with radius equal to one-half of one of the divisions on
ter,
AB,
at
From any convenient
AB.
perpen-
describe the eye of the volute
Drawing No.
1.
Make
square
NPNM,
No.
2.
PM
NPNM,
NN corresponds
perpendicular to
bisect its sides
shown enlarged
to line 3, 3,
NN
Drawing
and inscribe the
and draw the square
11,
12,
MECHANICAL
13,
them
the
Draw
14.
the diagonals 11, 13 and
shown
as
in
Drawing No.
At
2.
horizontal with the perpendicular
points
2, 3, 4, etc.,
1,
which
14 and divide
12,
the intersections of
locate the
lines
full
be the centers of the quad-
will
The
rants of the outer curve.

will
DRA\
centers for the inner
curve
be found at the intersections of the horizontal and per-
2/
/JVc ,2.
'
\l
7/\
l
x]/
yff\
1
vH
1]
,1
y~5
\\i
*T
\hY
\jj<
l
>
lcJ
M
Fig. 77-
pendicular broken lines, drawn through the divisions on the
Then with
diagonals.
and with center

and radius
in a similar
center
arc
and radius iP draw arc FN,
2N draw
and radius
M draw
ML,
arc
NM
with center 3
The inner curve
etc.
rector,
'
?:
CB
celluloid,
At any
Cycloid.AB
To
the generating circle,
X a piece of thin
point on the circle
at the point
C puncture a small
point C tangent to
from which the curve
is
indi-
the
is
di-
transparent
with one side dull on which to draw the
sharp needle, and place the
AB
drawn
way, by using the points on the diagonals
cated by the broken lines as centers.

h
Describe the
mg
is
circle C.
hole with a
the director
Hold
to be drawn.
the celluloid at this point with a needle, and rotate
it
until
C intersects
the arc of the circle
47
Through
AB.
the director
the point of intersection stick another needle and rotate

until the circle
C with
ture at
mark the
first
is
again tangent to
4H
AB, and through
sharpened to a
pencil,
the punc-
fine conical point,
So proceed
point on the curve.
until sufficient
points have been found to complete the curve.
(NOTE.
The
thin celluloid
was
used as a drawing
first
instrument by Professor H. D. Williams, of Sibley College,

Cornell University.)
b
Ffg
'
To Find the Length of a Given Arc of a
79.
CIRCLE APPROXIMATELY.
chord and produce
its
it
A, making
to
x^
>
Let BC be the
center
ting the tangent line

arc
equal half the
B
Fig. 79.
Fig. 78.
With
BA
f) c
chord.
Draw
given arc.
and radius
BD
AC
describe arc
and making
at >,
it
CD
cut-
equal to the
BC.
b
Fig
so!
To Describe the Cycloid by the Old
Method.
Divide the director and the generating
the same
number
ag
parallel to
in
the points
AB
, c,
of equal parts.
Through the center a draw
for the line of centers,

d,
e,
scribe arcs tangent to
f,
and
g.
and divide
With centers/,
AB, and through
on the generating circle 1,2,
circle into
3, etc.,
e,
it
as
d, etc.,
AB
de-
the points of division
draw
lines parallel to
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
48
AB cutting
the arcs in the points
i', 2', 3',
These
etc.
will
be
points in the curve.
An
may be drawn by
approximate curve
arcs of circles.
Thus, taking/' as center and f'g' as radius, draw arc
g'l'.
Fig. 80.
Produce \'f and 2' e'

second arc 2 f, etc.
until they
meet
the center of the
at
Prob. 63.
81.
Fig.
To Describe the Epicycloid and the
HYPOCYCLOID.
Divide
ber of equal parts,
on the directing
1,
2, 3, etc.,
circle
ter of the directing circle
num-
the generating circle into any
and
set off these lengths
CB as e' d\
',
draw
ting the circles of centers
lines
in e, d,
c,
c' ,
From A
etc.
through e\
d'
From
etc.
from
the cenetc., cut-
each of these
points as centers describe arcs tangent to the directing circle.
From
center
the generating
draw
circle,
in their several
arcs
through the points of division on
cutting the arcs of the generating circles
positions at the points
i',
2'
,
3',
etc.
These
will be points in the curve.
&?*
circle
||;
Another Method.
on the celluloid and
ating circle
BC
roll
it
Draw
the
generating
on the outside of the gener-
for the Epicycloid,
and on the inside
for the
Hypocycloid, marking the points
manner
similar
in
49
the curve 1,2,
3, etc., in
to that described for the Cycloid.

Fig. 82.
Fig. 83.
Fig. 81.
To Draw THE ClSSOlD. Draw any line AB

it.
On BC describe a circle. From
extremity C of the diameter draw any number of lines,
F$. '!!;
and
the
at
BC
perpendicular to
any distance apart, passing through the
the line
and
set
AB
it
tance from
8",
etc.,
in
off
8'
etc., for
1' ,
2'
,
3',
from
to 8
and
etc.
it
and meeting
to 9
Take the
dis-
Take the length from
on the same
set
circle
off
line to
from
9"
C on
'.
the same line to
the other divisions, and through 9", 8", 7"
draw the curve.
6",
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
50
b
'
FiS.
To Draw Schiele's Anti-friction Curve.
I2i
Let AB be the radius

Set
axis.
of
off
division
of the
2, 3, 4, etc., its
on the straight edge of a piece
draw through point
axis,
the straight edge until the point
and the points
#2,
AB
the radius
and Bi,
paper or thin celluloid and placing the point
stiff
Then lower
2
of the shaft
find the points a,
on the
A the line
B coincides
just touches the last line drawn,
and so proceed to
b, c,
Ai.
with
and draw
Through
etc.
these points draw the curve.
Fig. 85.
b
Fig
To Describe an Interior
'
%V.
Let the large
ID, JE,
H,
KF
With
X be
Divide
the director.
parts, as B,
X.
circle
/,
/, etc.
etc.,
the generator and the small circle

circle
Draw
into
any number of equal
radial lines
and make HC,
each equal to the radius of the generator
centers C,
H, I, J, etc. Make Hi
rector as BH. Make I2
sions, etc.,
Epicycloid.
D, E,
etc.,
describe arcs tangent at
equal to one of the divisions of the
di-
equal to two divisions, /3, three divi-
and draw the curve through the points
1,
2, 3, 4,
may
This curve
etc.
loid in a similar
It
may
way
not be
51
also be described with a piece of cellu-
to that explained for the cycloid.
place here to describe a few of the
out. of
MOULDINGS USED IN ARCHITECTURAL WORK,

since they are often found applied to mechanical constructions.
Fi2
line
I,
'
and
4;
To Describe the "Scotia."
so!
4,
4 the bottom
divide
Through the point

and radius
2,
draw ab
parallel to
I,
as
fillets 1,
and
4,
draw
at 5,
Jh-
Fig. 87.
To Describe the "Cyma Recta." Join

it
into five equal parts, bisect
with radius equal to

1,
center 2
?\
Fig. 86.
and divide
1,
Draw
and 2,3.
3.
Q^
&
prob. 69.
With
1.
and
2,
1,
4, 4.
the top
is
describe the semicircle alb, and with center b
and radius ba describe the arc #5 tangent to

the
1,
drop a perpendicular
three equal parts,
into
this
From
line.
the
and
1,
and
2,
3,
1,
and
2, 3 respectively describe arcs
fillets 1,
and
3, 3
and complete the
moulding.
Fig*'
low."
88.'
To Describe the "Cavetto" or "Hol-
Divide the
and make
2, 3
perpendicular
1,
2 into three equal parts
equal to two of these.
From
centers
with a radius somewhat greater than the half of

arcs intersecting at the center of the arc
1,
3,
1,
3,
and
describe
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
52
To Describe the
Round," or "Ovolo." Draw
sh'.
and divide
two
" Echinus,"
'
Ffg
2 perpendicular to 2, 3,
I,
Make
into three equal parts.
it
From
of these parts.
''Quarter
2,
equal to
the points 2 and 3 with a radius
greater than half 1,3, describe arcs cutting in the center of
the required curve.
'
li.
Fig
Fi
3^
90
To Describe the
4 into four equal parts and lay
From
3 to 2.
points 2
89.
" Apophygee.
off five of
Divide
these parts from
and 4 as centers and radius equal to
2,3, describe arcs intersecting in the center of the curve.
Fig. 90.
'
Fig
4, 3
points
of
91!
I.
4,
1,
Join
and
draw
To Describe the "Cyma Reversa."

I,
and bisect
3 as centers
and
radii equal to
arcs intersecting at
From
in the point 2.
it
and
6.
Make
the
about two-thirds
Points
and 6
be the
it
in the
are the centers of the reverse curves.
Fi
'
breadth.
It'.
To Describe the
"
Drop the perpendicular
Torus." Let
1,
2,
1,
and bisect
GEOME TRICAL DRA WING.

point
With
3.
Draw
circle.
as center
the
and radius
fillets.
Fig. 92.
F%.
are
all
'
9i
shown
in
is
The
drawn
of the equi-
first,
"
Trefoil." The
The
equi-
and the angle 1,2,3 bisected by
the line 2, 4, which also cuts the perpendicnlar line
point 6.
curves
the figure.
To Describe the
lateral triangle
Opening.
drawn from the three points
arcs of circles,
r
Fi s *94:
Fig. 93.
An Arched Window
lateral triangle, as
describe the semi-
I,
3,
53
center of the surrounding circles
1,
1,
6 in the
and
3 are
the centers of the trefoil curves.

r
b,
Fi -
95.
To Des cribe the
the square 1,2,
3,
"
in the position
Quatre Foil." Draw

shown
center of the surrounding circles, point

of the diagonals of the square.
Points
in
the figure.
The
5, is at
the intersection
I,
4 of the square
2, 3,
are the centers of the small arcs.
'
9e!
Fig.
To
ment." The curves
Describe
"Cinquefoil Orna-
of the cinquefoil are described
corners of a pentagon
2, 6,
the
1,
2, 3, 4,
5.
Bisect 4,
cutting the perpendicular in the point
the large circles.

b
'
Fi*g
97.'
To Draw a Baluster.
5 in
7,
Begin
from the
6 and draw
the center of
by drawing
the center line, and lay off the extreme perpendicular height,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
54
the intermediate, perpendicular, and horizontal dimensions,
and
finally the curves as
shown
Fig. 94.
in
the figure.
Fig. 95.
Fig. 96.
Fig. 97.
DRAWING TO SCALE.
When we speak of
we mean
a drawing as having been
that every part of
and accurately, either full
it
drawn enlarged
be made
full size,
scale,
has been drawn proportionately
size,
Very small and complicated

ally
made to
reduced ox enlarged.
details of
larger details
machinery are usu-
and small machines may
while larger machines and large details are
shown reduced.
When
a drawing of a machine
is
larged scale the figures placed upon

full-size
ure
dimensions,
when
finished.
i.e.,
made
it
to a reduced or en-
should always give the
the sizes the machine should meas
b
Fig
4."=
'
To Construct a Scale of Third
98.'
FOOT.
Draw
paper two parallel
shown by
a,
Prob. 12.
may
first
Divide
upon
lines
Fig. 98.
and divide the
it
55
a piece of
Size or
tough white drawing-
about \" apart and. about 14" long as
From A
space
AB
AE'm
lay off distances equal to
4"
into 12 equal parts or inches
by
the same
way
into as
many
parts as
be desired to subdivide the inch divisions on
AB,
gcule
2 1
(4\ 21
11W\8'7
$'
I'* lfoot.
5f
Fig. 98.
usually
8.
carefully
When
the divisions and subdivisions have been
and lightly drawn
98, then the lines denoting
carefully inked
(c) in
jr"*
and numbered
subdivision a scale of
by
in pencil, as
Fig. 98.
2"=
as
foot
i"> i",
shown by
1"
',
shown by
may
easily
a, in
Fig.
and 3" should be

(b).
By
a further
be made as shown
CHAPTER
III.
CONVENTIONS.
It is often
unnecessary
tain things as they
if
would actually appear
when much time and
cially
not undesirable to represent cer-
labor
is
in a
drawing, espe-
required to
make them
orthographically true.
So
for
economic reasons draftsmen have agreed upon con-
ventional methods to represent
wise entail
much
many
things that would other-
extra labor and expense, and serve no par-
ticular purpose.
It
is
very necessary, however, that
know how
to
often arise
when such knowledge
sides
it
draw these things
all
draftsmen should
correctly, for occasions will

will
be demanded
gives one a feeling of greater satisfaction
conventional methods to
tically true
if it
know
that he could
and be-
when using
make them
artis-
was deemed necessary.
STANDARD CONVENTIONAL SECTION
LINES.
Conventional section lines are placed on drawings to

guish the different kinds of materials used
distin-
when such drawings
are to be finished in pencil, or traced for blue printing, or to
be used for a reproduction of any kind.

Water-colors are nearly always used for finished drawings
and sometimes
The
for tracings
and pencil drawings.
color tints can be applied in
much
less
time than
56
it
CONVENTIONS.
So that the color method
takes to hatch-line a drawing.
should be used whenever
This
FlG. 99.
that
sections
draftsmen
in this
possible.
figure
now
is
57
shows a collection of hatch-lined

almost universal
the
among
practice
and other countries, and may be considered
standard.
No.
To
1.
the right
When
rocks.
is
shown
a section of a wall
used without color, as
made
of
in tracing for printing,
the rocks are simply shaded with India ink and a 175 Gillott
steel
of
For a colored drawing the ground work
pen.
gamboge
or burnt umber.
To
the
left is
No.
Convention
2.
whole section
is
for
is
made
For colored drawings
representation of water for tracings.
a blended wash of Prussian blue
is
the conventional
added.
Marble.
When
colored,
made thoroughly wet and each stone
the
then
is
streaked with Payne's gray.
No.
Convention
3.
ground wash
umber
of
used.
is
separate dish,
gamboge with
The
form a
No.
Chestnut.
in
and burnt
mixed
in a
Payne's gray and
equal quantities and
made dark enough
ground
General Convention for Wood.

a light
The graining should be done with

/nixture of burnt sienna and a
5.
little
ground work should be made with
No.
colored,
a little crimson lake
sufficient contrast to the
4.
When
colors for graining should be
burnt umber with a
crimson lake added

to
for
When colored the
wash
of burnt sienna.
a writing-pen and a dark
modicum
Convention for Black
color.
of India ink.
Walnut.
mixture of
Payne's gray, burnt umber and crimson lake in equal quantities is
used for the ground color.
for graining
The same mixture
is
used
when made dark by adding more burnt umber.
58
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
CON VEN TIOXS.

No.
make
color
Hard
Convention for
6.
wash
a light
For graining use
parts.
of crimson lake
and burnt umber.
color
is
Convention
7.
a light
wash
Pine.
For
ground
the
crimson lake, burnt umber, and
of
gamboge, equal
No.
a darker
The
ground
and the shade
lines are
Building-stone.
for
of Payne's gray
mixture of
added mechanically with the drawing-pen or free-hand with

the writing-pen.
No.
Convention for Earth.
8.
and neutral
The
tint.
Ground
irregular lines to be
color, India ink
added with a
writ-
ing-pen and India ink.
No.
When
Section Lining for
9.
the drawing
is
to
be
Wrought or Malleable Iron.
tinted, the color used
is
Prussian
blue.
No.
10.
Cast Iron.
These section
should be drawn
lines
equidistant, not very far apart and narrower than the body
lines of the drawing.
No.
The
iron
1.
Steel.
The
This
tint is
section
Payne's gray.
is
used for
all
kinds of steel.
should be of the same width as those used for cast-
lines
and the spaces between the double and single
be uniform.
The
son lake added to
No.
12.
color tint
make
Brass.
is
warm
This
lines
should
Prussian blue with enough crimpurple.
section
is
generally used
for
all
kinds of composition brass, such as gun-metal, yellow metal,
bronze metal, Muntz metal,
dash
is
lines
a light
Nos.
and spaces should
wash
of
13-20.
The width
etc.
all
be uniform.
of the full
The
lines.,
color tint
gamboge.
The
section lines and color tints for these
numbers are so plainly given in the figure that further instruction
would seem to be superfluous.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
6o
VISIBLE OBJECT LINES

Weight varied with discretion
Heavy
h"
to suit
size of part.
INVISIBLE OBJECT LINES

Length of dash not less than \" nor
mo/i than tr", when possible space between dashes very short, not more than
should be uniform
in width.
3V'. dashes
length
in
ani spaces uniform
DIMENSION LINES
Continuous
lines
broken only to admit
the dimensions.
CENTER LINES
Long
more than 3V
between dash and dot quite
dashes, dots not
long, space
short.
PROJECTION LINES'
LINES OR EXTENSION LINES
DIMENSION,
WITNESS
First dash touching object tV" long,

short space, then dashes about \" long.
BREAK LINES
These
lines to
be drawn freehand with
the lettering pen.
ADJACENT PART LINES

Dashes \" long, dots not more than -h"
long, and space quite short.
ALTERNATE POSITION LINES

Use
A when
the limiting position
is
in-
dicated by a center line only, dashes f"

and dots \" long, very close together.
Use B when the alternate position is
shown by the base outlines of the object.
Dash ", dot ", very close together.
CUTTING PLANE LINES
dashes about f"
long and
all
the
same length, dots &" long, close together.

Use B when it is not convenient to draw
the line through the view.
BORDER
LINES;
ARROW
REFERENCE
LINES
Should always be drawn straight with

ruling pen and set obliquely, i.e., neither
vertically nor horizontally.
Fig. 100.
CONVENTIONAL
There are four kinds:

The Hidden Line. This
LINES.
Fig. 100.
(1)
dashes
whta on
line
of
uniform
the
size
of
length
the
should be
made
of short
and width, both depending some-
drawing.
The width
should always
CONVENTIONS.
be slightly
length
less
than the body lines of the drawing, and the
between the dashes should

exceeding T\".
This
line
is
The Line of Motion.
(2)
never exceed
should
dash
of the
6l
the hidden
line, just
always inked
This
spaces
line
with black ink.
in
used to indicate
is
shorter than those of
longer than
trifle
The
be uniform, quite small, never
all
The dashes should be made
point paths.
'\
The
dots.
spaces
should of course be short and uniform.

Center Lines.
(3)
of
Most
drawings of machines and parts
are symmetrical about their center lines.
machines
may be drawn
penciling a drawing these lines
When
continuous and
as fine as possible, but on drawings for reproductions the black-
inked line should be a long narrow dash and two short ones
When
alternately.
colored inks are used the center line should
be made a continuous red line and as
make
it is
possible to
it.
(4)
are
fine as
Dimension Lines and Line of Section.
made
in
black with a
fine
These
lines
long dash and one short dash
alternately.
In color they should be continuous blue
Colored
should be used wherever feasible, because they
lines
are so quickly
much
drawn and when made
neater appearance than
lines are used.
Colored
lines
fine
when
lines.
they give the drawing
the conventional black
should never be broken.
CONVENTIONAL BREAKS.
FlG. 10 1.
Breaks
cate that the thing
is
sometimes to
are used in drawings
actually longer than
it
is
indi-
drawn, some-
times to show the shape of the cross-section and the kind of

material.
Those given
in Fig.
10 1
show the
usual practice.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
62
CROSS-SECTIONS.
FIG.
102.
When
or other similar object
a cross-section of a pulley, gear-wheel

is
required and the cutting-plane passes
IT
MMAWAmm^ a mi mmmmvmvw;
M.WM.VWAVVVVVVVV\VV^VVvkV^W'0
Fig. ioi.
Fig. 102.
through one of the spokes or arms, then only the rim and hub
should be sectioned, as shown at xx No.
the arm or spoke simply outlined.
may be made
as
shown
at
AA
No.
and
No.
and
2,
Cross-sections of the arms

2.
In working drawings of
gear-wheels only the number of teeth included in one quadrant
need be drawn; the balance

lines, e.g.,
the pitch line the
is
same
usually
shown by conventional
as a center line, viz., a long
and two very short ones alternately or a fine continuous
The
same
red line.
addendum line (d) and the root or bottom line
as a dimension line, viz.,
dash
(b)
the
one long dash and one short
CONVENTIONS.
dash alternately or a
continuous blue
fine
The end
line.
ele-
be made by projecting only
vation of the gear-teeth should
the points of the teeth, as
63
shown
at
No.
2.
CONVENTIONAL METHODS OF SHOWING SCREW-THREADS

IN WORKING DRAWINGS.
FlG.
103.
No.
shows the convention
I,
thread, U. S. standard;
No.
2, a single
thread; No.
a single square thread;
No.
No.
hand square thread;
5,
double
right
thread of small diameter;

diameter.
The
true
single left-hand
4, a
No.
methods
7,
double
for a
No.
3,
thread;
6,
any
any thread of very small
for constructing these threads
are explained on pages 99-101, Figs. 137 139.
In No.
6.
the short wide line
is
The
equal to the diameter
between the
of the thread at the
bottom.
longer narrow lines
equal to the pitch, and the inclination
is
is
distance
equal to half the pitch.
The
short dash lines in
No. 7 should be made to
it
corre-
ntj
Fig. 103.
spond to the diameter of the thread
some
practice these lines can be
the eye.
at the
bottom.
After
drawn accurately enough by
CHAPTER
IV.
LETTERING AND FIGURING.

THIS
subject has not been given the importance
in connection with mechanical drawing.
cellent drawings
is
and designs
Many
it
deserves
otherwise ex-
as far as their general
appearance
concerned have been spoiled by poor lettering and figuring.

All lettering on mechanical drawings should be plain and
legible, but the letters in a title or the figures
on a drawing
should never be so large as to make them appear more prominent than the drawing
The
itself.
best form of letter for practical use
maximum
the neatest appearance with a

quires the least
amount
of
time and labor
is
of legibility
of efficiency,
it
in acquiring a
will
and
re-
in its construction.
This would naturally suggest a " free-hand

fore a letter can be constructed
that which gives
" free-hand
"
" letter,
but be-
with any degree
be necessary to spend considerable time
knowledge
of the
form and proportions of the
particular letter selected.

It
is
very desirable then that after the stud.ent has care-
fully constructed as
numbers
as time
knowledge
man
"
of the
many
will
of the following plates of letters
permit and has acquired a sufficient
form and proportions of at
and " Gothic
and
" letters;
least
the " Ro-
he should then adopt some one

64
65
style and practice that at every opportunity, until he has at-
tained some proficiency
When
free-hand construction.
in its
making
practicing the
and numbers
of letters
hand, they should be made quite large
free-
at first so as to train
the hand.
The " Roman

appearance, but
"
is
the most legible letter and has the best
is
most
also the
its
make
difficult to
mechanical construction, Figs. 104 and 105,
modify the objections
to
well, either
However, the methods given
free-hand or mechanically.
for
will materially
adoption for lettering mechanical
its
drawings.
The " Gothic"

men, because
it
is
letter
plain
a favorite with mechanical drafts-
is
and neat and comparatively easy to
(See Fig. 106.)
construct.
Among
the type specimens given in the following pages
the Bold-face
Roman
on page 70
Italic
plain, clear, free-hand letter,
for a good,
with good success on working drawings.

steel
pen
is
the best to use
The "Yonkers"
is
when making
a style of
used for mechanical drawings.

either F. Soennecken's
It
Round
one of the best
and
often used
Gillott's
No. 303
this letter free-hand.
letter that
is
is
is
sometimes
easy to construct with
Writing-pens, single point, or
But
the Automatic Shading-pen.
is
it
lacks legibility, and
is
therefore not a universal favorite.
good
Condensed
W hen
r
style for "

"
Notes" on
shown on page
making notes on
The
letters
is
the ''Gothic
70.
a drawing with this letter, the
only guides necessary are two

pencil.
a drawing
parallel lines,
drawn
should be sketched lightly
lightly in
in pencil first,
MECHANICAL DRAWIXG.
66
and then carefully inked, improving spacing and proportions

to satisfy the practiced eye.
FIGURING.
Great care should be taken
in figuring or
dimensioning a
mechanical drawing, and especially a working drawing.
To have
is
drawing accurately, legibly, and neatly figured
considered by practical
of a
men
to be the
most important part
working drawing.
There should be absolutely no doubt whatever about the

character of a
Many
labor,
number representing
a dimension
on a drawing.
mistakes have been made, incurring loss in time,
and money through a wrong reading
Drawings should be so
fully
of a dimension.
dimensioned that there
will
be no need for the pattern-maker or machinist to measure any

Indeed, means are taken to prevent him from
part of them.
doing
so,
because of the
liability of the
mistakes, so drawings are often

ficult to
1
made
measure with a
common
following books,
among
workman
to scales
rule,
to
make
which are
dif-
such as 2" and 4"
ft.
The
recommended
to
of " Lettering"
all
:
who
the best of their kind, are
desire to pursue further the study
Plain Lettering, by Prof.
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Henry
Lettering,
Jacoby,
by Charles W.
Reinhardt, Chief Draftsman, Engineering News,
Free-hand Lettering, by F. T. Daniels, instructor

Tufts College.
S.
New York
in C.
E. in

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MECHANICAL DRAWING.
68
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69
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
70
18-Point
Roman.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQKSTUVWX
YZ
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[8-Point Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUV
WX YZ
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i?.-
Point Cushing
Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
nopqrstuvwxyz
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28-Point Boldface
Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLM
NOPQRSTUVWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrstu
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Two-Line Nonpareil Gothic Condensed.
Three-Line Nonpareil Lightface
1234567890
Celtic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR
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18-Point Chelsea Circular.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWX
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x8-Point Elandkay.
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18-Point Quaint Open.
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28-Point
Roman.
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28-Point Old-Style
Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP
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MECHANICAL DRAWING.
72
12-Point Victoria
Italic.
ABCDEFCHIJKLMNOPQRSTU
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18-Point
1234567890
DeVinne
Italic.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTV
VWXYZ
abcdefghijklmnopqrst
uvwxyz 1234567890
22-Point Gothic
Italic.
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuuwxyz
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Double- Pica Program.
ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO
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Nonpareil Telescopic Gothic.
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73
24-Point Gallican.
ABCDEFGHIJKL
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Two-Line
Virile
Open.
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(0)
22-Point Old-Style
Roman.
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CHAPTER
V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION.
Orthographic Projection, sometimes
tive
Geometry and sometimes simply
called Descrip-
Projection,
is
one of
the divisions of descriptive geometry; the other divisions are

Spherical
Projection,
Isometric
Projection,
Shades
and
Shadows, and Linear Perspective.

In this course
we
up only a
will take
sufficient
number
of
the essential principles of Orthographic Projection, Isometric

Projection, and Shades and
Shade Lines,
to enable the stu-
dent to make a correct mechanical drawing of a machine or

other object.
is
the science and the art of rep-
resenting objects on different planes at right angles to each

other,
by projecting
lines
from the point of sight through the
principal points of the object perpendicular to the Planes of

Projection,
There are commonly three planes

the
H. P.
and the
or Horizontal Plane
Pf
the
of projection used, viz.,

V. P. or Vertical Plane,
P. or Profile Plane.
These planes,
as will be seen
by Figs. 107 and
109, inter-
sect each other in a line called the /. L. or Intersecting Line,
and form four angles, known as the
first,
second, third, and

74
OR THO GRA PHIC PR OJE C TION,

Figs. 107 and
fourth Dihedral Angles.
75
109 are perspective
views of these angles.
An
angles,
may be
object
and
its
situated in
any one
of the dihedral
projections drawn on the corresponding co-
ordinate planes.
Problems
in
the
their
first
doing
We
first
Descriptive
angle,
drawings
third angle
for
in
is
in
Geometry
and nearly
all
are usually
English draftsmen project
that angle, but in the United States the
used almost exclusively.
so, as will
There
is
good reason
be shown hereafter.
will consider first a
angle, after
worked out
few projection problems
which the third angle
will
in
the
be used throughout.
Fig. 107.
H.P., Fig. 107,
is
the Horizontal Plane, V.P. the Vertical
Plane, and I.L. the Intersecting Line.
The Horizontal
dicular line
The
Projection of a point
is
where a perpen-
drawn through the point pierces the H.P.
Vertical Projection of a point
is
where a
per. line
drawn through the point pierces the V.P.

Conceive the point
a,
above the H.P. and 3"
Fig. 107, to be situated in space

in
front
of the
V.P.
If a
line
4"
is
passed through the point a per. to H.P. and produced until
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
76
it
H.P.
pierces the
in the point
a h ah will be the Hor. Proj.

,
of the point a.
If
V.P.
tical
another line
until
it
is
projected through the points per. to the
V.P.
pierces the
in the
point a v
av
the ver-
is
projection of the point a.
If
now
the V.P.
is
revolved upon
rection of the arrow until
the H.P. be conceived
axis I.L. in the di-
coincides with the H.P. and let
it
to
its
coincide with the
plane of the
drawing-paper, the projections of the point a will appear as
shown by Fig.
The
108.
vertical
projection a
horizontal projection a
4" above the I.L. and
3" below the I.L. both
in
the
the same
straight line.
In mechanical drawing the vertical projection cC
called
is
h
the Elevation and the horizontal projection a the Plan.
The
by
first
projections of a line are found in a similar manner,

finding the projections of the
and joining them with a straight
Let ab be a
line in
space i\" long, parallel to the V.P.
H.P. 2i" from the V.P.

The points a and b
points a
and
will
v
Join a b
of the line,
line.
One end
and perpendicular to the H.P.
two ends
resting on the
be vertically projected
v
is
a b
is
in
the
the vertical projection of
the line ab.
When
a line
is
perpendicular to one of the planes of pro-
jection, its projection
on that plane
tion on the other plane

ab, Fig. 107,
proj.
is
is
a point,
and the projec-
a line equal to the line
itself.
perpendicular to the H.P., therefore
on the H.P. when viewed
seen to be a point.
is
in
its
the direction ab will be
77
Conceive now the V.P. revolved as before, the V. proj.

v
be found to be at a v b Fig. 108, and the H. proj. at the
will
point a h
cd, Fig. 107, is a line parallel to
ular to the
108,
and
V.P.
Its elevation or
the H.P. and perpendic-
V. proj.
is
the point
dv
Fig.
plan or H. proj. the line (^d h perpendicular to
its
the Intersecting Line and equal in size to the line
itself.
Planes or Plane Surfaces bounded by lines are projected
by the same
principles used to project lines and points.
Let aa v b v b, Fig. 107, be a plane
at
right angles to
and
touching both planes of projection.
The
elevation of the front upper corner a
the point a
v
.
The
jected in the point
projected in
elevation of the front lower corner b

b ,
Join a b
a b
is
is
pro-
the vertical projection
The
front edge ab of the plane.
of the
is
plan of the front
C
*
b
c
ft
Fig. 108.
upper corner
point b
v
.
is
projected in the point b and the point a v in the
v
straight line joining bb
is
the plan or horizontal
projection of the top edge of the plane.
On
the drawing-paper the plan and elevation of the plane
acfb a would be
Fig. 108.
shown
as a continuous straight line a
to a
MECHANICAL DRAWING
78
Solids
of the
bounded by plane
same
C, Fig.
faces.
by means
surfaces are projected
principles used to project planes, lines, and points.

107,
is
a cube
bounded by
The top and bottom being
six equal sides or sur-
H.P. and
parallel to the
the front and back parallel to the V.P., the vert. proj.
area to any one
square above I.L. equal in

of the cube.
The
hor. proj.
These projections
are
is
shown
of the six faces
a similar square
at C, Fig.
is
belowT.L.
108, as they
would
appear on the drawing-paper.
The foregoing
illustrates a
few of the simple principles of
projection in relation to points, lines, and solids

in the first dihedral angle,
and we
when placed
find that the plan
is
always
below and the elevation always above the I.L.
Let us now consider the same problems when situated
The
the third angle.
point
a,
Fig. 109,
is
in
behind the V.P.
Fig. 109.
and below the H.P.

plane of projection.
vert. proj. at
Draw through a perpendiculars to

The Hor. proj. is found at a h and
the
the
v
.
Conceive again the V.P. to be revolved

of the arrow until
it
coincides with the
H.
P.
in the direction
The
hor. proj.
will
79
v
h
then appear at a above the I.L. and the vert. proj. at a
below the I.L., Fig.
and the
And
no.
so with the lines, the planes,
solids.
r.
'
-b
U"
a>
Fig. iio.
In order to
still
further explain the use of the planes of
projection, with regard to objects placed in the third angle,

let
us suppose a truncated pyramid surrounded
planes at right angles to
by imaginary
each other, as shown by Fig. ill.
Fig. hi.
With
pyramid
a
is
little
attention
it
will
easily
be discerned that the
situated in the third dihedral angle, and that in
addition to the V. and H. planes,
we have passed two
profile
planes at right angles to the V. and H. planes, one at the right-
hand and one
When
at the left.
the pyramid
is
viewed
orthographically through
each of the surrounding planes, four separate views are had,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
8o
exactly as shown by the projections on the opposite planes,

viz., a
Front View, Elevation, or Vert. Proj.
at F.
a Right-
hand View, Right-end Elevation, or Right-profile Projection

at
R.
a Left-hand
Projection at L.
If
View, Left-end Elevation, or Left-profile
Top View,
we now consider
Plan or H. Proj. at P.
the V.P. and the right and
left profile
planes to be revolved toward the beholder until they coincide,
using the front intersecting lines as axes, the projections of the
pyramid
will
be seen as shown by Fig.
12,
which when the
\
/ \
1
f:
/ \
L
1 R\
Fig. 112.
imaginary planes and projecting
have been removed,
lines
will
be a True Drawing or Orthographic Projection of the truncated
pyramid.
NOTATION.
In the drawings illustrating the following problems and
their solutions the given
black.
Hidden
narrower than
are
lines are
and required
lines are
shown broken
the visible lines.
shown wide and
into short dashes a little
Construction or projection lines
drawn with very narrow full or
conti?iuous black lines.
When
convenient very narrow, continuous blue lines are some-
times used.
The Horizontal Plane
known
is
as the H.P., the Vertical
Plane as V.P. and the Profile Plane as Pf.P.
A
its
point in space
is
designated by a small letter or figure,
by the same
projection
or figure with small h or v
letter
written above for the horizontal or vertical projection respectively.
In
by
some compjicated problems where points
are designated
named by the same
figures their projections are
figures
accented.
Drawings should be carefully made to the dimensions

given, the scale to be determined by the instructor.
The student should

inking straight
continually endeavor to improve in
and
lines, curves,
joints.
In solving the following problems the student should have
a model
of the co-ordinate planes for his
be made by taking two pieces of

slot in the center of
will
All
This can
use.
cardboard and cutting a
stiff
one of them large enongh to pass the
folded half of the other through
model
own
it
when unfolding
this half a
be had like that shown by Fig. 107 or 109.
projections
shall
now be
made
from
the
third,
dihedral angle.
PROB.
1.
point a
angle, \" below the

It is
is
situated in
the third
dihedral
H.P. and 3" behind the V.P.
required to draw
its
vertical
and horizontal projec-
tions.
Draw
a straight line a h a v
and measure
off
3" above I.L.
Fig. 113, perpendicular to I.L.
the point a \" below I.L. and the point a h
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
82
a"
same
the vertical and a h the horizontal projection in the
is
straight line da h
The student should demonstrate

PROB.
2.
Draw two projections
to both planes, |"
As
the line
is
this
with his model.
of a line 3" long parallel
below the H.P. and 2" behind the V.P.

both planes, both projections
parallel to
will
be parallel to the I.L.
Draw
allel to
d"b
the vert. proj. of the line 3" long, Fig.
I.L. and f" below
the I.L. and parallel to
Fig. 113.
by drawing
points a" and
Prob.
3.
to a h
Draw
making
Fig. 115.
Fig. 114.
vert. proj.
it,
it.
it
the same length as the
Fig. 117.
lines perpendicular to I.L.
To draw the
14, par-
the hor. proj. 2" above
Fig. 116.
and b h
from the
hor.
and
vert, projs. of a straight
3" long, per. to the vert, plane, Fig. 115.
line
As
the line
is
per. to the vert, plane the vert. proj. will be
a point below the I.L. and the hor. proj. will be parallel to
the horizontal plane and per. to I.L.
PROB.
4.
To
draw the plan and elevation
line
6" long making an angle of 45 with the
and
par. to the hor. plane, Fig.
116.
of a straight
vert, plane
and
The
plan or hor. proj. will be above the I.L. and
with
angle of 45
below and
The
it.
elevation or vert.
be
will
h
the point a at any convenient distance from
h h
I.L. a straight line a b 6" long,
Draw
make an
proj.
par. to I.L.
Draw from
The
83
a b
making an angle 45 with I.L.

below
par. to I.L. at a convenient distance
length of the elevation or vert. proj.
it.
determined by
is
dropping perpendiculars from the end of the hor. proj. a h b h to

the points a"b\
PROB.
5,
To
FlG. 117.
find the true length of a straight
oblique to both planes of projection and the angle
line
makes with these

h
it
planes.
a b and a b are the projections of a straight line oblique

to V.P. and H.P.
until
it
becomes
Using
a" as a pivot, revolve the line a b
parallel to I.L. as
shown by a
Through the point
point b? erect a per.
I.L. cutting the per. in the point b
The broken
and the angle
a b
line
is
is
From
v
.
draw a
the
line par. to
k
.
the true length of the line ab,
makes with
the true angle which the line
V.P.
To
find the angle
Using
makes with H.P.
as a pivot, revolve the line b
par. to I.L. as
shown by
Through the point

per. at
it
a"
b af.
draw a
the point a?o
is
From
6,
FlG. 118.
size, situated in
a h until
the point a
becomes
drop a per.
line par. to I.L. intersecting the
To
is
again
its
makes
true length.
project a plane surface of given
the third angle and par. to the V.P.
Let abed be the plane surface 3" long
we conceive
it
h
the angle which the line ab
with H.P. and the broken line a?b
PROB.
lines to
2" wide.
If
be projected from the four corners of the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
84
we
plane surface to the V.P. and join them with straight lines
have
will
And
its
V. projection a b
as the plane surface
V.P.
Fig.
1 1
8.
must be per
it
of projection are at right angles
So the plan or H. projection
to each other.
be a straight
will
one of the sides of the plane surface.
line equal in length to
At
d and shown by
v
par. to the
is
H.P. since the planes
to the
v v
a convenient distance above I.L. draw a straight line,
and from the points ab v project
lines at right angles to I.L.,
cutting the straight line in the points a
b.
The
line a b
is
the hor. proj. of the plane surface abed.
PROB.
7,
FlG. ii8.
To draw the
surface of given dimensions
when
projections of a plane
situated in the third angle
perpendicular to the H.P. and making an angle with the V.P.
Let the plane surface be 3"

angle
it
makes with V.P. be
of 6o with
it,
draw a
per. cutting ab
in
the rectangle a b
v
1
h
1
Fig.
18,
I.L. and
will
and
let
the
making an angle
2" long.
the point b" and cd

v v
as before
6o.
To draw the plan

At a convenient distance above
h
2"
in
From
b,
the point
drop a
v
,
x
then
be the vert. proj. or elevation of
the plane surface abed.
Prob.
8,
plane surface
Fig. 119.
(1)
when
To draw the projections

parallel to the
H.P.,
(2)
an angle of 30 with H.P. and per. to V.P.,
of the
when making
(3)
when mak-
ing an angle of 6o with H.P. and per. to V.P., and (4)

per. to
Fig.
same
when
both planes.
119 shows the projections; further explanations are
unnecessary.
PROB.
9,
Figs.
19
AND
120.
To draw the projections of
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
85
when making compound
the same plane surface
angles with
the planes of projection.
Let the plane make an angle of 30 with H.P., as

second position of Prob.
revolve
it
parallel to
through
at
8,
in
the
Fig. 119, and in addition to that,
angle of 30
H.P., as shown by a
h h
c b
draw the plane
First,
Fig. 119, the true size
of the plane.
Fig. 120.
Fig. 119.
Its elevation will
be the straight line a b parallel to I.L.
Next revolve a v b v using a v

,
30
to the position a b?
an angle of 30
Now
H.P.
it
as a pivot,
which
with H.P.
as the plane
after
Its plan
proj.
through an angle of
vert. proj.
is its
is
when making
projected in
make an angle
cfb^d*.
of 30
with
has been revolved through an angle of 30
with
is
still
to
relation to the V.P., its hor. proj. will
With
remain unchanged.
a piece of celluloid or tracing-paper trace the hor.
cfb^df,
lettering the points as
shown, and revolve the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
86
tracing through the angle of 30
or,
which
h h
is
the same thing,
make an angle
place the tracing so that the line a c will
of
6o with I.L., and with a sharp conical-pointed pencil transthe four points to the drawing-paper and join them by
fer
shown by Fig.
straight lines, as
And
120.
H.P.
as the line <zV retains its position relative to

v v
after the revolution, its elevation will be found at a c
120, in a straight line
119, intersect-
And
the vert. proj.
#V,
ing perpendiculars from

of the points
line
bfdf
Draw
relation to
45
its
and
intersect-
with straight lines the points
when making an angle

with
of 30
V.P.
the projections of the plane
V.P. and
10.
per. to the
To draw
hexagonal form
of
19, parallel to I.L.
in a straight
H.P. and revolved through an angle
of 6o with the
PROB.
join
the projections of the plane
of 6o with
Draw
b*, Fig.
from b*df>
ing pers.
Fig. 120.
be found at h"d, Fig. 120,
will
drawn through
Fig.
drawn through a v b v Fig.
diagonals
in
H.P., Fig. 120.
the projections of a plane surface of
the following positions:
When
(2)
When
(1)
one
V.P. and making an angle
par. to the
is
with the H.P.
making an angle
still
of
of 45
with the H.P. the same diagonal has been revolved through
an angle of 6o.
Draw
2%"
This
the diagonal
will
\
above
venient distance
hexagon
the
be
2 3
I.L.,
6h
Fig.
121,
v
hor. proj. and 2 a?&\
its
at
any con-
making the inscribed
being par. to both planes of proj.
as an axis revolve 6
through an angle of 45 .
the points 2^4/6/ erect pers. to the points 6
circle
its vert, proj.,
*5,*4 *3
1
With
Through
* and 2*
and join them with straight
the
Now
position.
first
lines.
87
These are the
trace the hor. proj,
projs. in
1*, 2/',
etc.,
on
a piece of celluloid or tracing-paper and revolve the tracing
makes an angle
until the diagonal 1*2,*
Fig. 122.
Next draw
pers.
of 6o with the I.L.,
from the 6 points of the hexag-
onal plane to intersect hors. from the corresponding points of
the elevation in Fig. 121, join the points of intersection with
straight lines,
and so complete the projections of the second
position, Fig. 122.
PROB.
11,
cular plane (1)
when
still
it
FIGS. 123
when
its
makes an angle
making an angle
AND
124.
surface
of 45
of 45
is
Draw the
projs. of a cir-
par. to the vert, plane, (2)
with the V.P., and
with the V.P.
(3)
when
has been
it
re-
volved through an angle of 6o.

First position:
Draw
the circular plane
Fig. 123, below the I.L. with a radius

figure
it
as shown.
v
i
V
,
y,
4", etc.,
1}" and divide and
MECHANICAL DRAWING:
Since the plane
straight line i\ 2
par. to
is
V.P.
etc.
For the second position revolve the
and through each division

h
.
plane
in
in
points
2 $
in
h
.
The
elevation
the
hor.
is
proj.
said hor. proj.
to the position a
the required angle of 45
ah
hor. proj. will be a
its
k
i
This
is
h
.
a h draw arcs cutting
the
hor.
of 45 with the
of
the
found by dropping pers. from the points

ah
.1/
intersect
to
hor.
lines
drawn
in the
eleva-
Fig. 124.
Fig. 123.
tion and through these intersections
For the
proj.
V.P.
through the correspondingly numbered points
vert. proj. of the
through
1^, Fig. 123,
draw the elevation or
second position.
third position
make
the second position, numbering
a tracing of the elevation of

all
the points as before, and
v
place the tracing so that the diameter y f
makes the required
angle of 6o with the I.L. and transfer to the drawing-paper.
89
result will be the elevation of the third position
The
found by drawing
Its hor. proj. is
below the I.L., Fig. 124.
shown
3,4 ... to intersect hors. drawn

through the corresponding points in the hor. proj. of the 2d
through the points
pers.
1,
2,
draw the plan or hor.
position and through these intersections

proj. of the third position, Fig.
PROB.
When
(1)
projs. of a regular
hexag-
axis
its
is
par. to the
V.P.
Draw
(2)
the
form of a section of the prism when cut by a plane
true
passing through
Draw
an angle
at
it
the projection of a section
through
XX,
with
of 30
when
cut
by
its
base.
(3)
a plane passing
Fig. 125, per. to both planes of proj.
The drawing
shown by a
h
,
be omitted.
of the first part of this prob.
= to
with a radius
may now
of the I.L.
For the plan
as
Draw the
3" high and having an inscribed circle of 4%"
onal prism,
diam.
FlG. 125.
12,
124.
h
,
2 T ",
h
,
draw a
circle'
and circumscribe a hexagon about
etc., Fig. 125.
To
it,
project the elevation,
draw at a convenient distance from the plan a hor. line par.

!
and 3" below
to a h d \
h
points a b
v
a b
v v
v
,
^d
h
,
it
another line par. to
drop pers. cutting these par.
it.
From
the
lines in the points
thus completing the elevation of the prism.
Second condition
cutting plane
Draw
the edge view or trace of the
iV> making an angle
of 30
with the base of the
prism, locating the lower end 4' one-half inch above the base;
parallel to i'4',
and
a convenient distance from
at
straight line 1,4; at a distance of 2<f$
draw
lines
and
3, 2
points r'2'3'4' let
the points
1,
2,
fall
3, 4,
5,
draw a
on each side of 1,4
6 parallel to 1,4, and through the
pers. cutting these

5,
it
6;
three par. lines in
join these points
by
straight lines
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
9
as
shown, and a true drawing of the section
of the
prism as
required will result.
For the
Let
third condition of the problem
XX be
the edge view of the cutting plane and con
ceive that part of the prism to the right of
XX to be removed
right-hand elevation
the hor. proj. of the prism draw a
draw the lines enpoints
profile proj., and through the
From
or
XX
closing the section, and hatch-line
it
as
shown.
Prob. 13.To draw the development

of the
prism
in
of the lower part
the elevation of the last problem.
To
the right of the elevation in Fig. 125, prolong the base
and lay
indefinitely
line
off
upon
the distances ab,
it
these points erect pers., and through the points

intersecting the pers.
lines
h
draw the hex. a h b b k ^c* ^d*
at
1,
draw the section
PrOB.
FIG. 127.
14,
der 3" diam. and
H.P.
when
3''
Draw
(2)
cut
At
126, each equal in length to a side of the hex.
etc., Fig.
hor.
be, cd,
by
3,
2,
etc.
1,
draw
At
of the last prob. for the base,

2, 3, 4, 5,
1,
long.
When
(1)
be
and
6 for the top.
To draw the
projs. of a right cylin-
axis
its
is
per. to the
the true form of a section of the cylinder,
a plane per. to the
with the H.P.
in 4,
1*2' $'4!
(3)
Draw
V.P. making an angle of 30
development
upper part of
of the
the cyl.
For the plan of the

2'\
etc.,
tion,
with a radius
which
will
first
ij" and from
be a square of 3"
making the point
cutting plane,
circle into 12
it
7,
1,
7 be
2,
equal parts and
let fall pers.
at a
1,
Parallel to the line of section
3,4, etc.
convenient
2, 3, 4, etc.,
beyond \"j".
6'8',
and
5"c/'
distance
from
it,
the trace of the
\" from the top of the
these divisions to the line of section, cutting

1,
it
Lay
off
'9
the points
draw \"j"
and through the points
pers. to 1,7, intersecting
',
cyl.
through
in
1,
draw
'
project the eleva-
sides.
Let
For the second condition:
Divide the
1'
condition, describe the circle
and extending
on these pers. the distances 6 8"
etc.,
and through the points 2", 3",
4", etc., describe the ellipse.
For the development: In

tion
draw the
line
g'g" equal
the circle, and divide

etc.
Through
it
line
in
with the top of the eleva-
length to the circumference of
into 12 equal parts
a', b'
etc., a',
b"
these points drop pers. and through the points
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
02
I, 2,
3, etc.,
draw hors. intersecting the
I, 2,
3, etc.,
and through these points draw a curve.
Tangent
to
any point on the straight
for the top of the cyl.
pers. in the points
line
draw a 3"
circle
and tangent to any suitable point on
the curve transfer a tracing of the ellipse.
PROB.
15,
FlG. 128.
7" high, with a base 6"
Draw the projections

in
of a right
diam., pierced by aright cyl.
cone
2"
in
Fig. 127.
diam. and 5" long their axes intersecting at right angles 3"
above the base of the cone and par. to V.P.

plan of the cone with a radius
At
a convenient distance
Draw
first
the
= 3".
below the plan draw the elevation
to the dimensions required.
3" above the base of the cone draw the center line of the
construct the elevation of the cyl., which
cyl.
CD, and about
will
appear as a rectangle 2" wide and 2%" each side of the
axis of the cone.
it
The
half only appears in the figure.
OR THO G RA PHIC PR OJE C TION.
To
cone
in
project the curves of intersection between the cyl. and
the plan and elevation
on the same center
Draw
line a semicircle
to the right of the cyl.
with a radius equal that
Divide the semicircle into any number of parts,
of the cyl.
Fig. 128.
as
I,
2, 3, 4, etc.
in length to the
line
93
A" 4"
Fig. 129.
Through
1,
draw the
per.
height of the cone, and through
tangent to the semicircle at the point
4,
A" 1" equal

A" draw the
and through
the other divisions of the semicircle draw lines from

line i'V'>
From
meeting
all
it
in
points on
the points $"2

the
line
A"
to the
r,
i'V,
viz-.
i'VW'*
erect
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
94
pers. to the center line of the plan, cutting

ii
//2
i"3i"4i"> anc* with
i"
in the points
it
draw the
as the center
arcs 2/ -2,
4/ -4 above the center line of the plan, and through the

points 2, 3, 4 draw hors. to intersect the circle of the plan in
3,"-3,
the points 2
3V> and
same distances on the other
lay off the
Through each
of the plan
of these points
draw
of the cone, cutting
circle
and through the same
the base of the elevation

/
in the points 2 3 4'
it
and from the apex

/
of the elevation of the cone draw lines to the points 2 34' on
Hor.
the base.
3,
let fall pers. to
order, viz., 2 3 4
on the circumference of the
radii to its center A',
points also in the plan
same
side of the center line of the plan in
drawn through the points
lines
4 on the semicircle
A-4'
will intersect the
of the cone in the points 2' 3'
of division 2,
elements
A 2', A 3',
these will be points in
the elevation of the curve of intersection between the cylinder
and the cone.
The
plan of the curve
is
found by erecting pers. through
the points in the elevation of the curve to intersect the radial

lines of the plan
which
in
correspondingly figured points, through
trace the curve as shown.
Repeat
for the other half
of the curve.
Prob.
16,
129.
To
draw the development
showing the hole penetrated by the
half cone,
With
FlG.
of the
cyl.
center 4/', Fig. 129, and element A\' of the cone,
Fig. 128, as radius, describe an arc equal in length to the semicircle of the
base of the cone.
on each side of the point
Bisect
it
in
the line 4/' 1, and
lay off the distances 2,
to the divisions of the arc in the plan Fig. 128,
points draw
radii
A-a>
respectively,
equal
and from these
lines to 4", the center of the arc.
b, c, d, e,
3, 4,
Then with
on the elevation Fig. 128,
OR THO G RA PHI C PR OJE CTION.

and center 4," draw arcs intersecting the
arc
XX to
its
PROB.
half
as
shown by
17, FlG. 130.
drawn from the

of intersection
Fig. 129.
To
cone, given
truncated
of
Through the points
center 4/'.
draw the curve
lines
95
of the
the plan and elevation of
the cone.
Fig. 130.
Divide the semicircle of the plan into any number of parts,

then with
off
upon
from
A
it
as center
from the point
to 9,
draw the
and
arc
draw gA.
BC.
as radius,
is
draw an
arc
and lay
the divisions of the semicircle
Then with
iBCg
the cone approximately.
center
and radius
AB
the development of the half of
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
90
PROB. i8,*Fig. 131.
To draw the curve

To
a small cyl. with a larger.

Fig. 131
is
tion of the
Draw
left of
the center-line of
a half cross-section, and to the right a half eleva-
two
cyls.
the half plan of
semicircle,
the
of intersection of
and divide
it
into
the small cyl., which will be a
any convenient number of
parts,
say 12.
From each
On
of these divisions
drop pers.
the half cross-section these pers. intersect the circum-
ference of the large cyl. in the points
i',
2',
etc.
Through
Fig. 132.
these points draw hors. to intersect in corresponding points
the pers. on the half elevation.
draw the curve

Prob.
19.
Through the
latter points
of intersection C.
To
of the smaller cyl.
of the last prob.
Draw
a rectangle, Fig. 132, with sides equal to the circum-
97
ference and length of the cyl. respectively, and divide
24 equal
2' 2",
into
parts.
Make AB,
//
it
3 3
etc., Fig.
Fig.
3 3', etc.,
i',
132, equal to
AB,
1/1",
and draw the developed curve of
131,
intersection.
PROB.
20.
To
dome
cylindrical
draw the orthographic projections

riveted
cylindrical
to
boiler
of
of a
given
dimensions.
Let the dimensions
26\" diam.
dome and
the
of
boiler
be
dome
27" nigh, boiler 54" diam., plates J" thick.

Apply to the solution of this problem the principles ex-
plained in Prob. No. 18, Fig. 131.
When
your drawings are completed, compare them with
133 and
Figs.
134, which are the projections required in the
problem.
Letter or number the drawing and be prepared to explain
how
the different projections were found.
Prob. 21.
To
of the top gusset-
sheets of a locomotive wagon-top boiler of given dimensions.

First
draw the longitudinal cross-section
the dimensions given by Fig.

1
of the boiler to
135, using the scale of
1"
ft.
Then
at
any convenient point on your paper draw a

.
straight line, and
upon
it
lay off a distance
AB
35-2" long
the straight part of the top of the gusset-sheet G, Fig. 135.
With
center
gusset)
and a radius
27-J" (the largest radius of the
6" (the distance from the center of the boiler to the
center of the gusset C, Fig. 135)
With
center i? and a radius
the gusset) draw arc
2.
33-J",
draw
arc
1.
26" (the smallest radius of
Tangent
to
these
arcs
draw the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
98
straight line
I,
draw
lines
Take
I,
2 extended,
and
2,
and through the points
per. to
a point on the per.
center and through the point
27*".
I,
I, 2,
and
2.
from the point
draw an
as a
arc with a radius
and 2B as a radius (26%") draw
vVith point 2 as a center
an arc through
meet the
to
99
line 1,2.
Divide both arcs into any number of parts, say
through these divisions draw
2B
and
with a distance
On the first
Ai and B\
distance
intersections
and on these hors. step
definite hors.
arcs,
to 2'
one of the
on the second hors.

f
Then AB12,
i'
A\' and B\'
lay off the
same
Through these points
etc.
12'
Join points
in-
the length of the
off
Then from
respectively.
draw
12 divisions as follows:
hors. lay off the length of the arc
draw curves Ai^' and Bi2

straight line
and intersecting \A
lines per. to
Through these
respectively.
and
12,
and
13'
with a
developed half of
13 will be the
the straight part of the gusset.
On
now
the two ends or front and back of the gusset
add \"
to
for truing
for lap
for clearance
up the
plates, total
+ 3I"
=
for lap
5 J"
'.
And
The
outline of the developed sheet
shown by
Fig. 136.
-f-
2%'
to the sides
+ y allowance for truing up, total =
include these dimensions with as
we have
\" allowance
i\"
may now be drawn
little
to
waste as possible, as
Extreme accuracy
is
necessary in mak-
ing this drawing, as the final dimensions must be found by
measurement.
PROB. 22.
screw and
its
To
draw the projections
on each side of
off
On
line
pitch =
it
Draw A6
the pitch
V-threaded
nut of 3" diam. and f" pitch.
Begin by drawing the center
and 6D.
of
6D
line C, Fig. 137,
the radius of the screw \\"
and lay
Draw
AB
AB
step
the bottom of the screw, and on
f", beginning at the point
from the point 6 lay
f ", because when
off a
off
A.
distance
half the
the point of the thread has com-
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
IOO
pleted half a revolution

distance
half the pitch, viz., ".
Then from
may
have risen perpendicularly a
will
it
the point 6" on
From
be desired.
6D
step off as
Fig. 138.
Fig. 137.
draw with the 30
triangle
intersecting at the points b
At
the point
on
line
and T-square the

.
A6
these into any
the same
hors.
number
number
of
of the threads
the bottom of the threads.
draw two semicircles with
the top and bottom of the thread
draw
pitches as
the points of the threads just found,
||
many
respectively.
of equal parts
and
equal parts.
Through
also the pitch
and pers. intersecting each other
in
radii
Divide
Pinto
these divisions
the points as
shown by Fig.
of intersection
No.
3 of
shows an elevation partly
137, which
and a section of a nut to
101
fit
the screw.
draw the curves
in section
Through the points
of the helices
shown, using
the " Sibley College Set" of Irregular Curves.
Fig. 139.
PROB. 22.
3" diam. and
To draw the
I."
The method
problem, and-
PROB. 22.
is
proj. of a square-threaded screw
pitch and also a section of

of construction
illustrated
To
is
by Fig.
its
nut.
the same as for the last

138.
draw the projections
of a square double
threaded screw of 3" diam. and 2" pitch, and also a section of
its
nut.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
102
The
solution of this problem
is
shown by
Fig. 139, and
further explanation should be unnecessary.
Prob. 23.
To
draw the curve
of
intersection that
is
formed by a plane cutting an irregular surface of revolution.
Fig. 140.
Figs. 140, 141,
and 142 show examples of engine con-
necting rod ends where the curve /
tH-tt
is
formed by the
inter-
d:
Fig. 141.
section of the
flat
stub end with the surface of revolution of
the turned part of the rod.
OR THOGRA PHIC PROJE CTION.
The method
plainly
of finding the
shown by the
I03
curves of intersection are so
figures that a detailed explanation
is
deemed unnecessary.
Fig. 142.
SHADE LINES, SHADES AND SHADOWS.

Shade Lines are quite generally used on engineering working drawings; they give a relieving appearance to the projecting parts, improve the looks of the drawing and
to read,
and are quickly and
The Shading
make
it
easier
easily applied.
of the curved surfaces of
machine parts
is
sometimes practiced on specially finished drawings, but on
working drawings most employers

cause
it
takes too
much
and correct reading

shade lines
Some
is
of
time, and
of a
will
is
not allow shading be-
not essential to a quick
drawing, especially
if
a system
of
used.
the principles of shade lines and shading are
given below, with a few problems illustrating their commonest

applications.
The shadows which opaque
objects cast on the planes of
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
104
projection or on other objects are seldom or never
shown on
a working drawing, and as the students in Sibley College are
taught this subject in a course on Descriptive Geometry,
it is
omitted here.
CONVENTIONS.
The Source
of Light
is
considered to be at an infinite dis-
tance from the object, therefore the
Rays
of Light will be rep-
resented by parallel lines.
The Source
of Light
is
considered to be fixed, and the Point
and
of Sight situated in front of the object
tance from
it,
at an infinite dis-
Visual Rays are parallel to one
that the
so
another and per. to the plane of projection.
Shade Lines divide illuminated surfaces from dark
surfaces.
Dark
by those
surfaces are not necessarily to be defined
surfaces which are darkened
part of the object, but
by the shadow
by reason
cast
by another
of their location in relation
to the rays of light.

It
is
the general practice to shade-line the different pro-
jections of an object as
if
each projection was
in
the
same
plane, e.g., suppose a cube, Fig. 143, situated in space in the

third angle, the point of sight in front of
and the direction
it,
of the rays of light coinciding with the diagonal of the cube,
as
shown by Fig.
lines,
144.
Then
the edges ad
v
,
b c will
be shade
because they are the edges which separate the illumin-
ated faces (the faces upon which
fall
the rays of light) from
the shaded faces, as shown by Fig. 144.
Now
remain
the source of light being fixed,
in the
same
position,
let
the point of sight
and conceive the object to be
volved through the angle of 90
re-
about a hor. axis so that a
plan at the top of the object
is
I05
shown above the
elevation,
as the projected rays of light falling in the direction
diagonal of a cube
the use of the 45
make
and
the
of
angles of 45 with the hor., then with
we can
triangle
easily
determine that the
lower and right-hand edges of the plan as well as of the
ele-
vation should be shade lines.
This practice then
Shade
lines shall
will
be followed
be applied to
all
in this
work,
viz.
projections of an object,
\R,
x-\
\
Fig. 144.
Fig. 143.
considering the rays of light to
fall
upon each
of them,
from
the same direction.
Shade
lines
should have a width equal to
the other outlines.
The
lines.
Broken
lines
times that of
should never be shade
lines.
outlines of surfaces of revolution should not be shade
The
shade-lined figures which follow will assist in
lustrating the
understood.
above principles; they should be studied
il-
until
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Io6
SHADES.
The shade
which
light
The
is
Cine
of an object
that part of the surface from
is
excluded by the object.
of shade
the line separating the shaded from
is
the illuminated part of an object, and
is
found where the rays
of light are tangent to the object.
Brilliant Points.
face which turns
it
" When a ray
from
is
called the incident ray,
The
surface the reflected ray.
takes places
It is ascertained
"
(a)
ray as
and
after
it falls
it
upon
leaves the
point at which the reflection
of the incident
always normal to the surface
That
flected rays
The
by experiment
That the plane
(b)
sur-
another direc-
it
called the point of incidence.
is
"
"
upon a
of light falls
course and gives
be reflected.
tion, the ray is said to
the surface
its
and reflected rays
is
at the point of incidence
at the point of incidence the incident
make equal angles with
and
re-
the tangent plane or normal
line to the surface.
"
light
If
therefore
we suppose
emanating from
it
a single luminous point and the
to fall
flected to the eye, the point at

is
is,
called the brilliant point.
upon any surface and

which the
The
reflection takes place
brilliant point of a surface
then, the point at which a ray of light and a line
the eye
line
make
drawn to
equal angles with the tangent plane or normal
the plane
Davies
to be re-
of the
two
lines
being normal to the surface."
Shades and Shadozvs.
Considering the rays of light to be parallel and the point

of sight at
an
infinite distance, the brilliant point
face of a sphere
is
found as follows: Let
A C
V
and
on the
A C
h
h
y
sur-
Fig.
OR 7 "HO G RA PHIC PR OJE CTION.

145, be a ray of light
and
AA
v
107
Bisect the angles
a visual ray.
contained between the ray of light and the visual ray as
lows
Revolve
A V CV
to the hor. plane at
a hor. through
at
fol-
A
A C
At C erect a per. to intersect
C h join C?L h (L may be any convenient
about the axis
until
becomes
it
parallel
Fig. 145.
point on the line of vision), bisect the angle

line
A hD\
cutting
Join
h
CL
at
bisecting line.
tangent
to 'the
BB* where
L hA h C h
C h L h and
through the point
Df, then
A D
h
l
is
D\
with the
draw
a hor.
the hor. projection of the
plane drawn per. to this bisecting line and
sphere
touches the
the bisecting lines pierce
surface
it.
the two projections of the brilliant point.
at
the
points
Therefore R'B are

11
MECHANICAL DRAWING
io8
The point of shade can be found
Draw A h G,
Fig.
Join the points
A G
h
145,
and
F with
a distance equal to
as follows:
making an angle
of 45
a straight line
EF, and
join
EG.
EF.
with a hor.
Lay
on
off
Parallel to
EG
Fig. 147.
Fig. 146.
Fig. 148,
draw a tangent
h
to the sphere at the point T.
draw
TP
the point of shade.
is
per. to
G.
From
the point
Prob. 24. To shade the elevation

arcs of circles.
Through
drop a per. to
P\
of a sphere with graded
First find the brilliant point
divide the radius
and draw arcs of
and the point of shade, and
2 into a suitable
I,
shown by
circles as
IO9
number
of equal parts,
Fig. 146, grading
by moving the center a short distance on each

center of the sphere
on the
line
B2
h
them
side of the
and varying the length of
the radii to obtain a grade of line that will give a proper
shade to the sphere.
It is desirable to
use a horn center to
protect the center of the figure.

Fig.
149
shows the stippling method of
shading
the
sphere.
Fig. 150.
Fig. 140.
PROB. 25. To shade a right cylinder with graded right

lines.
Find the
line of light
E by the same method used to find
the brilliant point on the sphere, except that the line of light
is
Bh
projected from the point
where the bisection
line
A hD
cuts the circle of the cylinder.
The
line of
shade
gent to the cyl. at

Fig.
is
found where a plane of rays
S and S
v
is
tan-
h
.
150 shows how the shading
lines are
graded from
the line of shade to the line of light.
be noticed that the lines grow a
little
narrower to
the right of the line of shade on Fig. 150;
this
shows where
It will
no
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
the reflection of the rays of light partly illumine the outline

of the cylinder.
Prob. 26, Fig. 148.
To
shade a right cone with graded
right lines tapering toward the
Find the elements of
light
apex of the cone.
and shade as shown by Fig. 148,
and draw the shading-lines as shown by Fig. 151, grading

their width
toward the
light
and tapering them toward the
apex of the cone.
Fig. 152.
Fig. 151.
The mixed appearance
of the lines
near the apex of the
cone on Fig. 151 can usually be avoided by letting each

dry before drawing another through
it,
or as
line
some draftsmen
do, stop the lines just before they touch.
Prob. 2j.
To shade the concave surface
of a section of a
hollow cylinder.
Find the element of
and
grade
from
it
by
Fig. 153*
tional
method
the
shading
to both edges as
light
lines
shown
Fig. 152.
Fig.
153
of shading a hexagonal nut.
shows a conven-
Ill
SHADOWS.
Let Ry Fig. 154, be the direction of the rays of
and
light
an opaque body between the source of light and a
Fig. 154.
The body C
surface S.
in that direction,
the surface 5.
The
surface
line
and
is
its
the
will
prevent the rays from passing
outline will be projected at
shadow
on
of C.
which divides the illuminated portion of the
5 from
the shadow
Shadow of a
Point.
is
called the line of shadow.
If a line is
drawn through a point
in
space in a direction opposite to the source of light, the point

in
which
shadow
this
line
of the point
pierces
the plane
on that plane.
of projection
is
the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
112
To
the
find the
shadow on the H.P.
Let A,
Fig.
155, be
the
direction of the ray of light;
point
of a point in space in
dihedral angle:
first
on H.P., and A HA H
point
then
is
A"
space, and
in
the
the shadow of the
is
A VA
the hor. proj. and
V
X
the
Fig. 155.
B v is
R.
vert. proj. of
when
hor. proj. in the
G.L.
the point where
prolonged below H.P., and B H
is
its
pierces
and A HB H
The projections of R would then be A B

The shadow of a point in V may be found
V
in a similar
manner,
Shadows of RigJit Lines.

a plane
its
may
The
shadow
of a right line
be determined by finding the shadows of two of
points and joining these by a right line; e.g., the
of the line
AB,
Fig. 156, on
Through the points
H.P.
A VB V draw
is
found
the rays
to intersect the plane of projection in
and
v
x
G.L.
shadow
as follows:
A vA
in
B VB V
points A*
and
the
from these points drop perpendiculars to meet rays
AH
drawn through
drawn from
will
and
to
line
is
A/
If a right
shadow
on
H
X
BH
is
in
the
A* and B H A line
of AB on H.P.
the points
shadow
parallel to the plane of projection its
be parallel to the
line itself.
OR THOGRA PHIC PROJECTION.

If a line
coincides with a ray of light,
its
"3
shadow on any
surface will be a point.
!_L
Fig. 156.
PROB. 28
To find
the
shadow of a right
line on
V.P.
and H.P:
Let AB, Fig. 157, be the given
Fig. 157.
line.
Find the shadows
U4
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
of the points
and
projections to
make
AH
found at
on H.P.
is
by passing rays through each of
angles of 45
H and
,
B H at Bf,
that of
rays through these points intersect the H.P.

oi
A v on
V.P.
is
found
at^ r and
that of
a straight line and
BJ, where
Join A H and
at
found
is
joining with a straight line the points
That part
of the
shadow which
and on H.P. above G.L.,

because
it
makes a second
is
called
problems
in
falls
and
"1
"i
\
5
>
\
\d'
"^f
D/
A'
b"
Fig. 158.
it
is
conceived
of the secondary
h
r
c
way by
intersection with
on
the secondary shadow,
like this are easier of solution.
AB
on V.P. below G.L.,
made an
With the use
of
the same
intersection, i.e.,
to have passed through V.P. and
H.P. behind V.P.
we have the shadow
H.P., and the shadow on V.P.
of
where the
The shadow
the rays through these points intersect V.P.
B* with
their
The shadow
with G.L.
shadow
15
A BCD,
to
PROB. 29.
V.P.
find
its
Through the points

rays
Fig. 158,
a square plate parallel
is
shadow on H.P.
making the angle
A y Bv Dv
,
of 45 (or
and
A H C H B HD \
r
draw
any other angle which may
be adopted) with G.L., and determine the shadows of these
They
points as explained in Fig. 155.
A"B", C"
points
and they
will
form the
H
.
will
be found
the
in
Join these points with right lines
line of
shadow
of the square plate
on
H.P.
PROB.
30.
To find
one face in V.P.

to
and
the
shadow of a cube on V.P. with
the other faces parallel or perpendicular
H.P.
Fig. 159
shows the cube
in the
given position.
The
line
DB
C A
Fig. 159.
of shade
edges
is
composed
AE and AB
in
of edges
EF> FG, GD, DB, and the
V.P. which coincide with
their shadows.
n6
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
The shadow
of
Z>^
is
DB
same
The
of
is
E VF
of
The shadows
coincide with
EF
of
the lines.
shadow
PROB.
shadow
is
XJ
of
edges
the
of
GD
AE
is
GD
X
and
X ,
.4.5
of a line in Prob. 28.
B D,G F F E A D V
is
shadows
V
B VD G F E V C VD V
X
FG
is
These shadows are found by the
rules used for finding the

line of
FG
The
visible line
To find the shadow of a rectcmgular abacus on
31.
the face of a rectangular pillar.
Assume
to be as
the hor. and vert, projs. of the abacus and pillar
shown
in Fig.
The
A"B
is
its
line of
H and
is
shade of the abacus
HC H
per. to V.P.,
hor. trace
160.
The
is
seen to be the edges
plane of rays through edge

V
A HB H
X
and the line A E is its vert. proj. or trace;

A HE H The shadow on the left side face, is
X
vertically projected in the point
intersects that face.
the front face in
The
E v where
x
the plane of rays
ray through the point
the point E H which

y
is
H
X
pierces
the shadow of
AH
X
OR THO GRA PHIC PR OJE C TION.
E HE H E ve v
and
F HA
the shadow of the part
is
117
H on
this
face.
The
line
shadow on
A H C"
it
and
its
parallel to the front face, therefore its
of
shadow is now found
161
shows the given prism with
A VB VE VD VF V
proj.,
EÊ VH V 2
1.
Construct the shade of an upright hex. prism
32.
Fig
to be
shadow on both planes.
Fig.
and pass through E.
be parallel to itself
The visible line

PROB.
is
will
and
PROB.
its
33.
on the
vert,
shadow on both
its
its
shade
161.
proj.,
C HDHF HE H on
the hor.
planes.
Given a circular plate parallel
ate plane ; construct
line of
shadow on
to
the other plane.
one coordin-
MECHANICAL DRAWIXG.
n8
Let
A VB V C VD V and A H C H
Fig. 162, be the projections
of the circular plate.
Circumscribe a square
on H.P.
of
the
E VG V about
be the parallelogram
will
points
A VB VC VD V
the circle;
A H GH
projected
are
shadow
its
and the shadows

in
the
points
Fig. 162.
A^B^C^D/1
The shadow
of the inscribed circle
lipse tangent to the parallelogram at
with
B^D^
The
and
A"C" as
is
an
the points A"B^C HD

X
el-
H
X
conjugate diameters.
position and length of the axes of the ellipse of
shadow may be found
as follows:
Erect a perpendicular at the point

to radius of the circle-
major and
MK
draw
KOP;
C v making G VK V equal
then
KP
is
to the minor axis, and angle 6
equal to the
is
twice the
angle of the transverse axis with the horizontal conjugate
diam.
i.e.,
or angle Q
KP
is
is
equal to
equal to half
1,
MK to
2,
KOC
v
>
3, 4,
and
2,
O C",
x
PROB.
Find
34.
II 9
of a cylindrical column and
the shade
abacus and the shadow of the abacus on the column.

y
Let
A vB v C v 2ind A HB H C H
of the abacus,
HE H
F H and
Fig. 163, be the projections

H D V G VF H the projections of
the column.
G-A
Fig. 163.
The
line of
shade on the column
is
found by passing two
planes of rays tangent to the column perpendicular to H.P.
and parallel to the hor. proj. of the ray of light. KL and

E H are the traces of these planes tangent to the column at
H and
the visible line of deepest
the points L, and E
MN
shade on the cylindrical column.
The deepest
line of
shade
1,
on the abacus
is
found
in
the same way.
The
line of
shadow on the column
of that portion of the
lower circumference of the abacus which

of light
is
is
toward the source
found by passing vertical planes of rays, as
3, 4,
to
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
120
determine any number of points

points by a line as
PROB.
35.
shown
Find
in
the line, and joining these
in Fig. 163.
the
shade of an oblique cone and
its
shadow on H.P.
Take the cone
as given in Fig. 164.
Pass two planes of
rays tangent to the cone; their elements of contact will be
To determine the elements of

its hor. trace.
From
through C
CH
the deepest lines of shade.
contact draw a ray
is
C"
draw
lines tangent to
contact are
The
CE
and
CD
visible line of
CE
D and
the base at
and
ECD
E HD H
is
EH
H H
C, D
The shadow on H.P. is

PROB. 36. To draw a front and end
it is
E; the
lines of
the line of shade.
is
shade on H.P.
121
and on V.P.
elevation of a rect-
angular hollow box with a rectangular block on each face, each

block to have a rectangular opening, and
all
to be properly
shade-lined and drawn to the dimensions given on Fig. 165.
Draw
the hor. center line
line of the
end view.
About
first,
and then the
vertical center
these center lines on the end
el-
Fig. 165.
Fig. 166.
evation construct the squares

blocks.
shown and
Next draw the hidden
erect the edges of the
lines indicating the thickness
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
122
box and the openings through the
of the walls of the
measuring the
Draw
sizes carefully to the given dimensions.
the front elevation by projecting lines from the va-
rious points
the line
blocks,
AB
on the end elevation, and assuming the position

measure
their vert, boundaries as
PROB. 37.
shown by the
of these sections
and
when the
all
the projections
part to the left of the cutting plane
remembering that
These drawings and
of the last prob., cut
Draw
C, Fig. 166.
has been removed, and what remains

of the arrow,
figure.
Given the end elevation
by three planes A,
of
the lengths of the hor. lines and erect
off
that
all
is
viewed
in the direction
the visual rays are parallel.
may
follow are to be properly
shade-lined in accordance with the principles given above.
ISOMETRICAL DRAWING.
In orthographic
projection
it
is
necessary to a
correct
understanding of an object to have at least two views, a front
and end elevation, or an elevation and plan, and sometimes

even three views are required.
Isometric drawing on the other hand shows an object completely with only one view.
for
Davidson
the workshop.
" Perspective
of the
It is
in
Workshop."
a very convenient system

his Projection
It is
more
spective for a working drawing, because, as
(" equal measures

like
")
it
can be made
an orthographic drawing.
It
to
any
calls
it
the
useful than per-
its
scale
name
implies
and measured
however, mainly em-
is,
ployed to represent small objects, or large objects drawn to a

small scale, whose main lines are at right angles to each other.
The
principles of isometrical drawing are founded on a
cube resting on
its
lower front corner,
1,
Fig. 167, and
its
base
elevated so that
Then
plane.
diagonal
its
the cube
if
AB
diagonal
is
at
1,
2, 3, 4,
Now we know
167, the lines lA,
is
parallel to the horizontal
rotated on the corner
angles
right
at
through an angle of 90
shown
is
AB
123
to
the
vert,
until the
plane,
i.e.,
the front elevation will appear as
Fig. 167, a regular hexagon.
that in a regular hexagon, as
A$
shown by Fig.
and are easily drawn
etc., are all equal,
Fig. 167.
with the 30
6o triangle.
But although these
lines
and
faces appear to be equal, yet, being inclined to the plane of
would actually be on
projection, they are shorter than they
the cube
itself.
However,
since they
portion to the original sizes, they can

the
same
We
bear the same pro-
all
be measured with
all
scale.
will
now
describe the
method
of
making an isomet-
rical scale.
Draw
the half of a square with sides
These two
Now the
seen,
sides will
make the angle
of 45
2^"
Fig. 168.
with the horizontal.
sides of the corresponding isometrical square,
make
the angle of 30
with the horizontal, so
we have
we
will
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
124
34, making angles
draw 14,
ence then between the angle

1
5,
and the proportion
actual object
And
and
lines
the line
1,
and the angle
3, 2
in
3 is
3,
4 to cut
2,
will divide 3,
3, 2.
the divisions on
and those on
1,
be divided into any number of equal parts,
corresponding divisions, these
proportionately to
if
4,
differ-
of the isometrical projection to the
be drawn through these divisions par. to
3,
Now
2,
The
with 1,3.
30
as the length of the line 3, 2 to the line 3, 4.
is
the line
if
of
3, 2
be taken to represent feet
to represent 2 feet, then 3,
isometrical scale of
4 would be an
j-.
Fig. 168.
Since isometrical drawings
may make the isometrical lines

This is a common practice and
may
be
made
of the object
to
any
= their
scale,
we
true size.
precludes the need of a special
isometrical scale.
The Direction of the Rays of Light.
The projection of a
ray of light in isometrical drawing will
make
with the horizontal as shown by the
line 3, 2
elevation of the hex., Fig. 167.
And
the angle of 30
on the front
the shade lines will be
applied as in ordinary projection.
PROB.
armed
38.
To
make the
isometrical drawing of a two-
cross standing on a square pedestal.

Begin by drawing a center
point
horizontal.
tance
AD
AC
draw
and
2%" long and erect
AB,
AD, making
Fig. 169,
and from the
an angle of 30
with the
AB a dislines par. to AC, AD; make AC and

a perpendicular at D and C, complet-
Measure from
- Ty, and draw
line
25
on the center
line
ing the two front sides of the base, etc.
Prob.
39.
To
make
the isometrical drawing of a hollow
with square block on
cube,
each face and a square hole
through each block, to dimensions given on Fig. 170.
As
before,
first
draw a center
line,
and make an isometrical
drawing of a 2\" cube, and upon each face of
it
blocks with the square holes in them, exactly as

Fig.
build the
shown
in
170.
Prob. 40.
The
To project an isometrical
circle is enclosed in a square, as
circle.
shown by Fig.
171.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
126
Draw
I,
the circle with a radius
4 about
2, 3,
Draw
the diagonals
2, 3,
1,
4 and the diameters
7, 8
5, 6,
each other.
from the points
2B making
describe the square
it.
at right angles to
Now
= 2" and
angles of 30
and
draw
lines
\B and 2A,
iA,
with the hor. diagonal 1,2.
And
Fig. 170.
draw
through the center
CD
and
EF at
right angles to the
isometrical square.
The
points
CD, EF, and
GH will
be points
in
the curve
of the projected isometrical circle, which will be an ellipse.
The
ellipse
With
tend
it
may
center
little
and same
be drawn sufficiently accurate as follows
and radius
BC describe
beyond the points
the arc
CF and
ex-
and F, and with center
rad. describe a similar arc, then with a rad.
which
I27
{S
Fig. 173.
Fig. 176.
Fig. 174.
Fig. 175.
Fig. 177.
128
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Fig. 178.
Fig. 179.
Fig. 181.
Fig. 180.
Fig. 182.
Fig. 183.
may
readily be found
and
and tangent
Prob.
41.
To
by
trial,
to the
lay off
draw
arcs through
the points
29
two arcs already described.

an angle from a corner of the
iso-
metrical cube.
Construct an orthographic square of any convenient size as
shown
in Fig. 174,
lay off along the side a distance equal to
OA
square and erect a perpendicular at A.
AB
and draw
drawn
177,
the angle required.
178,
application
to
be drawn
of the orthographic
Step
Any
is
From
off
the distance
other angle
may be
manner.
in similar
Figs.
the
OB
AOB.
and draw the required angle
the corner of the isometrical cube where the angle
of
179,
the
180,
181,
and 184
are for
practice in
preceding principles, and at least one
Fig. 184.
of
these should be drawn, or
would attempt
to
make an
it
would be better
the student
isometrical projection of his instru-
ment-box, desk, or any familiar object
may
still if
at
hand.
These
figures
be measured with the ij" scale and drawn with the 2"
scale.
WORKING DRAWINGS.
Working drawings are sometimes made on brown
paper
in pencil, traced
on tracing-paper or
cloth,
and then
printed.
The
latter process is
accomplished as follows'
detail-
blue-
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
130
The
tracing
down on
placed face
is
ing-frame, and the prepared paper
is
sensitized surface in contact with the
the glass in the print-
placed behind
back of the
it,
with the
tracing.
In printing from a negative the sensitized surface of the prepared paper
placed in
and the face
negative,
The
is
contact with
exposed to the
is
blue-print system
the film
light.
almost universal in
is
the
of
side
its
application
"
to shop drawings, as evidenced in the report on " Conventions
found
at
page 247.
A Working Drawing in the hands of an experienced workman is

intended to convey to him
all
the necessary information as to shape,
size, material, finish, etc., of
a machine or other object that will
enable him to properly construct
This means that
structions.
it
it
without any additional
must have
in-
num-
a sufficient
ber of elevations, sections, and plans to thoroughly explain
and describe the object
in
And
every particular.
these views
The
should be completely and conveniently dimensioned.
dimensions on the drawing must of course give the
which the object

to
which
it
may
is
to be
made, without reference to the
The
be drawn.
title of a
plain, free-hand printed letter
is
to be finished, then below the title
to write or print
neat,
it is
'
f,"
and
customary
finished all over."
Working drawings
viz.:
best for this purpose.
Finished parts are usually indicated by the letter
li
scale
working drawing
should be as brief as possible, and not very large
if it is all
sizes to
General Plans,
may be
divided into three general types,
Machine Drawings,
and
Patent
Office
Drawings.
General Plans consists of foundation drawings, piping drawings, layout
drawings, maps,
etc.
Machine drawings include assembly drawings,
ings,
131
detail
draw-
diagram and kinematic drawings, sketches and scheming
sheets.
Patent Office drawings must conform to the requirements of

the U. S. Patent Office as published in the " Official Rules of
They
Practice."
are generally
board with black ink.
margin
all
around.
row edges ij"

date.
The
Size of sheet
From
at least
made on two
sheet white bristoi
io"Xi5" with
a one inch
the top border line of one of the nar-
should be reserved for
signatures of inventor, attorney,
title,
number and
and witnesses must
be placed at the bottom of the sheet inside the border
line.
COURSE
I.
PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING

INCLUDING
LETTERING, GEOMETRICAL DRAWING, ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION, DEVELOPMENTS, INTERSECTIONS, AND ISOMETRICAL DRAWING.
COURSE
I.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
MINIMUM NUMBER OF PLATES AND MAXIMUM NUMBER OF HOURS ALLOWED TO COMPLETE EACH
DIVISION OF THE WORK.
Note.
Registered freshmen conditioned in Mechanical
Draw-
ing will be required to complete satisfactorily the following plates

in
Courses
and
II.
10, ii, 12, 14, 17, 19,
In Course
I,
plates i to 6a inclusive, also
and 21 (58 hours). In Course
II, plates 22,
34 and 35 (122 hours).

Students conditioned in Mechanical Drawing must work
23, 24, 32, 33,
at
hours per week.
least 6
FIRST SEMESTER.
Plates
to
6a inclusive, Freehand Lettering, to be handed in
on or before Wednesday, Oct.
Plates
7 to
in
(28 hours.)
10 inclusive, Geometrical Drawing, to be handed in
on or before Wednesday, Nov.
Plates
20, 1909.
11 to 13 inclusive,
26, 1909.
(22 hours.)
Orthographic Projection, to be handed
on or before Friday, Jan.
29, 1910.
(24 hours.)
Total, 74 hours.
i35
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
136
Students failing to finish any of the divisions within the specified
may make
time for excusable reasons

Instructor to
work
arrangements with the
one or more extra periods.
in
SECOND SEMESTER.
Begins Jan. 24, 1910.
Plates 14
March
Plates
to 16 inclusive, to
4,
17 and
1910.
Plates 19 and
(20 hours.)
Developments,
18,
Friday, April
1,
20,
1910.
to
be handed in not later than
(16 hours.)
Intersections, to be
Friday, April 29, 1910.
Plate
be handed in on or before' Friday,
handed
in
on or before
(16 hours.)
21, Isometrical Drawing, to be handed in on or before
Friday,
May
20, 1910.
(12 hours.)
Total, 64 hours.
Total number of hours in
first
and second semesters, 138
hours.
Students failing to complete any of the divisions in the course

in this semester within the specified time for excusable reasons
may make arrangements

more extra
with the Instructor to work in one or
periods.
Students doing more than the required
number
of plates in
the given time will receive a higher mark, other things being
equal.
END OF SECOND SEMESTER.
PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING.
when Commencing
Directions to be Carefully Observed
Work
in
137
Mechanical Drawing.
students' conduct in class.

Students will be
lettering or
expected
to
strict
attention
the warning
their
to
drawing work during the full time of each drawing
Materials and instruments must not be put
period.
away
until
bell rings.
Nothing should be brought

needed for the drawing work
If
give
drawing table that
to the
in
not
is
hand.
a student expects to be absent from any regular period
he should endeavor
to get
excused by the Instructor and
make
arrangements for making up the work.
student coming late to class should report at once to the
absence.
he
otherwise
Instructor,
be marked
will
an unexcused
with
report from the Instructor concerning the deport-
ment of each student
in class
is
expected by the
Dean every two
months.
When
a student
is
absent from class through an unforseen
cause he should at the next regular period
fill
blank, giving date and cause of absence, sign

Instructor.
The work
of all absent periods
out an absence
it,
and hand
to
must be made up
by arrangement with the Instructor.
Plate
i.
Freehand Lettering, Fig. 185, page 138.
Use
the
4H
pencil sharpened to a long conical point, not too sharp.
Locate the lower point of the
from top and

Guide-lines
stroke
should
and allowed
After
first
guide-line
12
squares
squares from left-hand edge of cross-section pad.
drawing
to
the
be
sketched
remain
lightly
with
until letters are
guide-lines
analyze the lines of each curved
for
letter,
the
downward
approved.
curved
letters,
as given on the chart
i.?8
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
CO
3 (I
ICQ
<o
Or
Q
si
1
^
^
mw
k
k*
39
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
140
on
blackboard
the
on the pad.
curved
as
letter
obtained
before
attempting
before
very
approximation
close
on
appears
it
attempting
draw
to
the
draw
to
curves
the
the
of
should
chart
be
curved
second
the
first
letter.
Do not copy the letters
or figures on pages 138 and 142, the
form and proportions
correct
must be obtained by a careful study
The work on
all
and
figures
must be
strictly
for all the letters
the letters
and
of the chart.
figures
freehand.
Place at the bottom of each plate at the right-hand corner
Time taken
hours),
and Wed.,
height of
2-4,
these
to finish plate,
Plate
and
Plate number, Section (days
the following information:
Time,
1.
e.g.,
Mon.
Name.
The
and Name,
hours,
should be one square high and
letters
all
capitals
Plate
Freehand guide
2.
and
lines
must
.be
figures higher than one square
drawn
for
and allowed
all
to
letters
remain
until letters are approved.
The same
care as to proportion
and form should be ob-
served in lettering this plate as in Plate
Be
careful to balance letters
so that the
same space
will
1.
and numbers on
all
plates
appear from both ends of
line
to edge of pad.
The
small letters should be extended in width a
yond the proportion given
The open
letters
be-
for the larger letters.
should be spaced closely together and
words should have a

squares.
little
liberal
space between them, say ij
>
Mi!
ill
Q x
fr
Q;
S>
Hi
141
II
>
Hj
s:
Aai
1
III
MM
til
1
j
it
tf
142
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Ol <o
ftl
C\j
ft)
ft)
>
ft)
C\]
(V)
^<o
<\l
")
to
ft)
to
ft)
to
ft)
to
ft)
to
ft)
>
^
^
^
*
*
^
C\i
ft)
C\J
ft)
<\l
V)
to
ft)
to
ft)
C\]
ft)
fy
P)
C\l
C\j
ft)
to
ft)
to
C\j
ft)
C\|
ft)
to
ft)
Oa
*>
to
C\l
v*
'0
<0
*9
^*0
<fc
(DO)
fe
<Dq
<s>
$)0>
fc 0 Q>
fcQO 0)
<*>
0>
10 &
0)
ft)
k^
6)
(!)
(0 co c^
01 co
CM
ft)
<0 <0
<
143
Pencil three words only of the small letters at
first
and
submit for criticism before going on with the others.
Use Ball pen, No.

for small letters
Plates 3-6-
in
and
506, to ink large letters
and No. 516
figures.
the next three
directions for
plates the
letter
and
guide-lines, form, slope, spacing of letters,
for width of
small letters should be carefully observed.
Plate
drafting
6.*
rooms
While
substantial
majority
United States are
in the
Capitals exclusively for notes
and
it
is
deemed wise
to give the student
to introduce
leading
the
Gothic
in favor of using
titles,
there
using a combination of Gothic Capitals and
So
of
are
number
Lower Case
one plate of Lower Case
some knowledge
letters.
letters
of their form, proportion
and construction.
This plate should
In addition
to
first
be pencilled and
the "Ball" pen,
No. 516,
after approval, inked.
for large letters, the
small letters should be inked with Gillott's No. 303.
when new should be

letter.
" exercised"
The form and
little
All pens
before beginning to
proportion of these letters as given by
the largest letters in Fig. 190, on page 145, should be adhered

to as closely as possible.
In general these
letters
of a uniform pressure.
should be
The
made with down
strokes
only exceptions are the letters r
* All letters and figures should have uniform slope.

one square high should have a full half square slope.
Letters
and
figures of
Each plate must be signed by Instructor in charge, in pencil before inking and
when plate is finished. Plates not so signed will be rejected.
When plates are finished and signed they will be retained by the student until
the six plates on lettering are completed, when they are to be bound with paper
binders and handed to the Instructor.
in
ink
MECHANICAL
144
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<bt&
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OjQ>
<*><&
JoS
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<&*>
OjO)
^
V<8
CD CD
Si
* .*
v>
QDCb
H)
.^
Y^
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<H
IT)
6\
00
w
h
^3
Ah
Q>
B>
ft)
K,
<0 ")
BJ5
Kk
KK
KK
KR
KK
KK
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V<\i
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(V)(o
WAl
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o to
<0
")
&
ÎCU
<\i
-u
Vt
<V<ty
fc<^
<e <a
Jt)p)
.njfV)
<*)
M <M,
*j5
0)0)
<b
IS
QO)
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^
ft
ft
Rk
KK
KK
KK
KK
<0 q>
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145
X'
1
8 1
s
1
,5
{
$
1.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
146
and
u.
The curved
curved only
part of the r imay be
at the top.
The u
is
made with an up
made with two down
stroke
strokes
in
ft
n,
iAl*i*'
ft
5^ ^
and the bottom curve
The m,
S!
>
filled in
ft
^<5!
?k
|i
iH r
uj
^ ^
with a stroke to the right and upward.
and h should be formed with nearly sharp upper curves.

This plate
will
have
to
147
be repeated until the desired results
have been obtained.
Plate 6A,
students
This
Fig. 191.
who may
is
an extra lettering plate for those
finish the required plates
The
ahead of time.
extra plate will increase the grade mark.
GEOMETRICAL DRAWING, INCLUDING CONIC SECs

TIONS; ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS; DEVELOPMENTS; INTERSECTIONS; ISOMETRICAL DRAWING,
AND ONE WORKING DRAWING.
beginning
Before
be used for
on page
in
and inside divisions
where otherwise
and
The
17.
size of
This
size
be as shown
will
directed.
8.
lead in the compasses must also be 6
same way.
the
to
be i5"X2o".
will
pencil sharpened to a long wedge-shaped point, as
explained on pages
The
lines
148, except
Use a 6
on pages
drawings in mechanical and machine draw-
all
The border
Mechanical Drawing read
in
cream drawing paper
the sheet of
ing.
work
directions given
carefully the
will
the
properly sharpened
and sharpened
pencil
is
necessary
to obtain good work.
When
lines
it
the
work has been completely
pencilled with fine sharp
should be submitted to the Instructor for approval and
signature, after
which the given and required
lines of the
are to be repencilled with a strong, bold line, using a 4
sharpened
Title.
on
all
problem
pencil
to a conical point (not too sharp).
The form
of
title
shown
in
Fig.
192 will be used
drawings and should be pencilled and inked together with
the border lines whether the drawing
is
to
be inked or not.
All
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
48
drawings are to be finished pencil drawings, as directed above,

except where otherwise stated.
y>
cr
\\
V3
1*1
4
sfe
&+
tV
.S
7
Following
plate
is
list
of
the problems to be
drawn on each

Plate
Problems
Make
20.
1,
2, 3,
(Pages 17 to 26 inclusive.)
7.
5, 6,
the dimensions for each
Problems
and
42,
94
56,
54,
to
suit
and
the given
without crowding.
(Pages 26 to 35.)
8.
in
(Pages 43 to 53.)
9.
58,
57,
and 73
70, 71, 72
59.
Use four spaces
for
problem
one space each, 63 in two spaces, and
one space.
Plate
Draw problems
(Pages 39 to 43.)
10.
Divide the plate into nine equal spaces.
Conic Sections.
47 and 48 (in problem 48 draw complete upper
and draw lower half by "Honey's method," prob-
half of ellipse
lem
problem
19,
44.
Problems
in
it
18,
21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37, 39, 40, 41,
Plate
59;
fill
16,
11, 13, 14, 15,
9,
7,
space so as to comfortably
Plate
149
and
46), 49, 50, 51, 52, 53,
55.
Make
twice the size given
in the figures.
Plate
Orthographic
spaces, as
shown
Problem
Projection.
in Fig. 193,
and
and
the
Elevation" or
the
horizontal
profile
"End
nine
into
wedge-shaped
of a
profile
projections.
equal
projection
is
is
vertical
or
"Front
generally
known
solid, viz.,
The
" Elevation"
the
projection
View."
sheet
page 150.
commonly termed
is
Elevation;"
"plan,"
Divide
shows three views
the vertical, horizontal,

projection
(Study pages 74 to 89.)
ii.
as
called
the
the
"End
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
i;c
It will
be seen that the end view
is
obtained by revolving
points projected from the plan to the profile plane through an
<3
*-n<U
J dh
-A
1
X
LJ
-T-i
\*
angle of 90
by means
of arcs of circles
lars to intersect horizontals
and dropping perpendicu-
from the same points
in the elevation.
PROBLEMS IX MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Problem
This
2.
is
same
the
This method
to the other, as
Problem
3.
instead of by
lines
be adhered
will
5*
placed differently and
solid
having the end view projected by straight

arcs of circles.
to in preference
takes less time.
it
Given the front and
end
wideXi" thickX2
tangular pyramid ih"
//
sections of
From
high.
rec-
the given
views draw the plan.
Problem
side
is
Problem
draw
Given the plan of a pentagonal pyramid whose
4.
1", project the front
front
5.
draw the
6.
elevations.
Given the plan of an H-shaped block 2" high,
and end
Problem
and end
elevations.
Given the
elevations
of
+ -shaped
block,
plan.
Problem
7.
Given front elevation and plan
rectangular prism,
Problem
8.
draw the end
of
a hollow
elevation.
Given the front elevation of an L-shaped block
2" long, draw the end elevation and plan.

sheet leave out the
In the
word "Details" and make
title
of this
title
name "Ortho-
graphic Projection."
Plate
Problem
pyramid
1.
12.
Given the elevation and plan of a 1}" square
" high, draw the end view.
Problem
2.
Given the same pyramid of problem
plan has been rotated to the
and end
ject the front
Problem
3.
in
problem
Draw
Problem
when
when
the
Pro-
elevations.
Given the front elevation of the
the plan
4.
left
revolved to the
left
figure obtained
through an angle of
and end elevation.
Given the front elevation
of
problem
when
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
i5 2
revolved through an angle of 30
to the right.
Draw
the plan
and end view.

Problem
5.
Given the end elevation of the pyramid ob-
tained in problem
of
when
revolved to the right through an angle
and plan.
Project the front elevation
PLATE
12.
"^
\n
[A
m
33
1
a
&
(3)
Ce)
Fig. 194.
Problem
6.
Given the end view of the pyramid obtained
problem 3 when revolved
Draw
the front elevation
Problem
7.
to the left
and plan.
Given the end view of the pyramid obtained
problem 4 when revolved through an angle of 30
Draw
in
the elevation and plan.
in
to the left.

Problem
when
8.
Given the front elevation obtained
revolved 30
to
the
right.
Title similar to that on Plate
Draw
in
53
problem
plan and end view.
1 1
Plate
13.
In the same positions as given above draw the projections

of a rectangular prism, Fig. 199,
ii"Xi"X2"
high.
Fig. 202.
.biG. 201.
$a
-7
"El
K
UX
"i
Fig. 203.
Fig. 204.
Plate
Using same positions as
a hexagonal pyramid,
= if"
Fig. 205.
14.
in Plate 12,
draw
the projections of
Fig. 197, circumscribed circle of
diameter, height if".
hexagon
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
154
Plate
15,
Given a pentagonal pyramid, Fig.

height
if",
draw
the
projections
of
whose
198,
the
side
is
ij'
various positions as
required in Plate 12.
Plate
15 B.

of a triangular prism, Fig. 200, page 153, side of triangle ij",
height of prism ij".
Plate
15 C.

of a
T-shaped block,
Fig. 201, page 153.
Plate
15
D.
In the same positions as given above draw the projections of

a wedge, Fig. 202, page 153.
plates to be
drawn by
those
Plates 15 B, 15 C, 15
who
are extra
finish the required plates
ahead
of time.
Plate
Problem
1.
16.
Given the elevation and plan of a hollow
angular prism in the position shown in Fig. 203, page 153.
tri
Com-
plete the projection in the auxiliary plane.
Problem
2.
Given the elevation and end view of a hexa-
gonal pyramid, draw the projection on the auxiliary plane, shown

in Fig. 206,
Problem
page 153.
3.
Use same dimensions given
Given the elevation and plan
the projection on the auxilary plane,
Use same dimensions given
shown
in Fig. 202.
of a
in Fig. 197.
wedge, draw
in Fig. 205c
page 153.

Problem
4.
tion.
55
Given elevation, plan, and revolved position of

Base 3" diam-
plan of a right circular cone, Fig. 212, page 155.

eter, height 3".
Draw
See page 88.
elevation and end view in revolved posi-
In planning position of drawings on this plate,
4
i
It
Fig. 208.
Fig. 207.
Fig. 2c6.
Fig. 209.
Fig. 210.
Fig. 211.
Fig. 212.
locate problems 1,2,

in the
lower
left
and 3 along the top of the sheet and problem 4
hand.
Plate
Scheme
the
layout
17.
of all
Developments.
the problems in this plate before
beginning to draw.
Problem
1.
Given the elevation and plan of a pentagonal
A and
Draw the
prism, Fig. 206, page 155, 1" side, if" high, cutting planes
B, draw projections as shown
in
Fig. 125, page 90.
development of the part below the cutting plane B.

126, page 90.
See Fig.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
Problem
Given elevation and plan of a rectangular pyramid,
2.
Fig. 207, page 155,
B.
Draw
2"Xi"Xif"
projections
Problem
high,
and cutting planes
and developments
and
problem
as required for
1.
Given views and cutting planes of equilateral
3.
shown
triangular prism
page
Fig. 208,
in
155.
Draw
sections
and development.
Problem
in Fig. 209,
Given views and cutting planes of pyramid shown
4.
page
In this problem
must be made
pyramid.
Draw
155.
when
sections
and development.
laying out the development, allowance
unequal inclined edges of the sides of the
for the
See Fig. 117, page 82.
Plate
Problem
1.
210, page 155.
Problem
Given the
Draw
3.
right circular cone, as
Draw
and B.
Given projections of
tions of conic sections as indicated
and development.
sections
right circular cone, Fig. 213,
by center
Draw
full
development draw
Plate
1.
Draw
equal diameter, shown

angles to each other,
Problem
2.
and draw curve

Problem
Make
4.
If
also
space will
half.
Intersections.
three views of
in Fig. 214,
Draw
Draw
two
right circular cylinders of
page 157, intersecting
curve of intersection.
the drawing
shown
at right
See page 96.
in Fig. 215,
page 157,
of intersection.
Make drawing shown
3.
and prcjxt curve

Problem
19.
the projec-
lines.
development of part of cone below cutting plane B.
Problem
in Fig.
and development.
sectional plan
page 155, and cutting planes A, B, C, and D.
not permit of
shown
Given pentagonal pyramid, Fig. 211, page 155,
2.
and cutting planes
Problem
18.
in
Fig. 216, page
157,
of intersection.
Fig. 217, page 157,
shows a square prism
inter-
PROBLEMS IN MECHANICAL DRAWING

Fig. 214.
157
Fig. 215.
~0^
^y-M
*$-
Fig. 217.
\)'
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
158
sected
by a hexagonal prism
and draw
plete the elevation

of
shown
partly
also half
Com-
in elevation.
end view.
Total length
hexagonal prism 4".
Plate
Problems
and
Construct
2.
shown on the connecting-rod ends

and draw three complete views
Problems 3 and
20.
Draw
4.
in Figs.
100, Figs. 137
Plate
and
21.
intersection
140 and 141, page 102,
of each.
the projections
"Square" threaded screw according

99 and
curves of
the
of
"V"
and
on pages
to directions given
138.
Isometrical Drawing.
See pages 122 and 123.
Problem
Draw
shown
Make
1.
the isometrical
drawing of a
J" cube.
a 2\" isometric circle on the upper face by the method

in Fig. 171,
From
page 127.
the lower left-hand corner
and 45
Use
See problem 41, page 129.
of the right-hand face lay off angles of 15
method shown
Problem
in Fig. 174,
2.
Draw
page 127.
the hollow cube as
30
shown
in
Fig.
170,
page 126, except that instead of the hollow block on the upper
face
draw a cylinder
Problem
3.
and 1" high.
of if" diameter
Make
the isometrical drawing of a hexagonal
headed bolt, shank 1" diameter and 2" long.
Use
either of the
Problem
4.
methods shown
Make
prism of i|" sides and

an isometric
Problem
shown
circle of
5.
deep, over
all.
page
and
175,
thick.
page 127.
the isometrical drawing of a pentagonal

2 J" high.
On
2" diameter.
Make
at Fig. 183,
in Figs. 173
Head 1"
the top of the prism
the isometrical drawing of the tool

128.
Cover and
draw
box
Dimensions 3 \" long X 2" wideX 1"

sides \
,}
thick.
Use the method of

offsets
this
shown
in Fig.
drawing.
182,
Plate 21
is
page 128.
Place
full
59
dimensions on
be finished in pencil and inked.
to
See directions for inking with the spring bows on page 14, the
PLATE
22.
OWf/VSW/VS //V fry*f>/?/f FHL/S /V //V /A/C/-/ES AA4/?/T T/-fL/S

?/ MEA/S/O/VS OE 55
TWO fEr AEfE
B G/WEM /A/ /AJCMES AFfKCW /-/EADS THUS - A/OT TMUS
coiners o/me/vs/oms
/?/?// /nq/cated ar h
T/-/A/\t
>
HL
>
^y
m 3
3 FT. 6M-
7&
/ei-
id-
1-:;
M Sr
J-4*'_-*/-.
**,
/44-
Fig. 218.
large
compass on page
13,
and the ruling pen on page
also directions given for inking Plate 22
Plate
Problems
and
2.
22.
Make
and space
and \" space between
See
Working Drawing.
the working drawing of connecting
rod and axle shown in Fig. 218, page 159.

the border line
9.
on page 159.
for
lines.
title.
Locate
Draw
all
Begin by laying
guide-lines
off
\" high
center lines of rod and
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
t6o
axle.
fine,
Use 6
clear,
pencil sharpened as directed
clean-cut lines.
When
on page
8.
Draw
drawings of rod and axle
are complete and approved, strengthen the lines with 4
pencil,
Next put
in
arrow-
conical point.
Then draw dimension
lines.

heads and dimensions, beginning
the upper
at
left
161
hand and
working down toward the lower right-hand corner.
When
by
the drawing
the Instructor
it
is
will
properly finished in pencil and signed
be ready for tracing on
the tracing with the spring

circles,
Then
and
irregular
bow
Ink
pen.
all
Begin
cloth.
arcs of circles,
inking any straight
curves before
lines.
Next ink arrow-heads and dimen-
ink dimension lines.
sions in consecutive order, beginning with the left-hand arrow-
head, then dimension, next sign of inches, and then left-hand
Ink hatch
arrow-head.
weight and character of
and center
lines
lines see
Plate
Problem
shown
Make drawing
1.
For
all.
Standard Lines on page 247.

22 F.
of
automobile
Use same
page 160.
in Fig. 219,
lines last of
crank
axle,
as
directions for pencilling
and inking as given for Plate 22.

Problem
chine, as
Make drawing
2.
shown
in Fig. 219,
Make
view of bracket.
This plate
is
will
page 160.
finish pencil
ma-
Project also right end
drawing and trace on
cloth.
not required in the course of mechanical draw-
ing, but credit will
who may have
of top bracket for planing
be given for
time to finish
it
it
in the
Freshman Course
in this course.
be given to the student completing
to those
higher
mark
this plate in addition to
the required plates.
Course I
is
Course III
preparatory to Courses II and III.

is
given in "
Mechanical Drawing and Elemen-
tary Machine Design," by John
&
Sons,
New
York.
S.
and D. Reid, John Wiley
CHAPTER
VI.
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING.
The method
making
of applying the principles of projection to the
of architectural
working drawings
is
the
same
as in
me-
chanical or machine drawings, except that third angle projection
is
used in the
latter,
while
first
angle projection
is
almost
invariably used in the former.
The
instruments and materials used in architectural drawpractically
ing are
in
same
the
as
for
mechanical and machine
There are a few additional materials needed however,
drawing.
architectural work,
viz.,
a tinting brush, water glass, color
saucer, colors, stick of India ink, slate, ink well,
and white draw-
ing paper suitable for taking water colors.
While
true
is
it
much
use pencils of a
draftsmen,
the
use
of
is
it
that
experienced
softer grade
architectural
draftsmen
than those used by machine
better for the student while learning to continue
the
harder
grades
as
required
in
mechanical
drawing.
The
in
following objects which have been selected for problems
architectural drawing in addition to those
given before are necessarily limited.
preparatory to a larger
They
which have been
are elementary
and more comprehensive course in
and
architec-
tural drafting.
162
I6 3
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
164
FRAMING
JOINTS.
In elementary building construction, carpenters' joints occupy
The
an important place.
Single Notch
is
which another board

single
forms
and mortises and combinations of the same.
of notches, tenons,
joints are divided into various
a hollow cut in a board or scantling into
and fastened.
fitted
is
and double notches are shown
Examples
in Figs. 220, 221,
of the
and 222,
Plate 23.
The
Butt Joint.
of a stud
is
shows a butt
Fig. 223
Fig.
224
is
where the end
a special form of double notch usually
The boards
halving.
are of equal thickness
when
are notched half their thickness, so that
they form a smooth

Beveled Lap.
Fig.
Fig. 226
and both
fastened together
flush surface.
225
the notch in both scantlings

slope.
joint
fastened to a plate without a notch.
End Lap.
called
is
an example of the lap joint when
is
beveled with an equal and opposite
shows a lap
joint
where the pieces cross each
other.
Dovetail Halving.
Fig.
227 shows a dovetail lap joint where
notches are of such slope that the end cannot be withdrawn.

Mortise and
tenon
is
The
joint.
made
to
Tenon.
fit
Fig.
tenon, A,
The
is
the projection on one piece
into the mortise
wedges which are driven

it.
229 shows a plain mortise and
in
shown, cut
when
shoulders of the tenon are
in the
the tenon
shown
is
which
other with two
in place to tighten
at its root; the
abutments
of the mortise are the faces on which the shoulders rest;
and
the cheeks are the two internal faces on which the grain runs
lengthwise.
scantling.
The tenon
The
is
made
finished joint
is
one-third the thickness of the
shown
at B.
ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING
>
I6 5
"*
mm
3^>
<$
<tj
111
-vi
kj
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
l66
Mortise and Tenon Joggled Joint.
This
joint,
Fig.
230,
is
a modification of the preceding one to suit the angle at which
The
the timbers are inclined.
hand end
left
of the tenon
is
cut
square to the plane of the abutment to avoid the sharp end which
would tend
to shear the
An
be a right angle.
shown
at
timber beyond.
The
angle at
should
orthographic projection of this joint
is
B.
Straddle or Bridge Joint.
and tenon
of the mortise
Splice or
Lap
Joint.
This
joint, Fig.
228,
is
a reversal
joint
Fig.
231
shows a simple lap
splice
used to join two timbers together.

Scarfed Joint.
stress.
Fig. 232
fish plate
The compression
but the tenon part
to end,
may have
and iron
and sometimes
joint to resist cross
this joint very
much.
part should have a square abutment as shown,
a bird mouth abutment and
Fig.
Iron Fish Plate Joint.
end
shows a scarfed
added would strengthen
233 shows the two beams butted
fish plates are
to all sides for
sally.
bolted on to two opposite sides
compression.
BRICKWORK.
In building a wall with brick the main object
the greatest strength with the materials used,
time to obtain the
most
pleasing
most important methods used

is
known
as the English
to
external
and
is
to obtain
at the
appearance.
same
The
obtain these results are what
and Flemish bond.
the connection of bricks' one with another
By bond
is
meant
by lapping them over
each other in building.

Fig.
234
is
an example
in
English bond where the courses
appear as heading and stretching courses alternately.
Fig.
167
235 shows an example of the Flemish bond where the
headers and stretchers alternate in the same course.
Brick and Cement Foundations.

course of a wall must be such that
The
width of the lowest
will not press in the
it
ground
with a greater load per square foot than the ground can safety
bear.
This
accomplished by what
is
is
known
at footings,
whose
widths should be apportioned to the weight to be carried, so that

there will be a uniform pressure under
all
An
makes
empirical rule
is
often used which
parts of the building.
of the footings twice the width of the wall
always made
in
the lowest course
Footings are
itself.
English bond, and spread on each side of the
wall by one-quarter brick at each
off-set.
The
outer rows should
be headers as far as possible.

Concrete
is
often used
nowadays
square foot on the earth below.

dispensed with, and the wall
foundation.
Fig.
is
to lessen
the
pressure
per
Quite often the footings are

built directly
on the concrete
236 shows a sectional elevation of a brick
footing with a concrete foundation.
Stone Foundation Wall.

viz.,
is
There
are three classes of walling,
rubble, regular course masonry, and ashlar.
always desirable.
This
is
proper bond
obtained by using headers and
stretchers similar to brickwork, but not necessarily so regular.
Headers are long stones extending
into the wall
and reching beyond the middle of the

Fig. 237 gives
from either face
wall.
an example of a stone foundation wall.
Fig.
238 regular course masonry, and Fig. 239 rock face, plain and
chamfered ashlar.
Fig.
240 shows two segmental arches which have for their
intrados segments of circles.

are given
on the drawing.
The names
of the different parts
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
1 68
ARCHITECTURAL LETTERING.
More
latitude
is
allowed
the
to
architectural draftsman
his choice of styles of lettering for notes
PLATE
W"
and
titles
in
on working
25.
)H
* * - 1
-s
"xt;
-:
sj/i5>
--^-^
.:==*.=
v pi
Fig. 241.
drawings than
is
is
given
o the machine draftsman.
The
latter
required to use that style of letter which gives the neatest
PLATE
169
25.
/
/
N*
7 f5k
7>?f
\SMfi
T
t ?C3
t-,/3?^
wt
"'
If
1
>**"^"^'
"
r^
\^^b
ij^w
^^m
^^B
^^m
mlf
AV
^^rl
mB
\
/
'
JKmmmmmf
Fig. 242.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
170
appearance with a
amount
and time
labor
of
maximum
expected to use a style of

the drawing to be
The
it;
Roman
while the former
letter
known
as the classic
a good form of letter for general
would be
suitable for the
work
This alphabet was originally designed by Albrecht
hand.
Durer and adopted by Frank Chouteau Brown,
&
on "Letters and Lettering," Bates
Mr. Brown's book

to follow
is
noted.
letters, is selected as
purposes, where a
least
suggested by the character of
alphabet shown in Figs. 241-242,
Renaissance
in
to construct
letter
named and
and requires the
of legibility
up
is
recommended
in his treatise
Guild Company, Boston.
to those students
who
desire
their studies in architectural lettering.
The method used
for the instrumental construction of these
letters is similar to that
used in the
Roman
letter
given on page 67.
For the purpose of learning the form and proportions of

these
letters
the
alphabet should be drawn mechanically to a
scale as large as convenient; after
by forming
which practice should be had
the letters freehand to smaller sizes, until the student
becomes familiar with
their construction.
171
ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE.
There
generally speaking,
are,
the Tuscan,
Composite,
Doric,
the
but
in
the
reality
Tuscan may be regarded
Greeks.
Tuscan Order.
are
architecture,
and
Corinthian,
only
by the Romans
the
because the
three,
and the Com-
as a simplified Doric,
an endeavor
in
(Vignola.)
Fig. 243 shows the pedestal, base, entablature,

The dimensions
and capital of the Tuscan order.

inches, but the
the
Ionic,
there
posite as a Corinthian modified

to surpass the
orders of
five
drawing
may
be
made by using
are given in
a scale of modules
given in the figure.
module
is
an arbitrary term for a unit of measure or pro-
portion partie, or minute,
is
an arbitrary division of the module.
Vignola divides the module for the Tuscan and Doric orders
into twelve parts.
The
technical
names given
to the different parts
are given
in the figure.
Doric Order.Fig.
244 shows the entablature and capital
of the Doric order according to Vignola,
given in modules and parties.
The
The
technical
proportions are
names
of
some
of
the details are given in the drawing.

Fig. 245
shows the elevation and plan of the entablature of
the Doric Order.
Fig. 246 gives the complete Order.
Ionic Order.In Figs. 247-248 are given the pedestal, base,

capital,
and entablature with some of
tions are given in modules.
their details.
The propor-
See Prob. 59, page 45, in connection
with the drawinsr of the volute.
172
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
PLATE
173
27.
Figs. 245-246.
JP P&Z~fr
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
174
iit>(
oof/ 01 HiHin-ioo
fv &&nuv?&vj.*/y
oo**/
-iV.-<,V
#*%
?r
ro
<
ao>v to/
CHAPTER
VII.
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN.
In
this
chapter are given some notes and suggestions on the
design and construction of a

to
be followed with
the
modern American dwelling house,
plans and specifications of a concrete
example showing the practical working drawings prepared by
Brown
Bros., architects,
Each student
will
Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
be expected
to
modify
this
design and pro-
duce the plans and specifications of a dwelling distinctly different

interior
in
arrangement and
exterior
design, using the given
drawings as suggestive examples only.
Sketches.
When
about
the architect
to
prepare drawings of a dwelling for a customer
must acquaint himself with
all
the conditions con-
nected with the problem.
The
location of the lot and
its
size,
the
amount
of
money
available for the completed house, and the ideas of the customer
as to
number and
design, etc.
and
submit
size of
When
it
for
rooms, interior arrangement and exterior
these are
approval,
learned he will prepare a sketch
when
the
sketch for the general
arrangement and design has been agreed upon.
Working Drawings.
The working drawings can be made and
and contract drawn up ready
for signature.
the specification
When
the contract
*75
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
176
is
signed the architect will prepare
many
drawings, placing as
the reading of the
The
scale of
the
as possible
full-size detail
on one sheet
working
to facilitate
same by the workmen.
\" equal
to
foot
is
making
generally used in
the plans and elevations, but of course this varies according to

conditions.
SPECIFICATIONS
FOR ALL LABOR AND MATERIALS REQUIRED IN THE ERECTION AND COMPLETION OF
A FRAME RESIDENCE
FOR
MR. GEORGE M. VERITY,

TO BE BUILT AT
MIDDLE TOWN, OHIO.

ALL
WORK AND MATERIALS
TO BE IN STRICT ACCORDANCE WITH ACCOMPANYING

DRAWINGS AND THE FOLLOWING SPECIFICATIONS, PREPARED FOR
THE PURPOSE BY
BROWN BROTHERS,
architects.
808-9 Security Savings
Bank Building, Cedar
Rapids, Iowa.
General Conditions.
The owner
bids.
reserves the right to accept or reject any or
The work
responsible for
is
its
to
be
laid out
correctness.
kept at the building during
all
by the contractor, who
competent foreman
working hours
to receive
is
all
will
be
to
be
and carry
out the orders given by the superintendent.
The
following specifications and the above mentioned draw-
ings are intended to correspond
and be
illustrative of
and any part of the work that may be mentioned

tions
the
and not shown on the drawings, or vice versa,
same
as though
it
each other,
in the specificais
to
be executed
had been particularly mentioned and shown
PLATE
177
A.
DdSfmrol
Moor-
Pldfj
Fig. 249.
W. Wilson, Champaign, 111., Brown Brothers, Architects, No.

808-9 Security Savings Bank Bldg., Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
Residence for G.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
178
No
in both.
made from
deviations are to be
specifications
without the written consent of
architect.
any work
If
the
owner and
opinion of the superintendent,
in the
is,
the drawings or
executed in a slight or unsound manner, the same shall on his

orders be immediately pulled
down and made
expense of
None but
men
the contractor.
are to be employed on the
employed thereon who,

shall
work and any mechanic or
laborer
the opinion of the superintendent,
in
prove careless or incompetent, shall be immediately removed
therefrom by the contractor

intendent.
nor
right at the sole
the most skillful work-
let
to
No
part of the
when
work
is
notified to
to
do so by the super-
be done as "piece work,"
a sub-contractor, without the consent of
All materials required for the execution of the
nished
by the contractor, unless otherwise
the owner.
work
specified,
to
be
fur-
must be
of the very best quality of their respective kinds, and to be properly
applied at times as directed by the superintendent.

All
work
manner, and
be done
in
a substantial and workmanlike
is
to
if
any difference of opinion
quality or quantity of
shall arise as to the
workmanship or materials or upon any
other matter connected with the building, the

in all
cases be
intendent.
bound by
The
contractor
must
the decision of the architect or super-
superintendent
may
cause to be removed at any
time before the acceptance of the work any materials or workmanship that does not comply strictly with the requirements of the
plans or specifications, or in the event that such removal might
cause damage or injury to the other portions of the work, or
if
the
contractor neglects or refuses to remove same, then the architect

or superintendent
sum
may deduct from the amount
of the contract price
that in his judgment shall be just and reasonable as a
set-off to the injury to the building
caused by non-compliance
179
with the requirements of the specifications, as well as for the
between the specified and the
difference of value
manship or materials, and

balance that
have
may be due
power
full
to
of the compliance
shall
his
only
certificate
The
the contractor.
by the contractor with the terms
have
full
stop the work, and
workthe
for
architect
have the work pushed forward, and
shall
in default
of a notice
days of the service of the same, the
to that effect within three
architect
give
inferior
power
premises and entirely
to enter the
exclude the contractors therefrom and
to
furnish all materials necessary, or to use materials then on the
premises, or to employ any other

that
may remain unperformed
amount
of such unfinished or
with
contractor,
by reason
amount
that
may
such
then
to finish
unfinished,
unperformed work
and
to
and
costs
have
full
expenses
to the original
power
out
such work
and charge the
other expenses or costs that
all
of said change,
of
workmen
or
of
may
accrue
to retain
any
the
moneys
be due or coming due from the original con-
tractor.
The
contractor shall thoroughly scrape and sweep the floors
throughout and remove

that
and
all
sash, doors,
shall furnish the
all
rubbish from the premises;
locks,
etc.,
also see
are in proper working order,
proper keys for
all
locks and leave the entire
building ready for occupancy.
Staking Out.
Contractor must stake out the building, and he must establish
all levels
and pay
all
charges for engineer,
are found to be necessarv.
if
services of an engineer
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
180
Bond.
The
contractor will be required
to
bond
furnish a surety
acceptable to the owner, and be ready to sign contract and execute
bond within three days
after date of the acceptance of his bid,
bond
(50%) per cent of the amount of the con-
to
be equal
tract.
to fifty
certified
check for
dollars ($
must accompany
each bid as a guarantee that contractor will sign up at his figures

within three days after bids are opened, otherwise check
feited to
is
for-
owner.
Permits.
Contractor must obtain
and
street permits,
every respect.
and pay
and comply with
for
all
building permits
local building ordinance in
Proper danger signals must be maintained at
night and barriers erected to protect the public from accidents.
Should any accident occur by reason of neglect on the part of

the contractor, he will be held personally liable for same.
Excavations.
Excavate for
several
all
walls and piers to a depth as
drawings and sections.
All
depth as shown, and the bottom of

fectly
level
All dirt not
trenches
all
before any masonry work
needed on the premises
is
shown on the
must be
of
the
excavations must be per-
commenced
in
same.
be carried away
at the
is
to
expense of the contractor only after having received an order

to
do so from the owner.
and the contractor

tions.
is
to
is
to
The
grades are shown on the drawings
be governed by same
in
making
his calcula-
In taking the dirt from the main excavations the loam
be stacked
in
one place and the under
soil
in another, so
PLATE
j
B.
&r*
=^
M&
w.J A,,
181
fTr^r
a.
fWr
PU
Fig. 250.
Residence for G.
W.
Wilson, Champaign,
111.
Brown
Brothers, Architects, No.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
182
when grading
that
again.
All
drained of
is
done the black loam can be placed on top
trenches and cellar bottoms are to be thoroughly
water before any masonry work
all
is
commenced.
The
grading back of dirt that has been thrown out of excavations
will
be done by another contractor or agreed upon with owner
in this contract.
Masonry Work.
All walls, piers, chimneys,
shown on plans and
etc.,
elevations are to be of concrete, or of good
hard-burned merchantable brick,

the plans and sections.
concrete to be
made
basement and wherever
in
of
laid in lime mortar, as
Submit alternate bid on brick
shown by
walls.
good Portland cement (Atlas or
All
equal,
its
subject to the approval of the architect) and good coarse gravel

(or crushed rock in size to pass
sharp sand.
is
one part of cement,
Proportions to be as follows:
six parts of gravel or
gravel
through a 2" ring) and clean,
crushed rock, and three parts sand.
If
used in place of crushed rock, omit the two parts of
sand from mixture.
All to be thoroughly
mixed dry on a board
platform and then mixed with water to the proper consistency.

All
concrete must be kept thoroughly wet for at least two days
after
having been placed
in
rough plank sides of inch lumber and

in place until the concrete
Forms
the forms.
to
has properly
brick to
City Brick Co.'s (or
be made of
be firmly braced and kept

set.
through concrete walls as work progresses.
be Twin
to
its
Build in
All
all
pipes
exposed face
equal) oriental brick,
Minneapolis, Minn, (medium and dark shades, one-half of each),
and
to
be laid up with \" mortar joints and raked out \" deep.
Build chimneys and fireplaces as shown on drawings, sections
and
details of materials as
marked on drawings and
line all
smoke
PLATE
i83
C.
T>oor,
Ail
uj ...
G)cCOoJ
F-loo^
A'Vn>*i
floor
Dint-
H^p-K
'/
Residence for G.
W.
Wilson, Champaign,
111.
Brown
Brothers, Architects, No.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
1 84
with fire-clay flue linings,
flues
up with lime mortar with a
All
little
chimney work
be
laid
Turn
dis-
to
cement added.
charging arches over' each fireplace and support heads of
square openings of fireplaces with H.
and damper, with four
chimneys where directed by su-
all
For design of mantel, see
perintendent.
all
Covert's cast-iron throat
inch bearing on walls at front, back and
(4)
Place thimbles in
ends.
W.
Line
details.
all
fire
openings with fire-brick laid in fire-clay mortar.

Cistern.
Provide and put
by the owner.
This cistern
is
and arched
and
top,
mortar (one part cement
to
be built of good hard-burned
to
merchantable brick 4" thick, laid

sides
where directed
in a 100 bbl. cistern
in
cement mortar
for bottom,
have a \" smooth coat of cement
one of sand) for the finished surface
to
of
walls and bottom.
Cistern
eter
is
to
be circular
by the proper height
filter
in plan
be about
18" of the top.
This
filter
diameter by 6" high
3"
cast-iron cover with
to
is
Provide
be
and
to
extend
laid
up
of
one
Provide a cast-iron rim 28"
to finish off the top,
and
also provide
ring.
of cistern cover to
down
from down spouts enter
be about 12" below finished grade of
Make
house when completed.

pipes leading from
wall
diam-
8' in
to contain 100 bbls. of water.
course of brick without any mortar.
Top
to
wall on a slight curve in center of cistern,
to within
in
and
all
proper connections from water
spouts to the cistern, and have

cistern wall
on same side of
all
pipes
filter wall.
Provide opening in cistern wall to receive the pipe from water

lift
and connection
salt-glazed
all
down
finished
to
hot water heater.
Provide 6"
vitrified
sewer pipes with cemented joints to connect up with
spouts and
grade
of
cisterns
house.
and lay same

Provide a
fall
at least 2'
of
at
6" below
least
\"
to
the foot for
These sewer pipes are
pipes.
all
down
finished grade line at each
cemented around
cistern
and
cutoffs for
down
Water-Proofing of Walls.
to
extend 8" above
spout, and to be thoroughly
Provide proper overflow pipe to
spouts.
all
1 85
spouts at ground.
Cover
the exterior surface of
outside basement walls from bottom of footings
grade line and over top of wall at
this level
up
all
to finished
with one coat of hot
asphaltum or dehydratine.
Cement Work.
Over
floor"
entire
basement
on plans,
to
is
floor
and wherever marked " cement
have a cement
floor
consisting of
3"
bed of concrete, composed of one part of Atlas Portland cement

crushed rock and three parts of clean, sharp bank
to six parts of
sand.
Top
coat to be \" thick, composed of one part of
cement as above
specified
to
same
two parts of clean, sharp bank
sand, troweled to a perfectly even and polished surface and lined

off in
squares approximately 48X48".
Lathing.
All stud walls, partitions
lathed with No.
18".
closer
on
allowed;
Place
the
all
and well seasoned;

lath
" on the
stud walls.
walls
ceilings or first story are to
pine, spruce or yellow poplar lath, free
red knots or bark,
every
and
to
No
be made
break joints
ceilings
lathing
solid
at
the
from
least
and but very
through
be
little
angles
by the carpenter before
lathing begins.
Half green lath are preferred, but

well before plastering.
if
bone dry, wet the lath
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
i86
PLATE
D.
-*~^'J
rut..
Mitv-.A-s.ju.
'rw,*'--., i.l.tb/'iw,.
fc)
Fig. 252.
Residence for G.
W.
Wilson, Champaign,
Security Savings
Bank
111.
Bldg.,
Brown
Brothers, Architects, No. 808-9
Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
187
Plastering.
Plaster
all
plaster (or
its
wood
interior
lath with "
Adamant"
patent wall
equal "Universal,") to be put on according to the
printed instructions of the manufacturers.
come
Plaster to
to the
building ready mixed with nothing but the water to be added.
This
is
be two-coat "drawn work," and
to
be given
are to
hard, smooth
universal white finish
(all for
Use f" grounds around
wood
baseboards,
come up
walls and ceilings

finish in the
plaster-of-paris
papering).
all
strips, etc., in
flush with
all
openings for interior work for

the building.
must
All plaster
grounds and be roded perfectly
straight, true
and plumb.
All patching of plastering to be
woodwork
is
complete.
done by the
Plasterer to clean
and scaffolding from the buliding when
his
plasterer after
out
all
work
is
all
his rubbish
completed.
Plaster Wainscoating.
The
walls of kitchen, bath and toilets are to have a good patent
plaster wainscoting
high;
second
Keene's
be two-coat work.
to
coat to
be troweled
Cement
Best
First
to
coat
to
or
its
equal
4'
6"
be a scratch coat;
a perfectly smooth, even and
polished surface.
Timbers.
All
timbers, girders, trimmers,
partitions, studs, rafters, etc.,
joists, truss
beams,
must be prepared, framed and con-
structed according to the drawings
and
All floor joists
sections.
properly sized to widths and jointed, crowning on top edge.

All "piece stuff" to
be clear Georgia, Arkansas or Northern
pine.
Joists
and built-up girders
to
be of a
All joists placed sixteen (16) inches
size as
on
shown on
center.
plans.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
88
All built-up girders to be well spiked together.
Bridging.
Cross bridging
be made of sound
to
X 2",
stuff 2
well fitted, put in as soon as joists are leveled,
and spiked with
two iod.
bearing one row
nails at
each end.
from
Joists
5 to 8'
12 to 18', two rows of bridging.
Headers and Trimmers.
and spiked
chimneys,
finish of stairs,
to the inside
of
concrete to have
4"
thick,
Build in
To
together, leaving
openings of sufficient size for
and
etc.,
any smoke
wooden
be double thick, well framed
all
openings
All
flue.
lintels
no case closer than 5"
in
brick
in
or
or brick arches, not less than
by
the required width to cover the
all
"wood brick"
in brick walls
thickness of wall.
where necessary
for
nailing.
and Wall Studs.
Partition
All
studs to be
on center and doubled and trussed

quired, in substantial manner.
set
plumb and
solid.
to
straight.
at
all
2X4"
openings where
Partitions to be sized
All angles of
and
All bearing partitions,
be bridged horizontally once
16"
set
and
re-
jointed,
rooms made double and
partitions over
in height.
6'
in length
have
All studding to
2 X 4" bearing plates top and bottom.
Closing up Doors and Windows.

for plastering, all sash
is to
glass
is
to
have temporary doors and locks
Sheathing.
D.
and
When
& M.
be JX6"
be
in
O.
place,
S.
No.
ready
and contractor
and gables with
Roof sheathing
boards, yellow pine,
is
for all outside doors.
Enclose the entire house, sides
fence flooring, f X6" yellow pine.

S.
building
laid
open
to
2",
properly nailed to every studding and rafter with two nails to

the board.
Tight sheathing
up sides of house and into

cnly.
Fill in
to
all
extend from bottom of studs clear

gables.
Open sheathing on
roof
between outside studding of bathroom with saw-
189
*"*
3-
rt
n
O
(-1
m)
0^
c
*U
SI
C7
m
u
PQ
bb
-0
P3
r
LT>
ci
c
fe
b-,
_^
.^ c
g'ffl
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00
d 00f
^
si
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
190
dust or shavings and pack firm.
and gables with heavy tarred
felt
sheathing on walls
all
paper well
specified,
so
as
leave
to
dead
double
on and
tacked
between studs of oustide walls with same
in
fill
Cover
felt as
above
between
space
air
sheathing and plastering.

Roof.
The
drawings, sections and specifications, in the most thorough
to the
manner,
roof rafters, hips, ridges and valleys.
all
Shingles.
be
carpenter shall frame and construct, according
first
Where
shown on drawings on
clear red cedar shingles, 5 to 2"
with two 3d. cut iron nails

water-tight around
fire-walls or
all
and
laid
roof and sides to
4^"
Make
each shingle.
to
to the
chimneys, skylights, scuttles,
weather,
perfectly
etc., gutters,
wherever the roof of one part joins the perpendicular
walls of another, with flashings.
(See tin
and galvanized
iron
specifications.)
bond
All proper
timbers, cradles for arches,
etc.,
and wooden
brick of every description necessary for the proper execution of

the work to be furnished by the carpenter
and furring
for lookouts, decks
work,
work
etc.
lumber necessary
also all
for the tinners, galvanized iron
also build all necessary scaffolding to
do the carpenter
properly.
Cornice.
All
wood
exterior
accordance with details and

cypress.
to
finish
to
be construted
in strict
be of thoroughly seasoned clear
Provide bed mould and beaded ceiling for
soffit of all
cornices.
Porches.
and
Build
details.
casings, etc., for
frames.
all
porches as shown on the plans, elevations
Use rough
all
posts, timbers,
exterior
Furnish and put
edge of ceiling
to
finish
barge boards, brackets,
woodwork except
in place a 2 J"
same
sash, doors
crown mould
against wall.
Porch
all
and
around
ceilings
to
191
s
'V
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M
O
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
192
"V"
have
fir
edge and center ceiling
Washington
must be
of the forms,
or cypress.
Windows.
and
All windows for
and dimensions
style
J"
clear
JX6"
be
to
this building
marked on
as
plans,
and provided with best noiseless
thick, of clear yellow pine
Sash hung
axle
pulleys
to
(wheels in one solid piece).
braided Silver Lake " A" or " Sampson Spot"
to solid
Use lead weights where necessary.
sash cord and cast-iron weights.
Sash
sections
All pulley stiles to be
details, or as hereinafter described.
cast-iron ball-bearing
elevations,
be of clear seasoned white pine if" thick and
extension ends to side rail of upper sash for
all
to
have
double-hung win-
dows.
All casement sash hinged at side to swing out.
on casement windows, hinged

to
swing
at side to
Screen sash
windows
All
in.
be equipped with Chamberlain's metal weather
strips
all
around.
Frames.
All frames
of clear yellow pine,
Door frames
and
if
"
be made of J" pulley

sills
for outside doors
material as above.
stiles,
Washington
of clear
fir
\" head
or cypress.
if" thick and rabbetted;
Inside door frames J" thick of
same
same wood
and use wood stops \ XiJ" with moulded
as finish of rooms,
edge.
to
(See details.)
Plank Frames.
Washington
fir
Basement
if" thick.
frames
to
All frames
ing primed with white lead and linseed
window frames
to
have
clear
be
of clear cypress or
must come
oil,
to the build-
one coat.
Washington
fir
Basement
or cypress
sills
if" thick.
Floors.
6"
The
D.&M.
first
story joists will
fence flooring, yellow pine.
room and dining-room
to
first
be covered with f X
Finished floors of living-
be quarter-sawed clear yellow pine.
iX2'
&
T.
face,
193
G. sides and ends, and no boards to be
less
than 4" long.
be
All finished flooring to
clear
first
JX2^'
sides and ends, well secret-nailed to every joint.
face,
Oregon
&
|X4i", T.
pine,
&
G.
Arkansas or
except as above specified to be clear quartered

straight-grained
T.
All other floors
G.
and
sides
ends.
Finished floors must be planed and scraped before staining
or varnishing.
house
ing, until
must be well protected before varnish-
All floors
is
No
ing to be done the last thing.

all
other
workmen
under
All
floors to
be
joists,
and well nailed with two

nailings
Porch
and
unless
well
fir
wooden
to
All
around
closets
JX4"
thick,
wood
and
strips
to
to
strips
Those on
walls, f
X ij".
two shelves to each unless

strips
extending
to fasten clothes hooks.
All
have plain doors (no panels),

12" apart,
with cast-iron pin adjusters.
have center oak guide
lead,
windows, doors,
set
on adjustable
Below counter shelves
provide drawers, bins and doors as marked on plans.

to
white
plastering.
and plain wood
have shelves
JX4"
joist.
before
wide on which
in
finish of all
be f X ij"; on brick
pantry and kitchen cupboards
f"
every
closets finished with
otherwise shown on details
plan, to be
cypress, laid
Put up grounds for the
partitions to
Closets.
on
joist.
or
casings, wainscoting, etc.,
bases,
joints cut
each end of the board and with
marked "cement" on
drawn up and nailed
Grounds.
and end
to lap half the thickness of joists
nails to
clear-matched Washington
and
and varnish-
finished floors to be laid until
laid diagonally
on each intermediate
floors,
staining
except painters are through.
a line parallel with
twb
Then
entirely completed.
underneath.
All
drawers
Glass doors to
i9
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
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CO
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-4
c
o
PQ
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGX.
cupboards where shown
AA
be
to
195
double strength clear
glass,
put in with wood stops nailed in place.
No wood wainscoting the building.

All doors must be made of material same as standing
Wainscoting.
Doors.
rooms
finish of the
and of the
places,
shown,
in
which they occur, thoroughly seasoned,
in
marked on
sizes
plans,
hung and trimmed complete.

be
to
All doors, except as otherwise
Xo
panel O. G. stock doors.
fine cross
respective
their
in
fitted
veneered
doors in house.
All
cupboard doors
to
be plain, " thick (no panels).
shown on drawings, with D.
glass doors to be glazed as

glass unless otherwise
marked.
halls
except kitchen, bathroom and
other
wood
Finish.
to
be
finish in the
All
in
be
to
pantry of
which
it
S.
clear
rooms and
in all
same wood
as
occurs.
standing finish of living-room and dining-room
quarter-sawed
clear,
wood-work
rooms
mould
Picture
All
chestnut.
Arkansas or
straight-grained
clear
standing
other
All
Georgia
pine.
All interior finish to be thoroughly kiln dried.

specifications for paint
and varnishes.)
casings, base, etc., in the several
rooms
and no
finish
is
to
fit
exposed
plaster
baseboard, and
to
angles,
have
of
plain
and w.mdow
style,
All casings,
form and
bases,
etc.,
perfectly to the plastering,
be put up before plastering
Furnish and put up hardwood corner

all
be the
to
dimensions as per detailed drawings.

to lap well over the ground and
(See painting
All door
strips,
|X2"
to
square
is
thoroughly dry.
where required,
extend
top
5'
edges,
at
6" above
and
to
be
scribed on to baseboard at bottom; corners to be slight rounded.
Put
up rubber-tipped wood base knobs where necessarv
doors to swing against, of same
wood
as finish of rooms.
for
The
mechanical drawing.
196
whole
to
be done
in the
most substantial and workmanlike manner
with thoroughly seasoned wood.

All finish to
be
All
finish
interior
first clear,
except where otherwise specified.
must come
thoroughly
building
the
to
sanded and ready for the varnish or paint.
Bathroom
Toilet
where shown;
Sanitary
Cabinet.
bathroom
Bldg., Chicago,
locker complete
906
shelves with
steel
Case
edges, and a plate mirror door.
Taccma
rounded
be sunk into wall as
to
Height of case from
deeply as possible.
(No.
cased up as directed by architect; to have
111.),
and movable enameled
adjustable
cabinet in bathroom
toilet
be the Hess Warming and Ventilating Co.'s
to
Steel
Build
floor to
be as directed
by owner.
All interior finish
must be absolutely
and
clear
from
free
knots and black spots except where painted, which can have
spots or dark streaks, but no loose knots or soft places.
Beam
and
All
Ceilings.-
beam
ceilings to
be as shown on plans
details.
Mantels.
all to
See
be same
mantel shelves, bookcases,
finish as other finish in
Hearths and face
owner or
for
details
to
be Grueby
rooms
Tile,
built of face brick, as described in
which they occur.
in
6X6",
etc.,
to
be selected by
masonry work above
grade.
Hardware.
nails,
Contractor
strap hinges,
windows.
is
furnish
to
pulleys, cord
All finishing
hardware
and put
and weights
will
for
in
place
all
double-hung
be furnished by owner
and put on by contractor.

Glass.
The breakage of glass
will
be evenly divided between
the carpenter, painter, plumber, heating
party
who
man and
broke the glass cannot be found.
plasterer
All glass,
if
where
A RCH i TECT URA L
D ESIGN
197
I!
pq
pq
B"
bo w
- bo
re
(-
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
198
AA
not otherwise specified, to be
double-strength glass, well se-
cured in place.
All glass
best
where marked "Plate" on plans or elevations
American Plate ft" thick and absolutely
where shown or described

and of a
shown or
size
wheels in lower
specified.
be
All mirrors
clear.
be ft" plate mirrors, perfectly
rail of sliding
glass with copper or lead
Screens.
to
to
clear,
Use metal track and small
doors in pantry and kitchen.
bar muntins
to
be
AA
All
double strength.
(Contractor may submit bid screens of his own make,
but use same wire and hardware trimming as hereinafter specified.)

Place Wilier Mfg. Co.'s
patent screens on
All screen cloth
drawn
double hinge windows and
all
opening and
have screens
to
be hinged
to
window and
windows
to slide
at side to
to
to cover entire
swing
in
room
have screens on outside
finish of
rooms
windows
to
in
window
(see details).
to
cover half
up and down on metal springs and wood
Inside screen sash to be constructed of
strips.
which they occur.
same wood
clear white
and
stiles
as
All outside screen sash
be made of same wood as other exterior
Front screen door, No. 151,
sawed
outside doors.
be best copper bronzed wire, 16 mesh, and
to
All double-hinge
for
all
perfectly tight.
Casement windows
of
(Milwaukee, Wis.) or their equal,
rails to
oak or chestnut, and
to
finish.
be made of quarter-
be braced with brass
rod and turnbuckle, also to have spring hinge and rubber-ball
Rear screen door
bumper.
exterior finish,
and
to
No.
All
two
3,
and
hardware
3X3"
butts
to
to
rails of
have screens
be secured
for screens to
for
and
same wood
as other
have rubber-ball bumper and brace as above.
All basement windows

style
stiles
to
cover entire window,
by metal thumb
turns.
be finished by contractor.
Use
in place
casement sash;
three
4X4"
butts for
all
PLATE
r
7,
199
I.
" nr/ T
'f
fl
T.^l
D<vK~ s"
h^s^î_si
Fig. 257.
Residence for G.
W.
Wilson, Champaign,
Security Savings
Bank
111.
Bldg.,
Brown
Brothers, Architects,
Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
No. 808-9
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
200
screen doors; cup catches for

for screens
on outside
to
casement screens.
all
be brass.
All
inside of building to be steel, plated to
Get
style of finishes of
The
and
all
sweep
other loose rubbish from
all floors
clean,
on completion of
caused by
all
and remove
his contract.
this contractor to
All
hardware
all
on
room.
in
architects.
lumber, shavings,
rooms
all
for screen
match hardware
hardware from the
contractor must clear out
hardware
All
etc.,
in the several stories,
rubbish from the premises
damage
to
be repaired and
adjoining property
clean and whole
left
on completion.
Tin and Galvanized Iron and Lead Work.
Down
Spouts
and
must be well secured

fasteners,
Heads.
Conductor
to
ground.
Provide gutters wherever shown
to
to
down
of
spouts.
catch water from the roof,
down
spouts,
where shown on the drawings, or where necessary
to carry
and provide No.
X 4",
spouts
made
Gutters to be
No. 26 galvanized iron and properly graded
down
with ornamental galvanized iron
to walls,
and must extend
All
26 galvanized-iron corrugated
the water off the roof to ground.
Gutters to run
up
at least
8"
under shingles.
All valleys to be
and Arrow
lined with 20"
N.
&
G. Taylor's Target
tin.
Flashings.
Flash around
all
chimneys, and from roof up into
brickwork, and counterflash same with
tin
as
Provide substantial galvanized-iron fasteners
where shown.
above
for
specified.
down
spouts
(See details.)
Iron Work.
Provide
the Holland Furnace Co.'s
(Holland,
Mich.) coal window chute for one coal window in basement.

Also provide
all
other cast- or wrought-iron
work such
as ash-pit
PLATE
201
J.
Fig. 258.
Residence for G.
W.
Wilson, Champaign,
Security Savings
Bank
111.
Bldg.,
Brown
Brothers, Architects,
Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
No. 808-9
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
202
doors, frames,
and iron throat and damper
etc.,
(Covert's Patent Iron
Guarantee.
Throat and Damper.)
The whole of
must be guaranteed
for fireplace.
for a
work
the galvanized iron and tin
term of
Provide a
five years.
tin or
galvanized-iron speaking tube with mouthpieces (one in basement,
one on
to
and one on second
first floor,
be securely fastened
to walls
floor
where
directed).
and made perfectly
All
tight.
Painting.
The
terials of
etc., for
must
contractor
and provide
find
the performance of the
clean off
the necessary
ma-
every description, including ladders, scaffolding, ropes,
work
in a substantial
manner, and of the best qualities of
like
all
all
defects.
Putty up
it.
All
outside
nail
all
Sandpaper smooth, and prop-
same before painting the second
erly prepare the
Priming.
and
and
their respective kinds,
woodwork before priming
holes, joints, cracks
and workman-
planed woodwork,
coat.
such as casings,
sash and frames to be primed as soon as in place with white lead
and linseed
All exterior defects in
oil.
a strong coat of shellac before priming.

brackets,
etc., to
owner may
woodwork must
receive
All barge boards, posts,
be rough for stain or smooth for paint, as the
direct.
Outside Painting.
Paint
all
the planed
woodwork, two
coats of good white lead or zinc-white and linseed

colors to bring
it
to the
roof shingles, also
all
shade
to suit
owner.
oil,
(2)
mixed with
All side wall
rough woodwork, and rough siding
if
and
any,
to be given two good brush coats of Cabot's Creosote Shingle
Stain.
(Color to suit owner.)
Outside doors,
of zinc white
if
not of hardwood, to be painted two coats
and linseed
oil.
All outside
hardwood doors
to
be
203
&
stained and then given two coats of Pratt
Lambert's spar
finishing varnish.
All tin
eral paint,
oil
on
and galvanized iron work
to
be given one coat of min-
on under side before laying, then two coats of lead and
finished surface.
Inside Staining, Painting and Varnishing.

are to receive one coat of paste
woods
owner) and three coats of Pratt
&
wood
Then one
coat of Pratt
Lambert's Dulkote.
All close-grained
wood
bert's
The two
No. 38 preservative varnish
Then one
No
Floor Finish.
a coat of
&
coat of Pratt
Tinting.
lightly
coats of
sanded between coats.
Lambert's Dulkote.
ceiling or wall tinting in this job.
All
floors except kitchen
match standing
oil stain to
Lambert's No. 61
floors to
& Lambert's
Pratt & Lam-
one coat of Pratt
to receive
acid stain (color to suit owner).
&
(color to suit
filler
Lambert's No. 38 preservative
varnish, lightly sanded between coats.
&
All open-grained
floor
receive a light oil
finish
and bath
and two coats of Pratt

and bathroom
Kitchen
varnish.
to receive
and one coat of white grain
stain
alcohol shellac.
Picture Molding.
match
The
finish of different
for other
wood
painter
is
to
finish
picture
rooms and of same materials as
finish in the
rooms
in
which
it
mold
to
specified
occurs.
Plumbing.
This
specification
and labor necessary

sewers,
All
supplies,
for a
wastes
exposed pipes
where otherwise
is
in
meant
embrace
all
the
materials
complete system of plumbing, with
and ventilating pipes for
rooms
specified.
to
to
the
all
same.
be nickel-plated work, except
204
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
gp
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3
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in
oo
00
tf
Fixtures.
To
consist
goods as specified below, and as
of
Numbers
shown on the drawings.
"H"
taken from Wolff's
all
(Standard Manufacturing Company's or Mott's goods
catalogue.
be accepted, where design,
will
205
and quality of goods
size
are
the equal of Wolff's as specified.)
Kitchen Sink.
Fig.
"H"
8052, to be
Sink set on
18X30".
galvanized -iron sink brackets; supply with hot and cold water
through two " N. P. finished
Compression faucets
Fuller
in
wall over sink, having the "Ideal" centrifugal wastepipe from
wall to
and 1" vent pipe
soil pipe,
BathtubWolff's Corona
5'
long,
enamel
grade
first
to trap.
rim
roll
tub,
Fig.
"H"
6505,
"Corona," complete,
finish
as
described in catalogue.
Laundry Tubs.
Water
"W"
"W"
8158 complete, as described
Provide wringer holder for these tubs.
in catalogue.
jet
Wolff's
Closet.
7085
Where shown on plans,
water closet complete,
as
Provide the "never-split" seat for water
put in Wolff's syphon
shown
closet.
Make
or birch and finished in ivory enamel.
in
catalogue.
Seat to be cherry
all
necessary con-
nections for supply and waste.
Lavatory.
Fig.
"H"
Furnish
4050,
Make
alogue.
and
mains,
and
set
where shown on plans Wolff's
"The Concord,"
complete, as described in cat-
water connections
also
make
to
all
fixtures with the city
proper connections to hot-water pipes
from heater.
Water Heater.
Provide
and
set in
Make
one Ruud automatic gas heater.

tions to
water, vent and gas pipes
printed
instructions
carry
hot
water
to
furnished
all
basement where directed
in
by the
fixtures
all
strict
necessary connec-
accordance
with
manufacturers, and
except
water closet
in
to
the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
206
Make
building.
proper
connection
to
vent where
for
flue
directed.
Contractor to
make
alternate bid
iron range boiler in kitchen to connect
and
to all fixtures (except
Sewer.
From
water
on forty-gallon galvanized
up with waterback
outside of wall run 4" iron extra heavy soil
pipe under house as directed, to connect to
all fixtures in
Continue from outside of house, and run 4"
ing.
below front line with

an even
cemented
fall of at least
\" per
to different fixtures they
vent, waste
range
in
closet) in the building.
to
tile
have
and where branches are made
foot,
to
sewer
Sewer
joints to cesspool.
must be made with
and supply pipes
vitrified
the build-
be
size
"Y"
All
joints.
and location
as per local
city ordinance.
Gas Piping.
light
pipes
in
outlets
Pipe for gas
Ruud
for
heater and to
where shown on the drawings, using f "
are to be given the peppermint test,
accordance with the
strict
local
gas
and
to
ceiling
all
pipe.
All
be installed
company's rules and
regulations.
Waste Pipes.
to
main
All waste pipes connecting the different
line of soil pipe are to
be of extra heavy lead where they
are not exposed in the room.
All exposed
plated pipes as heretofore specified.
be 2" cast-iron
pipes they
is
to
soil pipe.
must be made by means
sufficient size
on main
work
All wastes
Where connections
have a separate trap and
fixtures
is
be nickel-
below traps
are
of brass ferrules.
to
to
made
Each
may
to soil
fixture
have a separate vent pipe of
run independently through the roof and connected
line of soil pipe at a point at least 2'
above the highest
fixture in the building.
Water Supply.
The cold water
will
be taken from
city
mains
and cistern through f " galvanized iron pipe, and run in as direct
manner
207
Have
as possible to the different fixtures in the building.
a by-pass system of piping.
Hot water
to
be taken from heater
in
basement, and run
to all
the different fixtures (except water closet) in the building through
" galvanized iron pipes.

galvanized
which
All the above supply pipes are to be
except the traps and connections to fixtures,
iron,
where exposed are
to
brass ferrules.
trolling
by
All
it
and waste cocks
stop
Where
be brass, nickel- plated.
iron and lead pipes are connected together
must be done with
for the proper con-
and draining of these pipes must be provided where directed
Make
architects.
openings in walls of house where shown
or directed and supply two
sill
cocks, Wolff's
"H"
561 N. P. J"
with loose key for hose connections as directed.
Water
Lift.
Provide
and put
in
laundry where directed and
lift
in
city
water and cistern for
place a
"Eureka" water
make proper
connections to
all fixtures.
All the above materials
and workmanship
to
be
first-class,
put
up by experienced workmen under the immediate supervision

of the
plumbing contractor, and when finished
to the
owner
to
free
be subject
from
to the
and perfect
leaks,
to
be turned over
in every
All
respect.
acceptance of the local plumbing inspector.
Contractor must furnish certificates of inspection, properly signed,

before owner's final
payment
will
be given.
All cellar floor drains are to be placed
comply with
Cesspool
a
to
city ordinance.
(if
brick cesspool
as will
where directed and
no
sewer).
8"
be necessary
in
Where
diameter and
to strike
directed by
10" deep
owner build
(or
as
deep
water or sand) with 4" hard-burned
brick walls laid in cement mortar (no brick in bottom).
Arch
cesspool over at top and provide a cast-iron ring and cover to be
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
208
2"
to
in
sewer
manner and
proper
in
12" below finished
and
diameter
trap
Connect up
grade.
sewer just before
the
Contractor to give price ner foot in depth
entering cesspool.
over 10".
Connect the
and continue the same as near
cast-iron soil pipe,

straight
pipe under water closet with 4" standard
soil
up through the
having openings and connections
roof,
All joints in soil pipe are to
different fixtures.
oakum, run with molten
as possible
lead,
to
be packed with
No
and thoroughly caulked.
small
vent pipe shall enter the main vent below the highest fixture in
the building.
Electric Wiring.
No
General Notes.'
all
plumbing roughing
work
electric
in
is
shall
the rules and regulations of the National

writers.
first
All materials used
Contractor
class.
and
all
be commenced until
All wiring to
finished.
conform
work done must be
must furnish
to
Board of Fire Under-
certificates
of
strictly
inspection
properly signed before architect's final certificate will be given.
Wires.
.ALL
wires to be carried to the several outlets as
on plan, such wires
to
of lights indicated.
be of
sufficient capacity to carry the
All wires
be allowed
Switches.
number
must be Habershaw, Okonite or
Roebling white-core, rubber-covered wires.

will
No
splicing of wires
in the walls.
All
of the ceiling lights throughout the building,
unless otherwise specified, shall be controlled on Hart
Diamond
H. push-button switches, located where shown and having

finished to
shown
match the hardware
of the
room
in
plates
which they occur.
Place switch at top of cellar stairs to control light at foot of stairs

in
basement.
Place switch on the inside of front door to control
veranda
There must be two switches
light.
where shown,
209
dining-room,
in
to control lights in the center fixture.
All of the
bracket lights in the building must be controlled at the fixtures.
number and
See plans for the

Outlet Boxes.-
each outlet place a
compound
tected with
out covers)
At
to
have threaded
all
switches.
steel outlet box, pro-
arranged
Where no
placed over gas-pipe outlet.

to
all
prevent corrosion (ceiling boxes with-
and 4J" diameter,
and
location of lights
to
permit their being
gas pipe
outlet boxes to
fixture stubs;
firmly secured in position so that outer edge of
placed, boxes
is
be properly and
box or cover
will
not project more than \" beyond finished plaster.
At
Cutout Boxes.-
point where service enters building place
a fireproof service cabinet; from

three (3) wire mains to cutout
In service box
this service
box
to
box run one
set of
be placed where directed.
place a three-pole, single-throw fuse
extension
switch connected to mains, and three service wires of sufficient

length to reach street wires, which must be connected to fused end
of switch.
Cutout boxes
tions,
to
be of
steel or cast iron set in wall or parti-
and furnished with asbestos-lined paneled door
woodwork.
to
match
In cutout boxes install Edison 3-wire 4-plug cutouts,
with fused plugs complete.

Switches.
Each
indicating switch.
Circuits.-
No
circuit to
be
Flush switches
more than
provided with
a double-pole
be encased
in iron boxes.
to
eight lights are to be
on any one
circuit.
Capacity of Lights.
on
plans.
power lamp
Bells.
Number
of light outlets are indicated
Wires must be heavy enough

for
to carry
one 16-candle
each outlet.
There
must be
bell in kitchen
where
directed, to
be
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2IO
operated from front door push plate.
Place floor receptacle and
extension cord and table push button in dining-room to operate
Use Sampson or La Clede
buzzer in kitchen.
and guarantee same
bells,
be plated
to
conform
Telephone.'
This
All
push buttons must
hardware.
contractor must
do
interior wiring
all
or
Said telephone having outlets in rear hall or where
telephone.
shown on
one year.
for
to finish of
batteries for all
plans.
Heating.
We
and
boiler
will
recommend
the
American
the
and
their cast-iron
be acceptable.
Spencer
Radiator
Heater,
Company's
radiators.
the
Any one
bidding on
Contractors
Capitol Boilers
sectional
cast-iron
of these heaters
this
work must
submit a schedule of radiation for each room and give their
number
of feet of radiation to
be used
in the house.
total
Also
fill
out their specification printed blanks complete, giving size of

heater, etc.,
and submit same
Contractor
is
weather outside.
to
guarantee
All
to
to
owner along with

heat house to 70
basement pipes are
asbestos and canvas covering, and

in colors to suit
all
to
their bid.
when
coldest
be covered with
radiators are to be painted
owner.
Brown Brothers,
Architects,
No. 808-9 Security Savings Bank Bldg.,
Cedar Rapids, Iowa.
PLATE
Fig. 263.
L.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
212
Plate L.
Figs.
261
to
Fig.
260 shows the front elevation of a window.
267 give vertical
and horizontal sections as indicated
in Fig. 260.
M.
Plate
Figs. 268 to 273 inclusive, elevations
and sections
of gutters.
This plate
is
" Problems."
Plate N.
that
is
be drawn according
to
to directions given
under
Figs.
coming
274 and 275 show a Gothic
into
common
practice
in
style of lettering
architectural
work
drawings.
These plates are
to
be made according to directions given
under " Problems."

In finishing the
sections of the
shade of burnt sienna with a very
draw
the
sections
wood
sections free
on page
58.
Use a
hand
woodwork, prepare a dark
little
Chinese ink added and
as given in the plate of standard
Gillott
pen No. 303.
PLATE M.
213
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
214
PLATE
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PLATE
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2T 5
CHAPTER
VIII.
SHEET METAL PATTERN DRAFTING.

Students who have completed Course
ing will find
little difficulty
in
I in
Mechanical Draw-
understanding the methods employed
solving the sixteen problems included in the following four
in
plates of this course.
Prob.
rectangular box
Fig. 276.
required to
It is
i.
made
Fig. 277
make
of sheet tin
the pattern drawing of the
shown by the isometric drawing
shows the elevation and plan
projection and Fig. 278 the developed pattern.
added
to the
to stiffen the sides.
seen in the drafting
Prob.
Fig.
2 is
The J" width
is
model
in Fig.
276
box may
of this
room.
a conical piece
Fig. 279
iron.
orthographic
end of the sides are bent double as shown
and are employed

be
in
made
in
two parts of thin planished
an isometrical drawing of the finished piece and
280 the orthographic views.
Figs.
281 and 282
show the
developed patterns with a TV' allowance on the edges for seams.

See model in the drafting room.
Prob.
tapering box
requires the drawing of a pattern for a flat-sided
shown
in isometric at Fig. 283.
Figs. 284
and 285
show the orthographic views and the developed pattern respectively.

is
The seams
are to be soldered, therefore an allowance
not necessary in this case.

216
217
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
218
Prob.
article
Make
4.
shown
pattern in one piece of the oblong tapering

Fig. 287 gives the ortho-
in isometric at Fig. 286.
graphic drawings with dimensions and Fig.
Divide the small semicircle in the plan into
pattern.
Draw
parts.
With
the two center lines,
centers,
and D, step
and D, and
off
and
radii r
and D,
and
R draw
six
From
arcs.
equal
2}" apart.
in Fig. 224,
lines,
on the small arc the divisions found on small
Through
semicircle in plan.
from
288 the developed
and from the
the last division
latter lay off the
draw
radial lines
remaining side 2J"
long and add $j" allowance to each end as shown.
Prob.
Make
5.
the pattern drawing of a scale scoop assuming
the two parts of which

Fig. 289
it
is
made
to
be segments of cylinders.
the elevation of the scoop with one edge parallel to the
is
horizontal plane, and the corresponding bottom edge
angle of 40
with
it.
Having drawn the scoop

cylinders
and
making an
as given,
draw
the outline of the
end of the right hand one, draw a semicircle
at the
equal in diameter to the cylinder and divide the lower quadrant

into six equal parts
1, 2, 3, 4, etc.,
draw
the upper edge

5, 4, 3, 2, i'
marking them
to 7.
Through
i', 2', 3', etc.
line of the
scoop in points
7, 6,
respectively.
In laying out the development, Fig. 290,

7'
these points,
lines parallel to the axis of the cylinder cutting
and middle dividing
and
draw from
the point
a line perpendicular to the line 7^7, and at a convenient distance
from the
latter
draw
both directions, lay
Through
the center line 1-1 and on the line
off the six divisions
these divisions
draw
these with perpendiculars
in
found on the semicircle.
lines parallel to 1-1
drawn from
f-i
and
intersect
the corresponding points
of intersection of the scoop.
Prob.
6.
Draw
patterns of scale scoop whose elevation and
219
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
220
end view
Prob.
as
it
Draw
CD.
Where
these divisions
CD
on
of the
draw horizontals
draw elements
as center
upon
8 and lay off

the divisions
formed from the segments of cones.
is
the outline of the complete Cone
intersecting points
With the apex
similar to that of
is
and end view, divide the half
the elevation
shown and through
line
This scoop
in Fig. 291.
except that
Draw
shown
is
to 8
it
and radius
from the center
end view
to cut the
and from the
apex of the cone.
to the
A C draw
arc of circle 8-
A-i
both directions
line
in
found on the end view.
the elements of the cone cut the upper edge of the
scoop, drop perpendiculars to the contour element of the cone,
thus finding the true distance of the points from the apex.
With
draw
arcs inter-
secting the corresponding elements in the development.
Through
center
and
these points
Prob.
each of these true lengths as radius
draw
the outline curve of the pattern.
Make
7.
pattern drawings for a scoop with one end
funnel-shaped, Fig. 292.
ment
The
other end
of a cone exactly like Prob.
The
funnel-shaped end
methods used
in Probs. 1
made from
is
and
is
made from
the seg-
1.
a cone, therefore the
can be applied here without any
further directions.
Prob.
body
Draw
8.
of scoop
methods are
is
pattern of grocer's scoop,
Fig.
cut from a cylindrical form as in Prob.
clearly
shown
in
the
drawing.
Fig.
The
293.
The
1.
294
is
the
pattern of the body.
The handle
struction
is
is
made up
of
similar to that used
two cone frustrums and the conin Prob. 2.
Figs.
295 and 296
are the handle patterns.
The
student should be able to lay out these patterns without
any further
assistance.
221
TRIANGULATION.
Many
be used.
It is
by measuring the whole surface part by part by

Fig. 297 will illustrate the
of triangles.
ing the surface of an article of irregular form by

If the article is
symmetrical about
of equal parts.
into
Fig. 297
shown
the irregular figure
divided
its
four equal parts,
3 4'
44
and
of
measur-
of triangles.
be necessary
5"
is
an isometrical drawing of
The quadrant
top and bottom.
Join
5 is
1 i",
Also join 1-2', 2-2', 2-3',
45' an d 5
2", 2
These
latter lines are the
23",
$ $", 3 4", 4 4",
and are used as the bases
for the triangles laid
projections of the lines
4 5",
will only
it
in Fig. 301.
2-2", 3-3", 4-4" and 5-5".

3 3',
axis
method
means
quadrant of the top and bottom each with the same
to divide a
number
problems cannot
in the preceeding
therefore necessary under such conditions to obtain
the development
means
metal work are of such irregular form
articles in sheet
methods employed
that the
r/
,
out at Fig. 302 to find the true length of the lines joining the points
in the top
is
is
and bottom quadrants,
for
example
i'
2',
in Fig.
302
2' on the plan of Fig. 301 2" 2, Fig. 302,

the true length of 2' 2 in plan of Fig. 301, etc.
In laying out the development, Fig. 303, 1 i' is taken directly
the true length of
from the
elevation, Fig. 301, because
The
parallel to the vertical plane.
301, as a radius and
then with i'
2',
i',
as center
and with
and
2',
2,
in its true length
next step
to take
is
Fig. 303, as center, desrcibe
Fig. 302, as radius
describe arc putting arc
it is
2'
and
in the point
1,
2'.
Fig. 303, as center
describe arc cutting arc
1 2
in the point 2
Fig.
an arc 1'
2',
Fig. 303, as center,
With
Fig. 302, as radius describe arc
and 2" 2,
i'
being
1,
2,
Fig. 303,
Fig. 303,
Fig. 302, as radius
and so on, determining
222
MECHANICAL DRAWING.

the remaining points,
The
way.
and
3', 4', 5' ji
same
Fig. 303 ji the
remaining part of the semi-development
5 B,
Fig.
a duplicate of that already found.
is
303,
3, 4, 5,
223
Prob.
It is
9.
required to
form shown
article of irregular
make
a pattern drawing for the
in Fig. 298.
Draw
the plan and
elevation as given and divide the upper and lower half
same number
Lay out
of equal parts.
determine the development of the
above
as described
The
left
into the
the triangles, Fig. 299, and
quarter in the same
manner
in reference to Fig. 297.
right half of Fig. 298
is
that the development of that part
the half of a truncated cone, so

is
Produce the
quite simple.
8 8' in the elevation, Fig. 298, to C, the apex of the cone,
when
y
,
been drawn, produce
Fig. 300, has
io.
Draw
in Fig. 301.
problem were given

Prob.
ii.
in Fig. 304.
will
so
show
its
and
respec-
Sufficient directions for the solution of this
Make the pattern drawing for the coal

Draw the elevation and plan as given.
that the
form of the
development can be
as radii describe arcs
scuttle
by
with
and i'
5',
2', 3',
from
C and make
a' b' c
shown
Observation
part of a cone,
is
The remaining
and
Fig. 305.
4',
a' e'
+ a,
Fig. 304,
On
the curve
from the divisions
Through
the small circle in the plan, Fig. 304.
of the elevation, Fig. 304,
scuttle
triangulation.
as follows:
1 4
from
easily accomplished.
Fig. 305, lay off the points
radial lines
form
in reference to Fig. 297.
Lay out development
5',
5 8
the pattern for the article of irregular
portion will be developed
i'
as center
and complete the semi-development.
Prob.
shown
and
and layoff upon
it
With C
it from 5, 5 C equal to 8 C in Fig. 298.
C 5' and C 5 as radii describe arcs 5' 8' and
tively,
line
these points
of
draw
equal in length to abce
and thus determine the points
1,
2,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
224
4, 5,
To
Through the
Fig. 305.
determine points 6 and
Then with
in Fig. 306.
center
and
Fig. 305,
5',
5,
5'
6',
and
with
6',
6,
Fig. 305, as center
secting at point
and
6'
center and radius
With
radius
draw
12.
f 7
from the elevation as
7'.
Complete the development
7.
6.
Develop the pattern
Draw
center and
Fig. 305, as
and
with a straight line and join
irregular curve.
6,
arc intersecting at
of a circle with radius equal to 5
Prob.
With
draw
arc intersecting in
67
6' as
Fig. 306,
the latter point as center
by joining
5,
and
and 6
latter point as center,
as radius describe arc.
7" 7',
and
With
6'.
as radius describe arc inter-
from the plan as radius describe arc, and with
6' 7' from the plan
Fig. 304,
Fig. 304, as radius describe arc
With the
6.
shown
Fig. 305, as center
5" 6', Fig. 306, as radius describe arc intersecting at

Fig. 305, as center
as shown.
construct the three triangles
and with point
as radius describe arc
draw curve
points found
Join
and 6 with an arc
6'
5',
and
with an
for base.
patterns for bath tub given in plan and
elevations in Fig. 307.
Draw
plan, elevation, half-right end elevation
end elevation
in the order
view from plan in
first
left
3, 2,
at
The
off
on the
a half-lett end
half pattern of the
line ab of the
From
the points parallel lines.
1,
lines.
2, 3, 4,
5,
development and
the points
6,
4,
of the elevation drop perpendiculars to intersect the corat 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
complete the half deveolpment of the body.
ing
half-left
once by the method of parallel
responding lines in the development
of the
also
end view of tub i^to 4 equal spaces
and step these distances
draw through
Draw
angle projection.
body may be developed

Divide the
named.
and
warped surface
manner
of the foot can
Divide the quarter
now
The
add
5, 6,
and
half development
be obtained in the follow-
circle of the
corner in the plan in-

to 4 equal parts in the points
points to the line
i' 6
2',
4',
3',
end view.
of the
Project the points
3, 4, 5 to the curved line of the end view.
to obtain the true lengths of the
and project these
6',
5',
225
Lay
measuring
1,
2,
out the triangles
lines.
The
heights
are obtained from the end view at A, the bases from the plan.
The
true lengths of the upper edge of the pattern are taken
from
the plan while the radii for the respective arcs of the lower edge
must be taken from the

the radius
The
Fig.
2,
309 from
(B), 2
taken
is
3' in
of the pattern of the
in the elevation as
Fig. 310,
shown
it is
Thus
309 from 2"
Fig.
body
2, Fig. 308, and so on.

from 1 2' in (^4), 2 2' in
taken from
The line 1 1',
a similar way.
1'
is
Fig. 309,
The development
on.
Fig. 309,
1 2',
radius
outline of the pattern for the
3' in (B)
head piece
is
and so
found
in
can be taken directly from
there in
its
To
true length.
find the true lengths of the remaining lines the heights of the
on the
triangles are laid off
in the plan, for
line
example i'
2' is
1/
from the respective
2'
equal to
1' 2
lines
in the plan
and
so on.
The
bases of the triangles are projected from the end
view in
6,
4, 3,
5,
2,
2, 2 3,
The
arcs
the
corresponding
may now
1,
and each hypothenuse drawn
etc.,
and 1'
distances
in
2',
the
be completed by drawing
2'
$',
etc.,
plan.
arcs,
in order.
are taken
from
The development
using each hypothenuse
of the triangles in their proper order as radius.
Prob.
Draw
13.
the development for a two-piece pipe elbow,
Fig. 311.
Draw
develop
the
half
methods used
clearly
and elevation
the plan
shown
directions.
in
of
to the
dimensions given and
one piece by the method shown.
The
finding the developments in this plate are so
that
the
student
should not require any detail
226
MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Prob.
elbow.
for a
three-piece
15.
Develop the necessary patterns for a
five-piece
Fig. 313.
Prob.
Fig. 3 T 4.
Develop the necessary patterns
Fig. 312.
Prob.
elbow.
14.
227
16.
Draw the pattern of a
two-piece oblong pipe elbow.
CHAPTER
IX.
ELEMENTARY MACHINE DETAILS, INCLUDING SCREWS, NUTS,

BOLTS, KEYS, COTTERS AND GIBS, COUPLING SPRINGS, ETC.
Screw
is
a helical projection or thread formed upon a
and
is
the
cylinder
most common device used
in
mechanical
Fig. 315.
combinations.
for
It is
employed
in
the construction of machinery
producing pressure contact and transmitting motion.
WheD
228
ELEMENTARY MACHINE DETAILS.

the thread of an external screw
made
is
to
sponding hollow of an internal screw (Fig.
termed
Pitch of a Screw-thread
nut would advance along the axis

threaded screw the pitch
315) the
latter
the lineal distance
is
one turn.
in
is
in
its
In a single-
the distance between the centres
is
two consecutive threads measured
axis,
into the corre-
fit
ts nut.
The
of
22Q
screw
double-threaded
the direction of the
in
the distance from
is
it
centre to centre of every alternate thread, and in a triple-
threaded screw
it is
a distance that will embrace three threads.
For screw-fastenings, instead
of giving the pitch the
of threads per inch of screw
given
is
for
number
example, a bolt
of \" diameter has generally 8 threads per inch; this
wound around
that the bolt has a single thread
every inch of
Rightright-
its
and Left-handed Screws.

are distinguished
when turned
are
made
right
shown
When
in section
which the
a drawing the right-handed

inclining
hand when the screws
position, as in Fig. 315.

is
their nuts advancing
by the threads
screws are distinguished
towards the
by
in the direction in
On
hands of a watch revolve.
is
Screws
and left-handed, of which the right-handed are the
along the screws
nut
8 times for
length.
more common and
thread
it
means
are in
upwards
a vertical
a nut with a right-handed
the direction of the threads in the
the opposite to the threads on the screw.
The Nominal Diameter

the tops of the threads and
cylinder
of a
is
upon which the thread
nominal diameter that

shearing strength.
is
Screw
is
the diameter over
equal to the diameter of the

is
cut.
considered
It is
the area of the
when estimating the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
23
The
Effective Diameter
and
of the thread
nut before
is
is
equal to the diameter of the hole
subjected to a shearing stress,
in
the
Unless when the bolts are
threads are cut.
its
diameter that
the diameter at the bottom
it
the area of the effective
is
considered in estimating their strength.
is
The Depth
of the
Thread
is
the distance measured
perpendicularly to the axis of the screw from the top to the
bottom
of the thread.
NOTATION.
d= nominal
d=-
diameter of bolt;
effective diameter of bolt;
= depth of thread
total depth of V;
p = pitch of thread
n = number of threads
d
The Forms
per inch.
of Screw-threads in general use in machine
construction are represented in Figs. 316-320.

is
adopted on
all
The
thread
screw-fastenings because of the shearing
strength of the threads and frictional holding power, which

is
due to the normal pressure on the thread being inclined
\^..V
>J
Fig. 316.
to the axis of the screw.
may be
This normal force N, Fig. 316.
resolved into two components, one
parallel to the
ELEMhNTARY MACHINE DETAILS.

axis of the
and the other
screw,
at
231
right angles to
represents the load carried by the thread and
tending to burst
of
the
the
the nut
it.
the force
therefore the greater the angle
be
greater will
component
normal
the
or
bursting force, and, the friction being proportional to the
normal
force,
the forms of
will
it
increase with the angle of the
Of
V.
threads shown two (Figs. 316 and 317) are
in
common
The
Sellers or United States Standard, a section of
which
shown
is
use in the United States for bolts and nuts.
in Fig. 316,
has been adopted by the U.
S.
Government, the Railway Master Mechanics' Association, the

Master Car-builders' Association, and
manufactories
The
country.
this
in
many
of the principal
sides
of
this
thread
form an angle of 6o with each other, and are \ of S short of

x
meeting
at a sharp point at the tops and
makes the
pitch,
sides of the thread in
and the depth of thread S
bottoms, which
length equal to } of the

will
be expressed by the
formula
The
sin 6o
effective diameter will then
d,
The
=Xp
relation
= 0.65/
(i)
be
= d 26 =d
i.^p
=d
-^-.
between the pitch and the diameter
will
(2)'
be ex-
pressed by the formula
p
The number
0.24 |/V_j_ 0.625 -0.175.
of threads per inch
=-=
p
s/
(3)
(4)
is
0.24
.6 25
-0.175
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
232
The
table
of proportions on page 70 has been deduced from
the preceding formulae.
may
difference, however,
between the formulae and the table
in the
number
be found
of threads
per inch, as the table has been modified to avoid as far as

practicable troublesome combinations in the gears of screw-
cutting machines.
Exercise
1.
Draw
6 threads in sectional outline, of the
Sellers thread (Fig. 316), suitable for a screw
6"
in diameter.
Scale three times full size.

Construction.
Begin by drawing
a horizontal line in the
upper left-hand corner of the paper " down from the border-
and a
line,
vertical line
Then
line.
about f "
p by
find the pitch
where the two
lines
with the scale on
from the left-hand border-
in
you have
the formula
just
drawn
the horizontal line 6
apart equal to the pitch as found
these points with the 30
and cut
off
and from
mark
off
points a distance
by the formula.
Through
draw the Vs.
Complete
triangle
the pencilling by dividing the depth of the

divisions,
(3),
intersect
one division
at the top
into 8 equal
and bottom of
each thread.
The Sharp V Thread, shown
pA
in
Fig. 317,
is
one of the
Fig. 317.
forms of threads that were
in use before the Sellers
thread

was adopted
as the
condemned by
all
U.
S. standard,
and
is still
233
used, although
This thread
progressive engineers.
same
as the Sellers thread except that the sides are
meet
at a sharp point at the
the
is
made
to
top and bottom, which makes
the sides of the thread equal in length to the pitch/, and

the depth of the thread 8 will be expressed by the formula
X
The
effective
=/
sin 6o
0.866/
(5)
diameter of the bolt (d ) will then be expressed

}
by the formula
= d 2 X
Now, comparing
o.866>=
1.732.
(6)
we have:
the effective diameters,
= d i.$p
^ = ^1.732/
U. S. threads
(2)
V threads
(6)
This serves to show that with an equal pitch the

diameter of the screw having a
greater than one with a sharp
U.
S.
thread.
effective
standard thread
While the
latter
is
form
of thread materially diminishes the strength of the bolt, the
sharp point adds very
little
strength to the thread.
ther objection to this form of thread
is
fur-
the variation in depth
of the threads due to the wear of the sharp points on the taps
and dies used
in
producing them.
The Whitworth V Thread,

is
shown
in Fig. 318,
adopted on
tion.
It
is
the British standard, and
all screw-fastenings in British
has the sides of the
angle of 55
an outline section of which
bottom equal
is
generally
machine construc-
inclined to each other at an
and has an amount rounded

to \ of the total depth of the
off at
V.
the top and
The
table oj
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2 34
dimensions for Whitworth screws (page 70) has been deduced
from the following formulae.
The
total
d i= = 0.5 cot 27i
depth of the
0.96/
(7)
Fig. 318.
The depth
of the finished thread
The pitch
Number of
=IX
= 0.64?
(8)
/ = o.oZd +0.04
(9)
threads per inch

1
=
p
The
0.96/
and
rp
(10)
diameter at the bottom of the thread
will
be given by
the formula
</,=^-2X
Exercise
2.
Draw
thread (Fig. 318).

Construction.
of the Sellers
= d
1.28
(II)
6 threads of the Whitworth form of
Pitchy.
At a
Scale three times full
size.
suitable distance below the drawing
thread draw two horizontal lines parallel to
each
other and a distance
upper
line
mark
O.64/
off
apart equal to
0.96/.
a distance ab equal to the pitch.
On
the
Bisect

ab and draw the bisecting
at the point
line,
number
rounding
off
Mark
and from
required
off
the pitch from b along
along the lower
to give the
line,
Complete the pencilling by
of threads.
Screw-thread.
The
invariably called the square thread
form of thread which

a rectangle,
really
is
the depth of the thread being equal to 0.485/ and
equal to
to
However,
0.5/.
make
it
made equal
to
it
is
On
is
one with a
pitch of
therefore the square thread will have only half the

of material at the
resist
bottom
of the thread that the
As
the shearing action of the load.
enough
screws of the
of a square-threaded screw
twice the
width
its
usual and accurate
upon the drawing.
square
same diameter the pitch
has to
line
the sharp points of the V.
The Square
is
lower parallel
line to cut the
Join ca and cb, which will be inclined to each
c.
other at an angle of 55
the upper
235
usually
thread
amount
thread
the bearing-
surfaces of this screw are perpendicular to the axis, and the

force applied parallel
upon the nut
to
it,
there will be no bursting force
and as the reaction
on the square-threaded screw, there

there
is
nearly equal to the load
is
will
be
under the same conditions with a
quently the square thread
is
or
made
of thread
is
in
Rounded Screw-thread
semicircular, as
shown
is
a modifica-
bottom
in Fig. 379.
of each
This form
used for rough work and can be readily thrown
and out of gear with a portion
The
thread; conse-
in opposite directions.
tion of the square thread in which the top and
thread are
than
best adapted for transmitting
motion when the load has to be moved
The Knuckle
less friction
Buttress Screw-thread
of a nut.
is
a combination of the
and square threads, one side being perpendicular, and the

Klein
gives />=.o8-f .09^, d x
= .gid .08.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
236
other inclined at an angle of 45 to the axis of the screw,
&nd has an amount
cut
from the top and bottom of each
Fig. 319.
thread equal to
pressure
is
of the total
depth of the thread, as shown
This form of thread can be used only when the
in Fig. 320.
on that side of the thread which
is
at right angles
to the axis of the screw.
Fig. 320.
Exercise
3.
knuckle, and
Pitch 1".
Draw
the
buttress
sectional
threads
outline of the square,
shown
in Figs.
319 and 320.
Scale twice full size.
Pipe-threads
Previous to the year 1862 no
common
system had been agreed upon for the form or proportions

that time, owing to the
of pipe-threads.
Since
the late Robert
Briggs, C.E.,
who proposed
efforts
of
formulae and
tables for the dimensions of pipes and pipe-threads, a standard

TABLE
2 37
1.
STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF WROUGHT-IRON WELDED TUBES.

(Briggs Standard.)
Diameter
Screwed Ends.
Tube.
of
Thickness
of
Number
Metal.
of
Length of
Nominal
Actual
Inside.
Inside.
Actual
Outside.
Inches
Inches.
Inches.
Inch.
No.
Inches.
O.270
O.364
O.494
O.623
O.824
O.405
O.540
O.675
O.840
I.050
I-3I5
I.660
I.900
2.375
2.875
3.500
4.000
4- 5oo
5.000
5.563
6.625
7.625
8.625
9-625
10.750
O.068
O.088
O.091
O.IO9
0.II3
O.134
O.140
O.I45
O.I54
O.204
O.217
0.226
O.237
O.246
O.259
O.280
O.301
O.322
0.344
O.366
27
O.19
O.29
O.30
0.39
O.40
0.51
0.54
0.55
O.58
O.89
0.95
I.
8
8
8
I.05
1
i
*
I.O48
I.380
I*
I*
2
2*
3
1.
2.067
2.468
3-067
3.548
4.026
4-508
5-045
6.065
7-023
7.982
9.000
10.019
3*
4
4*
5
6
7
8
9
IO
Taper
6lO
of conical tube-ends,
in 32 to axis of
tube
Threads per
Perfect
Inch.
Screw.
18
18
14
14
II*
II
Hi
II*
8
I.
IO
I.l6
I.26
I.36
I.46
i-57
1.68
8
8
8
8
8
(f in.
OO
per foot total taper),
system has been generally used and was formally adopted by

the manufacturers of wrought-iron pipes and boiler-tubes and
by the Association
Gas-, and
The
of Manufacturers of Brass
Water-work
following
is
of the
an extract from a paper by Mr. Briggs
as given in the report of the

11
The
rounded
and Iron Steam-,
United States.
American Society
thread employed has an angle of 6o
off,
both
at the
of Engineers:
;
it is
slightly
top and at the bottom, so that the
height or depth of the thread, instead of being exactly equal

to the pitch,
is
only four
fifths of
the pitch, or equal to 0.8,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
238
if
n be the number of threads per inch.
tube-end
of
throughout which the
perfect the empirical formula used
where
out
is
(o.8Z>
+ 4.8) X-
the actual external diameter of the tube through-
is
parallel length,
its
For the length
screw-thread continues
and
expressed in inches.
is
back, beyond the perfect threads,
Further
come two having the same
taper at the bottom, but imperfect at the top.
The remain-
ing imperfect portion of the screw-thread, furthest back from

the extremity of the tube,
system of joint
and
is
not essential in any
imperfection
its
is
way
to this
simply incidental to
the process of cutting the thread at a single operation.

Exercise
4.
Draw
a section of a pipe-screw (Fig. 321) for
a wrought-iron pipe 8" in diameter.
THffEADS
_Ji_2THflrAPS
V^^/MPRrECT
U
Scale five times full size.
Comblftf
Thbitao
LOHPLCTC IHBCAO
^FUUA.TRO<$
ip X
*L
4p
Fig. 321.
Construction.
Draw
two
lines parallel
to each other at
a distance apart equal to the thickness of metal as given in

the table
then draw the vertical line 2 to represent the end
of the pipe, and from 2 along the line
Taper 1
to T.
to
every
at
the
j2
32 means an
units in length.
required
intersects 2
pitch,
in
mark
off
mark
inclination
From
inclination.
On
off 3, 4,
of 1 unit
equal
in height
the point 4 draw the line
the line
from where
5
it
points at a distance apart equal to the
and through these points with the 30
triangle
draw the

The bottoms
threads.
drawing a
by
off
thread that
last
is
at the bottom to a point on the surface of the pipe which
full
is
4 threads are cut
of the last
from the bottom of the
line
2 39
a distance
beyond the screwed part equal
Screw-thread Conventions.
screws to represent their true
but
it
man
quite obvious that
is
form
is
method
is
drawing
of
shown
in
Fig.
315,
unnecessary for the drafts-
perform this lengthy geometrical construction
to
each
indicate
screwed
he adopts some
ing he
it
The
to the pitch.
is
piece
upon the drawing.
convention suitable
to
to
Instead
the class of draw-
making that can be quickly drawn and
understood to represent a screw-thread.
is
generally
No.
Fig. 322,
I,
T
shows a convention
thread; No.
left-hand
thread;
V
No.
3,
for a
thread;
6,
any
double
thread; No. 2, a single
single square thread;
No.
5,
is
dotted lines indicate the bottom
they extend along
the
a single
diameter;
square
No.
7,
The method adopted
any thread of very small diameter.
distance
4,
double right-hand
thread of small
on rough drawings and sketches
No.
shown
of
the
piece
at
No.
7.
thread, and
the length
of
The
the
the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
240
screwed
At Nos.
part.
I,
4 are shown
2,
conventions
adopted upon finished drawings to represent threaded screws

of a large diameter
of improving
and wide
the appearance
by shading the lower

and
324;
on working
to
small
When
lines
or
one
is
completely the
shown
bottom
method
screw-threads
screws
large
narrow
the
the
is
represent
to
diameter
Here
scale.
top and the wide
in
fill
At No. 6
drawings
upon pieces of a small
to
is
under side of the thread.
adopted
convention
of this
each thread, as shown in Fig.
lines of
method
another
There are various ways
pitch.
drawn
indicate
lines
the
screw-thread.
of the
a very long screw has to be represented
upon a draw-
ing, as is often the case with the square-threaded screw,
few threads are drawn
and the length
at the
of the screw
is
beginning of the screwed part,
by dotted
indicated
lines
drawn
from the bottoms of the threads.
The
The
Nut.
most common application
for producing contact pressure
is
of the screw
the bolt, used in conjunction
The form
with a nut, of which there are different forms.
most
in
use
is
the hexagonal (Fig. 324).
The standard
proportions for hexagonal nuts are
H= height = diameter of bolt

F = distance
D = distance
across the flats
(d).
i\d
across the corners
-\-
\ of an inch.
(\\d-\-
-J-")
Fig. 323 shows the true form of the curves
of the nut
is
machined to form a part
This rounding or bevelling

fering.
The
When
is
of a sphere or cone.
the corners
radius r of the chamfering
2dy and the angle a
the nut.
off of
made from 6o
1.155.
when the end
is
is
called
cham-
made from i^d
to
to 45 with the axis of
representing nuts upon a
drawing they should

always be drawn
to
show
241
the distance across the angles, as
in
the
elevation Fig. 323.
Exercise
a bolt 6"
in
5.
Draw the
true curves of a hexagonal nut for
diameter when the top of the nut
is
chamfered
Fig. 323.
off to
form a part of a sphere with a radius r
J times the
diameter of the bolt (d), and when the chamfering
is
a part
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
242
which makes an angle
of a cone the side of
shown
axis of the nut, as
c,
in Fig. 323.
Begin with the
Construction.
tre
and with
with the
of 45
f as a centre
plan,
locating the cen-
first
and a radius equal to \d draw
the quadrant representing the hole in the nut, and from the
same centre and a radius equal
flats
draw the quadrant Q, and on

hexagon with the 30
scribe a part of a
as
shown
Draw
Fig. 324.
in
views, and with r as a radius

line
to half the distance across the
draw the
T square,
and the centre on the centre
which represents the spherical chamfer,
arc 5,
divisions, say 6,
of
and
triangle
the part elevations and end
and on the lower elevation draw the angle

any number
quadrant circum-
this
Divide eb into
a.
at points
2,
1,
$d.
4,
3,
Where
perpendicular lines drawn through these points intersect
the arc
5 and
12,
13,
draw
line
and with
arcs,
draw the horizontal
c as a centre
and
lines 7, 8, 9, 10,
radii ci, c2,
c$,
C4, c$
and from where these arcs intersect the inclined
face of the nut draw vertical lines to intersect the lines

9,
10, etc.
These points
To
face will be an arc of a circle.
view draw a
line
left
through the points
of the
14 and
on to the
line
15
15
of the front
find the curves
on the side
1,
2, 3,
perpendicular line
14
half
end view; where the arcs drawn

etc.,
inclined face of the nut in plan

sect the line 14
The curve
15 say \" below and parallel to the lower
face of the nut in plan, and a
an inch to the
7, 8,
of intersection will be points of the
curve on the side face of the nut.
lines
11,
from the centre
draw horizontal
and with a centre
c cut
the
lines to inter-
at the intersection of the
revolve the lines 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23
and draw perpendicular
points of intersection.
The
lines
line 17 revolved will
through the
be the
cert-

tre of the
43
nut face on the end view, and the intersection of
the lines 17, 18, 19, 20, 2

7, 8, 9, 10, 11,
quired curve.
12,
22, 23 with the horizontal lines
1,
13 will
be points on one half of the
To complete
intersection of the line 17
re-
the curve, with a centre at the
and the top of the nut mark with
the compasses corresponding points on the other side of the

line 17.
Fig. 324.
Conventional Method
drawings
is
shown
curves of the nut
chamfered
off at
in
are
of representing large nuts
Fig. 324.
arcs of
an angle of 45
on
In this representation the

circles
and the corners are
to the axis of the nut,
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
244
TABLE
UNITED STATES STANDARD OF
Screw-threads.
Diameter
of
Screw.
Number
Diameter
\rea at
of
at
Bottom
Bottom
of
Threads
per Inch.
20
5/16
18
16
H
7/16
%
9/16
%
%
1
.049
.077
.IIO
.150
.196
-249
307
442
.601
.837
.940
1.065
1. 160
550
694
.785
994
.893
1.284
1.389
1. 491
1. 616
I.057
1.295
I. 515
I.746
2.051
1.227
1.485
1.767
2.074
2.405
2.761
1.
712
1.962
2.176
2.426
2.302
3.023
3-719
4.620
3.142
3.976
4.909
5 -940
2.629
2.879
3.100
3-317
5-428
6.510
7.548
8.641
7.069
8.296
9.621
11.045
3-567
3.798
4.028
4.256
9-963
II.329
12-753
14.226
12.566
14.186
15.904
17.721
2^8
4.480
4.730
4-953
5-203
2X
5.423
I5.763
17.572
19.267
21.262
23.098
I9-635
21.648
23.758
25.967
28.274
14
13
12
II
10
9
8
7
7
6
6
4K
4K
4
3X
3X
3
3
2^
2#
2^
2^
2^
6
Note.The above
Body
in
Square Inches.
.027
045
.068
093
.126
.162
.202
.302
.420
2%
2%
Threads.
Threads in
Square Inches.
.185
.240
.294
344
.400
454
.507
.620
73i
1%
of
Area of
Bolt
table gives the sizes of the rough nuts
and bolt-heads.
The
finished
245
SCREW-THREADS, BOLTS, AND NUTS.

Nuts.
Tap
Heads.
Drill.
L/
-_
(Xil)
h"^
X
H
7/16
25/32
CZJ
37/64
11/16
51/64
9/10
u/16
.X
9/16
31/32
*H
#
X
#
iA
I#
lj&
*H
iX
I#
III
3
2 lff
*&
A
2H
iX
7
r T5
T
1*5
u\
iH
X
H
7/16
X
ill
9/16
i#
3
^
#
7/10
10/12
63/64
'If
Ifi
49
2^V
H
*A
2|f
3/*
3ll
5/16
3/l6
19/64
n/32
25/64
7/16
31/64
17/32
5/16
23/64
13/32
15/32
17/32
H
X
23/32
13/16
29/32
iX
iX
27/32
31/32
T 3
X
1TS
irt
T 8
T
37
*A
T 9
3ff
iX
i#
iX
4&
if
i*l
4
m
i#
4H
iy9w
iX
2X
2^
iX
4#
4li
5fi
4|f
2^
5^
IX
I*
iX
2^
2^
2A
/,31
i]4
2X5
o
3tV
3*1
3^
4tV
yw/s/s.
h "i 3
x
19/32
|>U
1
to;
5/16
M,
3X
37
I#
*A
2%
3X
3X
3X
4X
4^
6U
2A
3X
5y|
2/2
8I
z
32~
3K
3X
5H
5X
7tV
71!
3X
6&
8^
2H
6fi
3X
3X
3A
3M
6^
6X
6^
1%
7A
8ft
3tV
4X
4X
4X
7t\
7fi
CI 3
S2
9A
4X
3X
335
3 Tf
9U
4%
4X
3tV
iH
027
9a*
9ff
2X
2/2
5X
5X
5X
6
8^
8X
9X
H=d-x/xV'\
10A
>H
F= iid + 1/16":
10X
ill
2^
4X
4X
3H
5X
11^
I2#
sX
sX
4fV
4A
A,
43
2^
4A
4A
lot!
A=4-i/i6";
2T
3^
TT 2S
,,16
I2 rs
1
F?
*ft
ri^+i/16'
4fi
5A
5A
MECHA NIC A L DRA WING.
246
The
A. L. A. M. Standard Screws and Nuts.The

Standard as shown
in
of threads per inch for the A. L. A.
M.
form of the screw thread
The number
Fig. 316.
bolts
and
made
of
nuts
steel,
is
given
whose
the U. S.
is
Table
in
100,000 pounds per
3.
strength
tensile
square
and
inch
Bolts and
nuts are
must not be
less
than
limit
not
less
elastic
than 60,000 pounds per square inch.
TABLE
A. L. A. M.
STANDARD SCREWS AND NUTS.
Threads.
28
ft
ft
ft
24
24
20
20
18
18
16
16
14
14
ft
ft
ft
ft
i
i
i
i
ft
ft
ft
ft
i
1
i
i
i
1
1
1
1
1
t
7
ft
t
tt
I
I
I
The
1\
Number
3.
of
ft
tt
a
4
15
16
I
I*
ii
ift
a
M
f
ft
I
i
39
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
If
if
64
H
ft
1
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
*
i
*
i
*
i
length of the threaded portion of the bolt should be about
times the diameter.

Bolt heads
and plain nuts are
flat
chamfered, as in Fig.
3 2 4.
Castle nuts have a spherical chamfer, as in Fig. 324.

Bolts and nuts are finished with
what
is
known
as screw
makers' " semi-finish."

Screws, screw heads, and plain nuts are
nuts are case-hardened.
left soft,
while castle

The body diameter
of the screw
and bottom of threads
top
nuts
in
made from two-thousandths
is
inch
The
clearance between
when
correct
is
the
top
of
an
three-thousandths
to
large.
Nuts are made
M.
the A. L. A.
to
is
and
is
The
castle nut.
Fig. 325
shows
facing under the head
~W*(
and nut
without apparent shake.
fit
and
bolt
$.b
flats
one-thousandth of an inch
is
than the nominal diameter.
(.001) less
2 4!
jL
made equal
made
in
diameter to the distance across the
so that the scratching of the nut
screwed on to a finished surface will not show.
when
it is
being
It also increases
the pressure per square inch.
Split
Pins, when made of a uniform diameter from wire
of
semicircular
as
in
Fig.
rating,
the
326,
while
of
axis
used
are
piece
of drawing split pins

eter of
it
the pin,
passes
size
in
in
through,
jfe".
allowing
the
and
cross-section
is
clearly
be
motion
they pass
proportion
may
preventing
for
slight
that
provided
shown
to
with
pieces
in
the
head,
from
sepa-
direction
of
The method
through.
in Fig. 326.
The diam-
the diameter d of the piece
.05^
.13,
taking
the
nearest
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2 48
Taper
piece
Pins, shown
another
to
in
in
Fig. 327, are used for securing one
fixed
They
position.
are
sometimes
Fig. 326.
split
as
the
at
diameter
of
end, and opened
small
ordinary
the
the
split
pin,
to
tapered pin at
out
prevent
the
same manner
the
in
slacking
end,
large
The
back.
in
proportion
Fig. 327.
to
the
diameter
be made
.o6d
(d)
.13
of the
piece through
which
and taking the nearest
it
size
passes,
may
from Table
(page 249).
Keys
etc.,
to
generally
are
employed
to
connect
shafting transmitting motion
made
of
wrought iron or
wheels,
by
steel,
cranks,
rotation.
and are
cams,
They
are
commonly

TABLE
249
4.
STANDARD STEEL TAPER-PINS.

Taper one-quarter inch
dumber
Diameter
at
larye end
Approximate
Longest
limit
of length
.i*
.17.
193
.219 .250
5/32 II/64
3/16
7/32
l/z
iU
.2S9
.409'.
34i
492
\_
19/64 11/32 13/32
iX
2X
in general use is
made
slightly tapered
the keyed piece moving along the shaft.
where the key
on the
fits
on the piece
way
it
and
keyed piece
is
shaft,
holding
is
The form
fits
accurately
power against
The groove
or part
and the groove into which

called the key-bed,
is
of
it
key-
For square or rectangular keys, when the
or key-seat.
stationary on the shaft, the
groove on the shaft

groove
.706
19/32 23/32
4^ sX
3%
3X
into the key-way, offering a frictional holding
fits
59i
rectangular, square, or round in cross-section.
key
10
fractional V
sizes
to the foot.
is
in the piece
bottom
of the
parallel to the axis, while that of the
it
securing
is
deeper at the one end
is
than the other to accommodate the taper of the key.
Keys may be divided

saddle key;
2.
flat
Saddle Key.
key;
into three classes:
3.
This form of key has
slightly tapered in thickness
side to suit the shaft, as
power depends
entirely
1.
Concave or
sunk key.
and
shown
upon the
is
but
parallel sides,
is
concaved on the under
in Fig. 328.
As
the holding
frictional resistance,
the pressure of the key on the shaft, the saddle key
due to
is
only
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
250
adapted for securing pieces subjected to a light
key
this
usually
is
used for securing a piece permanently, the taper
made
but
in 96,
when employed on a piece
ing to be adjusted, such as an eccentric, the taper

to
in
64
to allow the
key to be more
Fig. 328.
This
saddle key in that
by
It
is
requir-
increased
is
easily loosened.
3 29
Flat Key.
shaft.
When
strain.
form of key, Fig. 329,
it
makes a
rests
on a
flat
upon the
surface filed
but as
fairly efficient fastening,
resisting the turning of the shaft
from the
differs
under
it,
it
there
is
drives
a tend-
ency to burst the keyed-on piece.
TABLE
5.
DIMENSIONS OF SADDLE AND FLAT KEYS.
B
T
iU
5/16
3/16
3/16
iy2
3
7/16
3/16
Sunk Keys
shaft
2^
%
%
5/16
5/16
iU
/8
3M
iH
tH
iH
7/16
y*
9/16
n H
I*
are so called because they are sunk into the
and the keyed-on
vents slipping.
piece,
When
Fig. 330, which entirely pre-
For engine construction they are usually
rectangular in cross-section and

all sides.
made
to
fit
the key-seat on
subjected to strains suddenly applied, and
251
Fig. 331.
in
one direction,
they are
placed
to
drive
as
a strutj
diagonally, as in Fig. 331.
Fig. 332.
Fig. 330.
The
following table, taken from
Richards's " Machine
Construction," agrees approximately with average practice:
TABLE
6.
DIMENSIONS OF RECTANGULAR SUNK KEYS.
B
T
1%
5/16
5/32 3/16
In
1%
H
%
iU
7/16
%
9/32 5/16
2^
3'A
/8
tt
7/16
%
%
1/8
ifg
iH
n/16
13/16
*x
mill-work, for fastening pulleys,
lings, etc., to shafting
gear-wheels, coup-
they are made slightly greater
in
depth
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
252
For machine
than breadth.
in cross-section.
used by
Wm.
The
Sellers
tools they are generally square
following table gives the sizes of keys
&
Co. both for shafting and machine
tools:
TABLE
a
i#
B
T
B
T
7.
2^
*A
*U
3X
3^
11/16
5/i6
5/16
7/16
7 /i6
9/16
11/16
n/16
11/16
lf
II
4
13/16
aA
VA
13/16
13/16
15/16
15/16
I5/I6
1^
1^
1^
A
7
ft
Round Keys.
Taper-pins (Fig. 332)
as keys to prevent rotation
are sometimes used
where a crank or wheel
Round keys
on to the end of a shaft or axle.
is
shrunk
are used in
such a case because of the ease in forming the key-way,
which
shaft
is
simply a tapered round hole drilled half into the
portions of the pins are

large
The standard proThe size at the

given on page 249.
and half into the shrunk-on piece.
end nearest to of the shaft diameter may be used
for
this purpose.
Fixed Keys are used when
it is
undesirable to cut a long
key-way on the shaft to allow the key to be driven into place

after the
keyed-on piece
sunk into the
shaft, as in
is
in
position.
driven into position after the key
When
The
fixed
key
Fig. 333, and the keyed-on piece

is in
is
is
place.
a keyed-on piece has to be adjusted to different
positions on the shaft, to avoid the trouble of drawing a

tight
key
in
and out,
the keyed-on piece
means
is
it is
made
to slide in the key-way,
and
held against moving along the shaft by
of set-screws, as
shown
in Fig. 334-
253
Fig. 334.
Fig. 333.
Sliding Feather Key.
This
system of keying secures
the piece to the shaft, to transmit motion of rotation, and at

the same time allows the keyed-on piece to
They may be secured
groove on the
and
slide
in
Table
shaft, as
the groove
The dimensions
for
in
this
in
to the
keyed piece and
slide in
Fig. 335, or secured to the shaft
the keyed piece, as
form of key
may
in
Fig.
333.
be taken from
7.
Woodruff Keys. This system
of keying (Fig.
used for machine tools, or wherever accurate work

importance.
to
the
Fig. 336.
Fig. 335.
shaft.
move along
With
this
is
337)
of
form of key, as the key rights
the groove in the keyed-on piece, there
is
is
first
itself
no danger of
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
254
the
work being thrown out
being deep in the shaft,
No.
6
8
IO
ii
13
i7
20
A" A" n
A' 64 A"
in
A' A" A"
r A" A" 4"
i"
A" A'- A"
it" A" 64
A"
ir A" A" A"
1
5 //
1
8
/.'
by badly
fitted keys,
and,
cannot turn in the key seat
ft
it
of true
No.
/I
Tor if"
i" or if"
*" or if"
21
22
i"
i|"
24
ii" or i&'
if" or i A'
26
ii"
If"
I*"
I*"
I*"
2*"
Ii'
23
2S
\"
i"
iy toif"
lA'toif
64
A" A" A"

\"
i"
8
A" A"
A" A"
3
/'
16
itt"toir
//
64
7 /
w
64
7
64
//
itt"
lif"
2"
2"
to
if"
tO 2\"
to 2f"
tO
2\"
&\-
Fig. 338.
The "Woodruff
" key, reaching deeper into the shaft than one
of ordinary construction,
capable of standing a
It is
is
much
more firmly imbedded, and hence

greater strain.
impossible for a Woodruff key to roll over in
its seat,
as
is
ELEMENTARY MACHINE
often the case with an ordinary key.
Woodruff keys have been known
DETAILS.
2 55
In case of an accident,
to shear off
without damaging
pulley or shaft, where an ordinary key of the
same width would
roll
in
the seat
and destroy both pulley and
shaft.
Whitney
Manufacturing Company.
COTTERS
are
keys employed to connect pieces which
tensile
and compressive
They
forces.
are
are
subjected
to
driven transversely
Fig. 339.
through one or both of the connected pieces and transmit power
by a
are
resistance to shearing at
usually
made
rectangular
rounded, as shown in Fig. 339.
two cross-sections.
in
cross-section,
The
cotters
and the ends
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
256
The
with
cotter-way
adopted, as
make, which
easier to
is
it
rounding
the
ends
done by
is
generally
is
drilling
two
holes of a diameter equal to the thickness of the cotter and
cutting out the metal between them.
Again, this form of
cotter-way does not weaken the cottered pieces to quite the
same extent
when the
as
corners are
however, are not so easily

ends, and for that reason
left
The
sharp.
cotter-ways with round
fitted into
some engineers make the
rectangular cross-section, fitted
cotters,
into
cotters of
corresponding cotter^
ways.
Taper
means
of Cotters.
When
cotters
employed
are
as
of adjusting the length of the connected pieces, or for
drawing them together, they are made tapered
when used
Fig. 339, but
When
parallel.
tapered
depend upon the
cotters
more than
the taper should not be
means
width, as in
as a holding-piece only, the side? are
them
between their bearing-surfaces for retaining
where special
in
are
employed
against slacking, the taper
may
be
in
for
friction
in position
24 (J" per foot), but

holding the cotter
made
as
great as
in
(2" per foot).
Forms and Proportions

fastening
in Fig.
of a
is
cotter.
rods,
joint
is
and
used
Fig.
R\
made by
for securing
339
fitting
two pieces together by means
shows
method
the end of the rod
the
shown
of fastening
',
two
The
together to resist thrust and tension.
formed on the end of the rod
into a socket
and through the socket and
rod end driving a cotter until the collar

socket end.
When
subjected to tension only, the arrangement
is
339
of Cotter-joints.
C bears
against the
\

As a
cotter-joint
proportioned to withstand the greatest
is
longitudinal force transmitted by the rod,
fore be proportional to the diameter
The
all
parts will there-
of the rod, unless
of the rod are increased to insure stiff-
where the dimensions

ness.
257
following proportions are in accordance with good
practice:
= 1.3^;
/, thickness of cotter = .3^,;
d> diameter of pierced rod =
breadth of cotter
b,
D, diameter of socket
D
D
/,
/,
\.2d
x \
in front of cotter ==
diameter of socket behind cotter
2.4^ or 2d.
2d
ti diameter of collar on rod R = 1.5^,;

thickness of collar on rod R \d
;
the length of the rod and socket beyond the cotter
\d
to
VVhen d
The
clearance
beyond the
from
.82^.
known
is
the diameter of the solid rod (d\)
may be made
The
\".
cotter need not extend
greatest diameter of the socket
more than \" when
driven home.
COTTER AND
When
a
thin
gib,
ends
(the
is
one
strap,
as
used.
The
which
strap)
pieces
the
of
Fig.
in
project
gib
is
over
from being
340,
GIB.
second
provided
the
by
connected
strap
forced open
with
S,
the
cotter
cotter,
called
thus
by the
head
at
is
a
the
preventing
friction
between
it
it
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2S<
and the
cotter
as
the latter
is
driven
and 341 show the application of gib and

connecting-rods, where
two gibs
is
the rod and
cotter
is
tapered, as
shown
in
and the taper
all
the same.
Fig.
on one side of the
them may be
cotter.
the gib and cotter in combination
single cotter
When
the strap.
Instead of having both gibs
342, one of
Fig. 34c.
340
strap-end
to
the sliding surface on each
are used, as in Fig. 342,
side of the
cotter
Figs.
place.
into
is
made
Fig. 341.
The
parallel
strength of
the same as the
Fig. 342.
and should be proportional to the strap 5.
working strength of the strap at the thinnest part
is
The
found by
the equation
2BTf =
t
from which
T=
P.
(12)
2Bf
where Pis the maximum
pull
on the xo\
T the
thickness,

and
equal
may
to,
be
Then
the breadth of the strap.
are to have the
or a
same strength
little
made equal
2 59
as the gib and cotter
as the single cotter,
and as
is
greater than d (the diameter of the rod),

to
.25$ and
2BT
V.7854
T', the thickness of the strap
should not be
than
less
the end of the strap,
the end of the rod,
than
1.3 7\
=2J
it
is
pierced by the cotter,
V, the distance
/,
= 1.5^
(the difference
where
c,
the distance
from the gib
from the
cotter to
the clearance, should not be less
between the widest part of the eotter and
the width of the cotter at the top of the gib-head).

of constructing gib-heads
of the
to
is
shown
in Fig. 341,
where
The method
h, the height
gib-head, = 1 \t.
Nut Wrench.
wrench.
They
are
Fig.
made
343
of
shows
common
wrought iron or
Table 9 gives the usual proportions.
steel,
straight
nut
drop forged.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
260
TABLE
9.
PROPORTIONS FOR WRENCHES.
D = WX.6$
F=WX.2S
B = WX.&
L = WX.7
Fig. 344.
Helical
Clarke,
Springs.
who
The
following
formulae
is
quotes from a report on safety valves
given
by
made by
the Inst, of Engrs. and Shipbuilders of Scotland:
d3
Xw
E = KTt:^ D = x
D = ^l
and
Iwd
,
for
round
steel.
for square steel.
4-9
E = compression
or extension of one coil in inches;
d= diameter from
spring
is
center to center of steel bar of which the
made,
in inches;
w = weight applied in
D = diameter, or side
pounds;
of the square of the steel bar, in six-
teenths of an inch;
C=a
constant, which
and 30
To
may
be taken as 22 for round
steel
for square steel.
obtain the total deflection for a given spring, multiply the
deflection for one coil
by the number of
free coils.
261
an example of a helical tension spring and 5

that of a compression spring.
In Fig. 344, 4
is
Fig. 345.
Fig. 345
valve with
shows an example of a
its
Figs.
346 and 347
iron flanges of ordinary design.
are given in
Table
Fig.
of
Their correct proportions
Fig. 347.
348 shows a drawing of a
and narrow shackle used

the United States
show drawings
10.
Fig. 346.
Chains.
spring for a steam safety-
spindle.
Cast-iron Flanges.
cast
coil
for
common
general purposes.
Navy standard
proportions.
end link
Table 11 gives
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
262
TABLE
10.
PROPORTIONS FOR FLANGES.
Dia.
of
Bolt.
,,
4
1
1
ii
2
2i
3
A
//
6
7
8
10
12
15
18
5
//
Z?
//
//
Dia.
of
Bolt.
tr
//
/>
1%
if
if
2*
T*
If
I*
t
*
I*
3i
28
It
2*
if
it
if
3i
4*
6*
9
IOj
4*
3*
I*
2f
1.3
it
1*
2*
2|
4
4
1
4
8
t,
Ii
if
\
1
TV
2i
Ii
14
if
34
4t
A
A
tV
ll
1*
if
tk
f
1
Fig. 348.
TABLE
A
Ai
n
I
I*
6*
4*
i4
l|
I4
4*
74
S*
it
I*
if
if
I*
4A
8*
0*
if
it
6*
if
ii
11.
Si
6t
6H
nf
nf
Sf
8
8*
2i
2f
2f
2^
T^
A
A
3+*
3tt
tt
tt
2lV
1
3t
2f
3i
3*
44
54
3i
34
T6
5*
&
54
6
Vo
T6
5
8
4i
84
f
1
6*
7f
9i
9t
3l
44
4f
54
ii
6f
6*

Ball
Crank Handle.
Fig. 349 shows a drawing of
of handle used for ball cranks
are given below in
Table
263
on machine
tools.
a form
The dimensions
12.
-C7
o 1
*pZZZ23ZBL
W/M///A
HGK-3
Fig. 349.
Fig. 350.
TABLE
No.
3i
3*
4
4i
4
5
<T
2i
2|
f
1
1
Washers.
washer
_5_
ft
32
Fig. 350
tt
A
h
H
E
n*
for all kinds of
12.
tt
A
M
i*
1
1
f
i
i
if
f
1
ft
A
U
a cross-section of the ordinary circular
is
bolts.
Table 13 gives the proportions
for different diameters of bolts.
TABLE
Diam.
Bolt.
ft
\
ft
i
ft
of
A1
A
1
A
1
A
1
tt
1
1
li
if
ii
if
2
u.
s.
Wire Gauge
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
18
16
16
14
14
12
12
10
10
13.
Diam.
Bolt.
of
z?
It
1*
2\
ii
ii
if
1*
if
ii
ii
if
1
I
î
if
if
ii
2f
3i
3*
3l
4
4*
U. S.
Wire Gauge
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
264
"\
w
Fig. 351.
CRANE HOOKS.
Notation: *
P = load in pounds;
A = area in square inches;
R 2 = square of the radius of gyration;
/= allowable fiber strain in pounds
Pxe x _P
Pxei
J~~A
~T~~ A
AR2
per square inch.
'
A
.
(General Formula)
xe\
R2
* American Machinist, Oct. 31, 1901.
ELEMENTARY MACHINE
For
+ 2C
R2
(I)
Assuming
b =.656^;
P
f
7.
(2)
+ 2c
79^+11. n^r'
d\
(4)
(5)
di = o.$d.
35-
being known, assume

in the
+ c>)
d3
Fl
and
bc
= .2id. Then
D = 2r+i%d,
the quotient
_dW + 4
X=
(3)
26;
section considered as a trapezoid
A J-^ Xd
.find
DETAILS.
Divide P by / and
column headed by the required r, in
r to suit.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2 66
Table
14.
At the side of the table
same row
in the
will
be found
the necessary depth of section d.
TABLE
14.
d
.50
2.00
2.25
2.50
2.75
3.00
3.25
3-50
3.75
4.00
.75
.378
-493
.624
.771
934
1. 112
335
.440
.562
.698
.851
1. 019
1.306 1.204
I-SI7 1.404
1-743 1.620
.00
.300
397
.511
-639
-73
.941
1. 117
1.307
i-5!4
1. 25
-SO
1. 75
2.25
.00
2.75
2 .50
.228 .212 .197 .184 173

.308 .286 .267 .251 .237
.401 375 -352 -330 .312
509 -477 -448 .423 .400
.631 -592 -558 .528 -501
.767 .722 .682 .646 .614
.918 .867 .82c -778 742
-975
1. 140 [.084 1.025
-973 .926 .882
i-338 1 .265 1. 199 1. 139 1.086 i-37
.248
333
A3 2
54^
-675
.818
.271
.362
.468
.589
.725
-875
1.042
1.223
1. 421
3 .00
.164
.224
.296
.380
-477
-585
.707
.843
-993
In Table 15 the proper proportions for the given loads have
been worked out.
TABLE
Tons
*
1
A
5
10
Lbs.
TOOO
2000
4000
5000
I OOOO
20000
2i
5& iM
it
ii
2h
4
5i
Ih
3*
8i
12*
19*
ii
if
ii
it
14
-4
*k
1^
iM
2*
4
2h
4
8
3
2k
5
Hand Wheel. Fig. 353

wheel used for globe valves,
usual proportions.
itk
di
15.
4l
Ii
9
10
14
if
2f
3*
4
6
15
Ii
i*
ii
ifk
if
2*
2f
4f
6
3*
shows a drawing of a standard hand

etc.,
and
in
Table 16
is
given the

TABLE
A
Dia.
A
A
&
I
&
&
1
H
16
I
9
10
if
if
1*
7
8
11
4^
16
if
12
32
7
32
A
A
1*
TI
1
4
if
il
if
if
f
a
collars
made
*A
Itt
2^
2H
3A
3H
4A
4
5A
Fig. 354
in cast iron.
if
if
2*
2i
2|
3
3i
3f
3t
Z3
tt
ti
If
1*
shows a usual design
2!
L
tt
if
ft
ft
I
1
ii
i*
1*
if
for
shaft
Table 17 gives the correct proportions.
3i
4l
5f
6|
7f
8!
9i
i*
ii
i*
Fig. 354-
TABLE
Bore.
ft
1
T6
T 7
is
2
13
16
it
if
A
A
ft
1
if
Fig. 353.
Shaft Collars.
16.
d-
267
iA
rA
2*
2*
il
1*
17.
M
Ai
A
5
f
A
1
A
A
T
1
4
f
2
1
7
to
_7_
if
1*
16
ii
iA
ii
ii
A
A
A
ii
if
if
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
2 68
Coupling.
Frictional
Butler's frictional coupling.
coupling, except that
it
Fig.
It
354
shows three views
somewhat
is
like
of
the Sellers
has neither bolts nor keys, the conical
bushes being held in position by round nuts threaded into the

muff.
The
conical bushes are split at the side,
and when they
are in position on the shaft the split sides are at right angles
to
each other; this arrangement allows a key-driver to be
introduced through one of these openings (after the nuts have
been removed) to drive out the other bush when

to
remove the coupling from the
is
it
desired
The bushes
shaft.
are
guided into position by small dowel-pins which enter short
The \" round
grooves provided for them inside the muff.

holes
shown
in
top and bottom at the centre of the muff are
used to see when the ends of the shafts come together, for
then only will the coupling be in
The
its
proper position.
threads on the lock-nuts should be that
inch used on a pipe whose outside diameter

outside diameter of the nut.
position
by means
pieces which
The
the
fit
of a
The
into the recesses
The
nearest to the
is
lock-nuts are screwed into
spanner wrench having projecting
taper of the conical bushes

diameter.
number per
faces
shown
in
end elevation.
may be made
marked with small
j-"
in
12" on
are to
be
finished.
The
principal proportions of this coupling are as follows:
= diameter of shaft;
D = diameter of muff = 2.2 $d;
L = length of muff = 4^/.
d
'
269
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
270
Stuart's
355,
differs
Clamp Coupling. This

from the
wedges instead
Sellers
coupling,
coupling
in
shown
having
of conical sleeves; these tapered
in Fig.
tapered
wedges and
opposite halves of each end of the muff are bored to the size
of the
shaft.
Studs and nuts hold the wedges
in
place,
making, on the whole, a cheap and effective coupling without

the use of keys.
The
principal
dimensions of
this
coupling for various
diameters of shaft are given in the following proportions:
= diameter of shaft;
D ~ diameter of muff;
L = length of muff.
Let d
Then
for shafts
from ij" to 2|" diameter
D=
for shafts
3.2$d,
L=
4.2$d;
L=
4d.
from 2f " up
D=
id,
271
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
272
Connecting-rods.
In
steam and other engines the con-
necting-rod connects the rotating crank with the reciprocating cross-head.
There are many
methods are employed

Figs. 356 and 357
for taking
up the wear of the
show good examples
brasses.
of rods used in station-
locomotive, and marine engines
ary,
and various
styles of connecting-rods,
of the
most modern
types.
is the rod used by the Buckeye Engine Co. for
"
Tangye " type of engine. The crank end is solid, the
their
Fig. 358
brasses are lined with babbitt, and adjustment for wear
The
by means of a tapered steel block and screws.

head end
is
called a strap end.
The
strap
is
firmly
is
had
cross-
bound
to
the end of the rod with a cotter-key and gib, which also controls the
Fig.
adjustment
for wear.
359 has strap ends front and back.
Keys
are in-
serted between the straps and the rod to prevent the shear of
the strap-bolts.
The
construction of this rod and the
employed to take up the wear
The
Erie City Iron
Works
are plainly
shown
in
method
the figure.
use this rod on their stationary
engines.
Exercise 132.
(Scale 6"
Make
the drawings as
shown
in Fig.
358.
1 foot.)
Exercise 133.
Make
the drawings as shown in Fig. 359.
rirt^rr
2 73
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
274
TABLE
18.
WIRE AND SHEET-METAL GAUGES COMPARED.
si*
CO M
29.)
and
p.
Wire
British Imperial
Moen's
1893.)
Plate
Steel.
Standard
Wire Gauge.
for
Standard
Standard
Washburn
it
Gauge.
ilg.
^
inch.
0000000
oooooo
00000
0000
000
00
.454
.425
.38
.34
.3
2
3
4
.284
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
259
.238
.22
.203
.18
.165
.148
.134
.12
.109
095
.083
072
.065
.058
.049
.042
.035
.032
.028
.025
.022
.02
.018
.016
.014
.013
.012
31
.01
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
.009
.008
.007
.005
004
41
Steel
inch.
.46
.40964
.3648
.32486
.2893
.25763
.22942
.20431
.18194
.16202
.144-28
.12849
.11443
.10189
.09074
.0S081
.07196
.06408
.05707
.05082
04526
0403
.03589
.03196
02846
.02535
.02257
.0201
.0179
.01594
.01419
.01264
.01126
.01002
.00893
.00795
.00708
0063
.00561
.005
and
July
Gauge
S.
(Legal
Sheet
1884.)
Iron
since
U.
inch.
.49
.46
.43
.393
.362
.331
.307
.283
.263
.244
.225
.207
.192
.177
.162
.148
.135
.12
.105
.092
.08
.072
.063
.054
.047
.041
.035
.032
.028
.025
.023
.02
.018
.017
.016
.015
.014
.0135
.013
.011
.01
.0095
.009
.0085
.008
.0075
.007
inch.
inch.
millim.
inch.
.500
.464
.432
12.7
11.78
10.97
10.16
9.45
8.84
8.23
7.62
7.01
6.4
5.89
5.38
4.88
4.47
4.06
3-66
3.25
2.95
2.64
2.34
2.03
1.83
1.63
!.42
1.22
1.02
.5
.469
.438
.406
.375
.344
.313
.281
.266
.25
.234
.219
.203
.188
.172
.156
.141
.125
.109
.094
.078
.07
.4
.372
.348
.324
.227
.219
.212
.207
.204
.201
.199
.197
.194
.191
.188
.185
.182
.180
.178
.175
.172
.168
.164
.161
.157
.155
.153
.151
.148
.146
.143
.139
.134
.127
.120
.115
.112
.110
.108
.106
.103
.101
.099
.097
.095
.092
.088
.085
.081
.079
.077
.075
.072
.069
1
March 1,
1,
and
(Legal Standard
in Great Britain
since
02
.00396
.00353
.00314
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
&
also
(See
00445
40
Roebling's
Gauge.
Stubs'
.3
.276
.252
.232
.212
.192
.176
.16
.144
.128
.116
.104
.092
.08
.072
.064
.056
.048
.04
.036
.032
.028
.024
.022
.02
.018
.0164
.0148
.0133
.0124
.0116
.0108
.01
.0092
.0084
.0076
.0068
.006
.0052
.0048
.0044
.004
.0036
.0032
.0028
.0024
.002
.0016
.0012
.001
.91
.81
.71
.61
.56
.51
.46
.42
.38
.35
.31
.29
.27
.25
.23
.21
.19
.17
.15
.13
.12
.0625
.0563
.05
.0438
.0375
.0344
.0313
.0281
.025
.0219
.0188
.0172
.0156
.0141
.0125
.0109
.0101
.0094
.0086
.0078
.007
.0066
,0063
7/6
6/0
5/0
4/0
3/0
2/0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
13
17
19
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
.11
41
.10
.09
.08
.07
.06
.05
.04
.03
.025
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
ELEMENTARY MACHINE DESIGN.

TABLE
19.
DIFFERENT COLORS OF IRON CAUSED BY HEAT.

Cent.
Fahr.
2IO
4IO
221
430
256
370
493
502
680
500
932
26l
275
(Pouillet.)
Color.
.
Pale yellow.
Dull yellow.
Crimson.
Violet, purple,
Commences
and dull blue; between 261 C.

and 370 C. it passes to bright blue, to seagreen, and then disappears.
to be
ing of oxide;
covered with a light coatloses
hardness, becomes
to
the
a good
much more
deal of
its
impressible
hammer, and can be twisted with
ease.
977
1292
525
700
800
Becomes nascent
Sombre red.
Nascent cherry.
1472
1657
1832
2012
900
1000
IIOO
1200
2192
1300
2372
1400
2552
1500
2732
600
2912
red.
Cherry.
Bright cherry.
Dull orange.
Bright orange.
White.
Brilliant white
welding heat.
Dazzling white.
TABLE
20.
TABLE OF DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS OF ONE INCH.

1/64
1/32
3/64
1/16
5/64
3/32
7/64
1/8
9/64
5/32
11/64
3/i6
13/64
7/32
15/64
1/4
.015625
.03125
.046875
.0625
.078125
09375
109375
.125
140625
.15625
.171875
.1875
.203125
.21875
234375
.
.25
17/64
9/32
19/64
5/i6
21/64
11/32
23/64
3/8
25/64
13/32
27/64
7/16
29/64
15/32
31/64
1/2
.265625
.28125
.296875
.3125
.328125
34375
359375
375
.390625
.40625
.421875
4375
.453125
.46875
.484375
.50
33/64
17/32
35/64
9/16
37/64
19/32
39/64
5/8
41/64
21/32
43/64
11/16
45/64
23/32
47/64
3/4
515625
53125
.546875
5625
.578125
59375
.609375
.625
.640625
65625
.671875
.6875
.703125
.71875
734375
75
49/64
25/32
51/64
13/16
53/64
27/32
55/64
7/8
57/64
29/32
59/64
15/16
61/64
31/32
63/64
z
765625
78125
796875
8125
828125
84375
859375
875
890625
90625
921875
9375
953125
96875
984375
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
276
TABLE
21.
CIRCUMFERNCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES ADVANCING BY EIGHTHS.

Diam.
Circum.
1/64
1/32
3/64
1/16
3/32
1/8
5/32
.04909
.09818
.14726
.19635
.29452
.39270
.49087
.58905
.68722
.78540
.88357
98175
1.0799
1. 1781
1.2763
1-3744
1.4726
1.5708
1 6690
1. 7671
1.8653
1.9635
2.0617
2.1598
2.2580
2.3562
2-4544
2.5525
2.6507
2.7489
2.8471
2-9452
3.0434
3A6
7/32
1/4
9/32
5/16
11/32
3/8
13/32
7/16
is/32
1/2
17/32
9/16
*9/32
5/8
21/32
11/16
23/32
3/4
25/32
13/16
27/32
7/8
29/32
15/16
31/32
I
1/16
1/8
3/i6
x/4
5/i6
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
Il/l6
3/4
13/16
7 /8
15A6
3
1/16
1/8
3/16
1/4
5/i6
3/8
7/i6
1/2
9/16
5/8
3.1416
3-3379
3-5343
3-73o6
3.9270
Diam.
Circum.
.00019
.00077
.00173
.00307
.00690
.01227
.01917
.02761
03758
.04909
.06213
.07670
.09281
.11045
.12962
.15033
17257
19635
.22166
.24850
.27688
30680
33824
.37122
40574
.44179
47937
.51849
2 11/16
8.4430
8.6394
8.8357
9.0321
9.2284
5.6727
5 939 6
6.2126
6.4918
6.7771
9.4248
7.0686
7. 3662
7.6699
7.9798
8.2958
8.6179
8.9462
9.2806
9.6211
9.9678
10.321
10.680
11.045
11. 416
559H
5A6
.60132
.64504
.69029
737o8
3/8
7/16
Area.
I5A6
3
1/16
1/8
3/^6
1/4
5/i6
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
41233
.7854
.8866
.9940
1.1075
1.2272
1-353
4-3I97
4.5160
4.7124
4.9087
5.1051
5-30I4
5-4978
5.6941
5.8905
6.0868
1.4849
1.6230
1.7671
1. 9175
2.0739
2.2365
2.4053
2.5802
2.7612
2.9483
6.2832
3.1416
6.4795
6.6759
6.8722
7.0686
7.2649
7-4613
7.6576
7.8540
8.0503
8.2467
3/4
13/16
7/8
11
192
n.388
"585
11. 781
11.977
12.174
12.370
Diam.
Circum.
6 5/8
3/4
7/8
20 813
21.206
21.598
3/4
7/8
21.991
22.384
22.776
23.169
23.562
23-955
24-347
24.740
25-133
25-525
25.918
26 .311
26.704
27.096
27.489
27.882
50.265
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
63.617
65.307
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
28.274
28.667
29 060
29.452
29.845
30.238
30.631
31.023
1/8
1/43/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
31.416
31.809
32.201
32-594
32.987
33-379
33-772
34-i65
78.540
80.516
82.516
84-54I
86.590
88.664
92.886
1/8
1/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7 /8
34-558
34-950
35-343
35-736
36.128
36.521
36.914
37-36
95-033
97 205
99.402
101.62
103.87
106.14
108.43
110.75
1/8
1/4
37-699
38.092
38.485
"5-47
1/8
i/4
3/8
1/2
5/8
"793
1/16
1/8
3/i6
i/4
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
12.566
12.962
13-364
13-772
14.186
14.607
15.033
15.466
15.904
16.349
16.800
17-257
17.721
18.190
18.665
19.147
19. 6 35
9/16
5/8
ji/i6
15.708
15-904
16.101
16.297
16.493
16.690
16.886
17.082
17.279
17-475
17.671
17.868
22.691
23.221
23-758
24.301
24.850
25.406
3/4
13/16
7/8
15/16
18.064
18.261
18.457
18.653
25.967
26.535
27.109
27.688
1/8
1/4
18.850
19.242
I9.635
20.028
20.420
82.274
g9-465
30.680
31-919
5
1/16
1/8
3/16
x/4
5/i6
3/8
7/i6
1/2
3-34IO
12.566
12.763
12.959
13-155
'3-352
13-548
13-744
i3-94i
14-137
14-334
14-530
14 726
14-923
15-119
15-315
15-512
3/8
1/2
Area.
34-472
35-785
37.122:
'
38.485
39-87I
41.282
42.718
44-179
45.664
47-173
48.707
51849
53456
55 088
56.745
58.426
60.132
61.862
12.177
9
35466
37583
3.9761
4.2000
4.4301
4.4664
4.9087
5.I572
5-4II9
9. 62
9.8175
10.014
10.210
10.407
10.603
10 799
10.996
Area.
1/8
1/4
3/8
10
11
20.129
20.629
2i.i35
21.648
22. 166
12
3/8
1/2
5/8
3/4
7/8
38.877
39-270
39663
40.055
40.449
67.201
69 029
70.882
72 760
74.662
76.58P
.
90.763
113.10
117.86
120.28
122.72
125.19
127.68
130.19
33183
To find the weight of castings by the weight of pine patterns, multiply the
weight of the pattern by 12 for cast iron, 13 for brass, 19 for lead, 12.2 for tin,
14.4 for zinc, and the product is the weight of the casting.
COURSE
II.
PROBLEMS IN
ADVANCED MECHANICAL DRAWING
INCLUDING
ISOMETRICAL DRAWING, ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING, SHEET METAL DRAFTING, MACHINE DETAILS, FREEHAND SKETCHING OF SMALL MACHINE PARTS AND WORKING DRAWINGS OF
SAME.
277
COURSE
II.
ADVANCED MECHANICAL DRAWING.

MINIMUM NUMBER OF PLATES AND MAXIMUM NUMBER OF HOURS ALLOWED TO COMPLETE EACH
DIVISION OF THE WORK.
FIRST SEMESTER.
Plate
22. Isometrical
HOURS PER WEEK.
SIX
Drawing,
be handed in Sept. 24, 1909.
to
(14 hours.)
Plates
in
23 to 26 inclusive, Architectural Drawing, to be
November
Plates 27
in
to
handed
(42 hours.)
12, 1909.
29 inclusive, Sheet Metal Drafting, to be handed
December
(30 hours.)
17, 1909.
SECOND SEMESTER. SIX HOURS PER WEEK.

Plate
1
Metal Drafting,
30. Sheet
910.
Plates 31
March
to
be handed in January
14,
(12 hours.)
to
1,1,
inclusive,
11, 1910.
Plates 34 and
35,
Machine
Details, to be
handed
in
(42 hours.)
Freehand Sketches of small Machine parts
and Working drawings
of same.
(60 hours.)
Total, 200 hours.

279
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
280
Isometrical Drawing.
Plate
Make
22.
freehand sketches of
(1)
ferring Shelves (2) Drafting Table,

section of Drafting
Room
Library Book Trans-
and
(3)
a twelve drawer
These sketches are
Lockers.
be made on an isometric paper pad with dimensions and
When
is to
be made.
Architectural
Make
23.
When
finished pencil
drawing of framing joints as shown
approved and signed
tinted in
shown
this plate is to
be inked and
water colors.
Make
24.
Drawing.
220-233 on Whatman's cold pressed white paper.
in Figs.
Plate
title.
sketches have been approved and signed, a finished
pencil working drawing
Plate
to
finished pencil
Figs.
in
234-240
pencil drawing has
drawing of brick and stone work
W hen
T
on cream detail paper.
been approved and signed,
is
it
to
be
traced on cloth and blue printed.
Plate
26.
Make
pencil drawing of the examples of
finished
shown
in Figs.
243 and 244 on Whatman's cold pressed white paper.
When
Tuscan and Doric Orders
pencil
drawing
is
of Architecture as
approved
and signed,
it
is
to
be inked
and the shaded and sectioned parts are to be tinted with a

light
Plate
wash
28.
of India ink.
Make
finished pencil
Ionic Order of Architecture as
Whatman's
drawing
is
cold
pressed
drawing of the example of the
shown
white
approved and signed,
in Figs. 247
When
paper.
it
is
to
sectioned parts are to be tinted with a light
and 248 on
the
pencil
be inked and the
wash
of India ink.
PROBLEMS IN ADVANCED MECHANICAL DRAWING.

Plate
Make drawing
25.
Figs. 241
and 242.
lesser height
to
fill
Renaissance Letters,
One
alphabet 1" high and alphabets of
one
plate.
This plate
Instructor.
of the Classic
281
Directions to be given by
may be made
odd hours during
at
the semester.
Sheet Metal Pattern Drawing.
Plate
Make
29.
276
pattern drawings of objects as
288 inclusive, according
to
to directions
shown
in Figs.
given on page
216.
Plate
Plate
to
Make
30.
to
pattern drawings of objects
296 inclusive, according
shown
to directions given
in Figs.
289
on page 218.
31.
Make
310
inclusive, according to directions given in

pages 223 to
pattern drawings of articles
shown
in Figs.
297
22
Plate
Draw
3 2.
the developments of pipe elbows as given

in
Figs. 311 to 314 according to directions given
on page 226.
Machine Drawing.
Plate 33
Prob.
1.
Draw
the U.
Fig. 360, suitable for a screw
S.
6"
standard or
in
diameter.
Sellers'
V-threads,
Scale three times
full size.
See Table
for the value of p, the pitch of the

screw,
is
the nominal diameter of the screw, d the

effective diameter of the
x
bolt, and n the number of threads per inch.
Prob.
2.
Draw
2\
threads of the "Whitworth," or English
standard V-thread, Fig. 361, for 6" screw.

full size.
Scale three times
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
282
Prob.
Draw
3.
the sectional outline of the square, knuckle
and buttress shown
362 and 363, respectively.
Figs.
in
p=i"
Scale, full size.
Prob.
Draw
4.
the section of a pipe screw, Fig. 364, for a
wrought iron pipe 8"

See Table
in diameter.
number
2 for the
screw and the thickness,
Prob.
shown
Make
5.
in Fig. 365.
t,
Scale, three times full size.
of threads per inch, the taper of the
of the pipe.
drawings of the screw thread conventions

Scale, full size.
(1)
is
a right-hand double V-thread U. S. standard
d=i".
(2)
is
a right-hand single V-thread U. S. standard
d=\".
(3)
is
a right-hand single square thread U.
(4)
is
left-hand single V-thread U. S. standard
(5)
is
a right-hand double square thread U.
S.
standard
rf=i".
d=i".
S.
standard
d=i".
(6)
is
a right-hand single V-thread U. S. standard
d=%".
In the double thread the screw advances two pitches in each

revolution, therefore the
the
pitch.
(6)
threads on the
Prob.
6.
is
the
F=i\d+\".
H=d
D=FXi.iSS-
Construct the plan
first.
circumscribe a hexagon about
is
equal to
equal to 1".
Draw
it
Fig. 366,
Scale, full size.
the chamfer circle
and
with the 30X6o triangle and
Project elevation and end elevation from the plan.

7.
for a 1" bolt.
As
thread
common sizes of bolts and nuts.

Draw the projections of a hexagonal nut,
is
Prob.
the
standard convention used to represent
for a bolt whose diameter d
T-square.
of
inclination
Draw
the projections of a square nut, Fig. 367,
Scale, full size.
in the last
problem draw the plan
first
and project the
28
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
284
from
elevations
it.
square nut should never be shown in
elevation across the corners.
Prob.
Make
8.
drawings for 1" bolt with castle nut, Fig. 368.
Scale, full size.
The
values of the letters in the figure are to be taken from
Table 3 which gives the standard proportions adopted by the
American Licensed Automobile Manufacturers.
Use the same
proportions for drawing the chamfer curves on the elevations as
given for the U.
S.
standard nut.
Make
the
saw cut
in the
head
.2d in width and the depth equal to ij times the width.
Prob.
Make
9.
drawings of the rectangular keys and their
connections shown in Fig. 370.

is
equal to \"'.
equal to 2".
Tables
springs
6"=i
shown
is
foot.
in
Diameter of shaft
in
No. 16
Take
No. 15
the key dimensions
is
from
6.
Make
10.
Fig. 372
drawings of the tension and compression
in Figs. 371
and 372.
Scale, full size.
a compression spring and spindle for a boiler safety
See model in drafting room.
valve.
Prob.
The
Make drawing of split pin shown in

D = ^ and d =.o$D + .13.
ii.
full size.
into
Scale,
and
Prob.
Scale, full size.
Diameter of shaft
Assume
split
pin
is
Fig. 369.
Scale,
made from
half
round wire which when pressed
form gives a circular cross-section.
Selections
Conveniently
from the following problems may be made

fill
the space in Plate 34, allowing for
title
and
to
bill
of material.
Plate
Prob.
Scale,
6" =
i.
Make drawing
1 foot.
Find values
34.
for a 2^-ton crane-hook, Fig. 379.

for the different letters in
Table
15.
PROBLEMS IN ADVANCED MECHANICAL DRAWING-
<
2S5
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
286
Prob.
Make
2.
Taper of
full size.
Prob.
3.
Table
is
\" per
foot.
a nut wrench to dimensions
of
For other
Scale, full size.
Make
5.
given in Fig. 327.

the cotter,
Prob.
3"= 1
Scale,
G the
gib,
Draw
6.
Prob.
foot.
Prob.
S is the
the connecting rod,
the
Draw
7.
sions given.
shackle,
wrenches
sizes of
drawings of a gib and cotter
"
Woodruff" key,
Take dimensions from Table
shaft.
Scale,
7.
Prob.
cotter
Make drawings
given in Fig. 375.

see
the drawings of a cotter joint, Fig. 374.
strap,
to
dimensions
the brasses,
X the
and
set screw.
Fig. 373, for a
i\
8.
the ball crank handle, Fig. 378, to the dimen-
Scale, full size.
Make
8.
drawings of chain and link and narrow

Scale,
Fig. 377.
4"=i
foot.
Take dimensions from
Table il
Prob.
size.
are
Make drawing
9.
Taper
of pin
made with a
is
\" per
of taper pin, Fig. 64.

foot.
The
Scale, full
finish curves at the
The
radius equal to the diameter.
end
material
is steel.
Prob.
diameter
from Table
Prob.
Make drawing
10.
Scale, 6" =
6".
Make
12.
13.
6" diameter.
Prob.
Fig.
65,
outside
Take remaining dimensions
drawings of a washer for a i|"

13.
14.
for a 2" shaft.
bolt.
Take
See Fig. 379.
Make drawings of
374 and 376 for a 1" bolt.
Prob.
foot.
hand wheel,
9.
i.
dimensions from Table
Prob.
of
Scale,
cast-iron flanges
6"=i
Make working drawing of hand

Scale, 6"=i foot.
Make working drawing of shaft
Scale, full size.
shown
in Figs.
foot.
wheel, Fig. 381,
collar, Fig. 382;
Machine Detail
Sketches.
Plates 35 and
These plates are
in
Each
4H
Use only one
pencil.
object
8X10"
orthographic projection on an
paper with a
36.
machine parts
to contain certain
to the student by the instructor.
is
All dimensions,
notes,
title,
to
to
be applied
be sketched
sheet of cross-section
Sketch
side of the paper.
three views of each piece, viz., the elevation, plan,

view.
287
and
finish
and
right
end
marks must be
neatly placed on the sketch.
Begin by drawing
elevations
all
and the plan.
Make
size of
sketch to suit size of paper.
Lines should be sketched very lightly and when sketch
and signed
in pencil, the lines
Put on
all
and end
the center lines for the front
dimension
Measure with the two-foot
may
rule
approved
be strengthened.
before
lines
is
and
measuring the object.
callipers.
Callipers
may be
borrowed from the Instructor.

Sufficient
dimensions must be placed on the sketch to enable
the draftsman to
make
maker
a working drawing for the pattern
without having recourse to the object, after the drawing
is
com-
menced.
When
a sufficient
number
one sheet of the usual
made
size
15X20", working drawings
in finished pencil drawings.
must carry
all
made
of sketches have been
The
title, bill
and when approved and signed by the instructor

on tracing cloth and blue printed.
it is
rill
are to be
finished pencil
dimensions, notes, finish marks,
to
drawing
of material,
to
be traced
PRESENT PRACTICE IN DRAFTING ROOM

CONVENTIONS AND METHODS IN MAKING
PRACTICAL WORKING DRAWINGS.
Summary Report of an Investigation made by the Writer

with the Authority of the Armour Institute of
Technology. Chicago,
tice OF
IN
III.,
into the Present Prac-
THE LEADING DRAFTSMEN
IN
THE UNITED STATES,
THE USE OF STANDARD CONVENTIONS AND METHODS
WHEN MAKING COMMERCIAL WORKING DRAWINGS.
circular letter
was submitted
to
embracing nearly
The
accompanied by a
list
of thirty-five questions
two hundred leading firms

all
in the
United States
kinds of engineering practice.
returns have been exceedingly gratifying, and especially
so has been the spirit with which the " Questions" have been
received and answered.
Many
requests have been received from chief draftsmen for
a copy of the returns.
The
questions submitted and the answers received are given
somewhat
in detail below.
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
290
Q.
1.
Do you
place complete information for the shop on the
pencil drawing, such as all dimensions, notes,
material, scale, etc.
is
Complete information
is
Principal dimensions
directly
placed on drawing before tracing.
57
placed on tracing only
42
and
only on pencil drawing
title
on bond paper
Did not answer
10
this question
10
Sometimes
Reasons given
To
Q.
2.
for
arrange notes.
made by
the draftsman
Do you
Never ink
making
the pencil drawing complete:
To save
who makes
ime.
The
tracing
is
not usually
the pencil drawing.
ever ink the pencil drawing?
the pencil drawing
91
Generally ink the pencil drawing
Sometimes ink the pencil drawing
Sometimes ink the pencil drawing and shellac
it
for
shop use
Use bond paper
Make
Q.
pencil drawings on dull side of tracing cloth

lines of
Ink center
lines of pencil
Do you
trace
assembly drawing
Ink center
3.
drawings in red
on cloth and blue print?
Blue print from bond paper
102
10
Blue print from bond paper occasionally
Sometimes make
"
Vandyke "
Do
you use blue prints
Use blue
prints for shop use
Sometimes use paper drawings

4.
10
Always trace on cloth and blue print
Q.
bill of
Complete information
Draw
title,
in
shop for
jigs
entirely in the
prints altogether in shop
Sometimes use pencil drawings or sketch
and
fixtures
shop?
105
21
PRESENT PRACTICE IN DRAFTING ROOM CONVENTIONS.
291
Sometimes use sketches made with copying ink
Sometimes use prints from
Use white
Use blue
prints
Q.
5.
When
Vandyke "
mounted on cardboard and varnished
mounted on cardboard
prints
Use sketches
"
work
for rush
tracing do you
use
uniform wide
object
lines
Ever use shade lines?

Use uniform, thick object
Sometimes use shade
Use shade
Never use shade
lines.
lines
14
Experts in the use of shade lines
may do
so to
make drawings
clear
Shade rounded parts
6.
What
kind of a center line do you use
Long dash, very narrow, and
Long dash and two

fine
continuous
Very
fine
dash
line,
Continuous
in red,
three dots,
dots, thus:
1
]
broken only for dimension
fine line,
Fine long dash
line,
Fine long dash
line
Fine continuous red
19
long dashes,
kind of dimension line do you use ?
Continuous
29
line,
Long dash and two
What
42
fine red line,
Long dash and
7.
dot, thus
dots,
Very
Long dash and dot
Q.
100
21
lines
on small details
lines
Always use shade
Q.
lines
52
32
and
dot,
line,
ne continuous blue
line,
Fine continuous green
line,
13
4
1
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
292
Same
character of line as center
Dotted
8.
What
--
Long dash and two

Heavy broken lines,
Q.
line,
line,
dots,
2
1
do you use
style of lettering
Free-hand?
capitals
All
and lower case
Sloping
Vertical
Free-hand sloping
52
Free-hand
vertical
45
Free-hand
capitals, Gothic,
Free-hand
capitals,
Lettering
left to
Mechanical
Not
uniform height
61
and lower case
40
5
option of draftsman
caps
lettering, all
particular, the neatest the
draftsman can make
free-
hand
Mechanical
lettering, all caps, sloping
Give great latitude in
9.
letters i^ths,
Are your
titles
lettering, only insist
it
be bold and neat
hand
small -^ds and Jth
Roman, caps and lower

Large
case, free
and
bills of
material printed or lettered by
hand ?
Lettered by hand
Standard
titles
79
printed and
filled in
Bill of material table printed
and
by hand
lettered
by hand
Lettered by hand, contemplate having them printed
B. of
M.
typewritten on separate sheet and blue printed...
Titles partly printed
Use rubber stamp

Standard
clem
uniform height? or capitals
of
All caps, initials slightly higher
Q.
title,
and
filled in
for standard
bill
of
by hand
title, fill
material
in
12
12
1
8
8
by hand
lithographed on tracing
PRESEXT PRACTICE IN DRAFTING ROOM CONVENTIONS.

Q.
10.
Do
you use a border
Always use border
Never use border

Use border
No
lines
on drawings?
lines
97
lines
13
on foundation plans,
to
send out
border lines on detail drawings
Intend
to discontinue the
Border
lines
Only used
On
use of border lines
used only on design drawings
Only on drawings
to
be mounted on cardboard
trimming blue print
for
assembly drawings only
Width
Q.
line
293
11.
of margins reported:
When
hatch-lining
1",
\" f", J", and \"

,
do
sections,
you
uniform
use
or
symbolic hatch lines ?

Standard symbolic
Uniform hatch
lines
Shade section part with

Symbolic hatch
Uniform hatch
Uniform on
59
lines for all materials
lines
pencil
44
and note name
and add name
lines for
details,
4H
of material
of material
metal only
symbolic on assembly drawings
Pencil hatch on tracings
and note material other than
cast
iron
Uniform hatch
No
lines,
sometimes solid shading
uniform system
Sections tinted with water colors representing the metals..

12. Is
Q.
4
3
pencil
the
stored or do you
drawing
preserved?
make "Vandyke"
Is
the
prints for storing
tracing
away?
Store tracings only
96
Pencil drawings preserved for a time
30
Pencil drawings preserved
13
White
prints
made and bound
Tracings kept
"
Vandyke "
for reference
in office for reference, blue prints
prints stored
stored....
9
1
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
294
Use "Vandyke" as
substitute for tracing
Arrangement drawings preserved,

after job
is
detail
drawings destroyed
Pencil drawings used for gasket
completed.
paper
Original pencil drawing inked and stored
Assembly drawings and layouts preserved

Patent
"
Tried
Q.
13.
office
drawings preserved
Vandyke
Do you
" but found
use
6H
it
unserviceable, tearing easily.
1
1
grade of pencil for pencil drawings or
what?
6H
73
4H, mostly
for figures
and
letters
52
5H
16
Ranging from 2H
Q.
Do you
14.
sketches?
to
8H
53
use plain orthographic projection for free-hand
Ever use perspective or isometrical drawing
for
sketches ?
Plane orthographic 3d angle projection
99
Isometrical drawing for sketches
25
Perspective for sketches
Isometric for piping layouts and similar
Perspective and isometric for catalogue work
Isometric sometimes
Never use free-hand sketches
One
says,
too timid
work
Q.
work
is
15.
cylindrical,
What
9"Xi2"
12"
"When we
and not sure
X 18"
run into other than orthographic,
of themselves.
workmen
get
sizes of sheets
men
In perspective drawings
mixed up on center
do you use
for
are
when
lines.
drawings?
13
16

l8"X24"...
24
about 67
--
There seems
firms
to
be
20
"X36"
295
19
uniformity in the sizes of shop drawings,
little
combinations.
reporting different
system but simply make the
few have no
size of sheet to suit the object
to
be
drawn.
Q.
16.
Do
you use red ink on tracings?
Never use red ink on tracings
57
Recently discarded the use of red ink
Use red ink
for pattern figures
Use red ink
for center
Use red ink
for
Use red ink
for existing
and dimension
lines
check marks
work on
studies
Use red ink sometimes
Use red ink on occasions when

in red
and new work
Use carmine
Qs. 17 and
When
it is
desired to
in black (use
show
old
work
carmine)
for brick
27.
How
finished
all
indicate finished
When
over?
planed, bored, drilled,
surfaces on drawings?
"file
finished,"
ground,
etc. ?
Finished surfaces indicated as in Fig.
65
Finished surfaces indicated as in Fig.
16
Finished surfaces indicated as in Fig. 3
Finished surfaces indicated as
Finished surfaces indicated as in Fig. 5
Bound
Bound
the surfaces with red lines
the surfaces with dotted lines
in Fig.
Name the finish by note in full

Do not specify machinery method
(See drawing.)
68
6
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
296
Q.
Do you
18.
in
use horizontal or sloping lines for convention
screw threads ?
Sloping lines, see Fig. 6
94
Horizontal
12
/=/G.
lines, see Fig. 7
/F
/=/A/.
X.
Finish only third line from top
"
HZ
L-f
ri
^-^
Fig.
^y
Fig.
6.
Horizontal
^
Fig. 8.
7.
lines, see Fig.
Fig.
9.
Fig. 10.
...
13
Both
Neither, but as
shown
in Fig. 9
Neither, but as
shown
in Fig. 10
PRESENT PRACTICE IN DRAFTING ROOM CONVENTIONS

Q.
When
19.
a large surface
in
is
section
2 97
do you hatch-line
around the edges only?

Hatch-line edges only
62
Sometimes
3
Hatch
Do
section all over
not use hatch lines;
54
shade the whole surface with
4H
pencil
Usually show a broken surface line
&GJ2.
F/G.J/.
Q.
20.
Do
you section keyways
in
hubs or show by
invisible
lines ?
Section keyways as
shown
in Fig. 11
Show key way by invisible lines,

Keyways in hubs left blank
Q. 21.
*,
4o
T
In dimensioning do you prefer to place the dimension
upon the piece or outside

Outside whenever possible
Upon
see Fig. 12
the piece.
of
it
o2
13
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
298
Both, according to size and shape of part
No
rule
Commenting on placing dimensions

"It entails
make
Q.
19
1
outside
confusion to workman."
less
one says,
of piece
Another says:
"So
as to
detail stand out."
Do you
22.
use feet and inches over 24 inches?
Yes
69
Use
feet
and inches over 36"
Use
feet
and inches over 24" on foundations and
Use
feet
and inches over 48"
All inches
4
outlines
......
For pulleys use inches up
21
to
48"
Inches up to 10 feet
Start feet at 24" thus
20"
Usually, but not always
Yes, except pitch diameters of gears, which are
all
given in
inches
Yes, except in boiler and sheet iron work
Use
Q.
feet
and inches over 12"
Inches up to 100"
Inches up to 60"
How
23.
or thus
do you indicate
2"'
and 2-4"
Do
Thus
and inches?
ft.
4",
24"?
2-4" 97,
Q. 24.
feet
4" 5,2
1,
*T.
2FT. 4 in.
4" 2,
1, 2'
2ft.
4" 13.
2-4"
4"
8,
Both
2ft.
4"
1.
you dimension the same part on more than one view ?
One view
More than one view
94
as check
46

Q.
When
25.
several parts of a
dimensioning of one part
299
drawing are identical would the
would you repeat
suffice for all, or
the dimension on each part?
One part only

Would repeat or
" Left to
"
When
Q.
judgment
it is
of one part
or dia.
rad
dia
Do
Q.
. .
'Would never
suffice,
write
leave
room
rad.
for radius or
for doubt.'"
D. for diameter
35
Rad
41
Dia
diam
....
.47
48
R ....
rad.
32
D. ... 15
Diam.
...
. .
dia ...
diam
Do you always
When you do how are
Only give number
give
All others always indicate
number
they indicated
of threads
few of the different
of
threads
per inch?
when not standard
number
not use R. or rad., dimension only
28.
ways.
39
draftsman "
of
evident that several parts are identical the dimensioning
would
Do you
26.
82
by note
indicate
67
of threads in a great variety of
styles of noting the threads are given
below
}"
10 Thr.
5THDS. per 1".
8thds.
4 threads per inch.
Screw 10-24, i\" XII, 16 P. RH. Vth.

U.
S.
S.
thds.
\"
Q.
29.
U.
S. S.
Mach.
XVIII, i"-8-
i" TAP, 8 pitch, 3 th'd r. h. sq. double, 5"-i8
r. h.
own
st'd io thds. per inch.
For pipe tap thus
p.t., etc., etc.
How
material
Number
it
do you
"Mark"
a piece to indicate on the
bill
on drawing and put a
circle
around
it
34
of
300
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
By name or letter
By pattern number
By symbol and number
Castings,
35
2
;
a working
drawing
is
dimensioned why
fully
should the scale be placed on the drawing
For convenience
Check against
14
III, Forgings, 1, 2, 3.
I, II,
When
Q. 30.
'
of drafting
room
25
errors
11
Not necessary
18
Scale not placed on shop drawings
18
and planimeter work
For convenience
in calculations
To
of over-all dimensions
an idea
give
We
"
given.
when
these are not
never saw a drawing so fully dimensioned
as to warrant leaving off the scale "

" If a
it is
drawing
to scale the scale
is
should be on the drawing, whether
needed or not."
" It gives every

of the piece,
and
one interested a better conception of the proportions
there are frequently portions" of a design which
shop
not require a dimension for the

interesting to
"To
to
work
to,
and which
it
do
is
scale from an engineering point of view."
get approximate dimensions not given
"Impractical
to
dimension
all
on drawing."
measurements
for
all
classes
of
work."
"Scale
will
tell
at
glance,
dimensions
would
have
to
be
scaled."
"To
obtain an idea of relative size of parts without scaling the
drawings."
"To
sketch
on
clearance."
"To
proportion
changes."
"When
erecting to measure over-all sizes."

" In case a
"This
is
insist on. it."
dimension has been
a question of opinion;
"We
the scale will help out."
left off,
some
will
always give the scale."
not have the scale, others

"It
11
an immense help and time saver
is
Generally no reason.
by 'fudge'
and
tracing,
surely be to
same
know
know
scale so all parts will
additions, clearances, etc.,
it
is
con-
the scale instantly."
We
room.
in drafting
on with a reference
"To
we combine standard apparatus
convenient to
alterations,
"For convenience
scale
drawing room."
fn the
scale."
"In discussing
venient to
In our work
it is
301
often put an arbitrary
letter indicating scale to
draftsman."
give toolmaker an idea of the size of the finished piece."
"As an
aid to the eye in reading."
Above are some
of the reasons given for placing the scale
Below are given a few
drawing.
of the reasons
on the
why some do
not
place the scale on the drawing.

" Scale should never be used in shop," says one.
"Not
necessary.
"
advisable, on account of
Not
working
of
to scale instead of to the figures.''
"Know
of
"Believe
"
is made out of scale."

workmen getting into the habit
Sometimes drawing
it
no good reason at
Drawing should never be
Should not.
"Know
of
all."
best to leave scale off."
no good reason why
it
scaled."
should be."
" Should not be given on drawing."
"Do
Q. 31.
not object
Do you
if left off,
use the glazed or dull side of tracing cloth?
Dull side... 66
"Dull
side,
not needed."
because
Glazed side. 32
it lies flat
better in drawers."
" Dull side, so that changes which
under construction, can be made
Both
may
be necessary while work
easily in pencil
"Dull side so tracings may be checked
and
is
later in ink."
in pencil."
"It prevents curling."

" Both, although the glazed side,
drawer."
when
traced on
lies
better in the
MECHANICAL DRAWING.
302
"We
use cloth glazed on both sides, work on convex side, so that
shrinkage of ink will eliminate camber."

" Dull, except for U. S.
to
Q.
Government, who requires the glazed side
be used."
How
32.
Pattern
do you place pattern numbers on castings?
number with symbol
the piece,
e.g.,
or letter
is
placed on or near
PATT.-D-478-C
36
This question was not happily stated : most answers gave " raised
letters cast
on," while the question like
all
the others refers to the
marking of the drawing.
Q.
33.
How
do you note changes on a drawing?
On tracing with date

New tracing and new number
Put a
circle
it
17
around old figure and write new
figure beside
with date
Make new
Red
32
tracing
OB
ink with date
Use rubber stamp " Revised" with
date,
and
indicate changes
on record print
28
Use change card system
Change made
Special forms for purpose.
New
date.
with draftsman's
Q.
Do you
34.
made
prints
initials
place
No
right
hand
to
In place at
and date
title
..
from bottom, or how ?
103
fixed rule
From
book with
dimensions to read from bottom and
right hand, or all to read
Bottom and
to replace.
in a
From bottom
only
2
2
and bottom
to top

Q. 35.
Do
you always make a table
material
the
bill
of
Yes
49
No
Usually
Bills
contain
to
303
Not always.
25
1
on general drawings only.
Use separate
On
details
bill
number
32
is
marked on
piece.
"No, but
system."
it
is
advisable
to
do so."
"Have abandoned
that
INDEX.
A
PAGE
M. Standard Screw Threads

To Bisect an
To Construct an
A. L. A.
Angle,
Angle,
246
19
15
Anti-friction Curve, "Schiele's "
Arched Window-Opening,
To Draw
50
an
53
Architectural Design
Architectural
175
Drawing
162
Architectural Specifications
176
Arkansas Oil-stones
E
Ball
Crank Handles
Baluster,
To Draw
263
53
Material
Bills of
292, 303
Board, Drawing
Border Lines
Bow
293
Instruments
Brass, Sheet of
Breaks, Conventional
61
Brickwork
166
Brilliant Points
Buttress
ic6
Thread
235
C
Celluloid, Sheet of
Thin
Cement Work
185
Center Lines
60,
Chains
262
To Draw the
To Draw a Line Tangent
To Find the Center of an
Cinquefoil Ornament,
Circle,
Arc of
a,
Circle,
Arc of
a,
Circle,
To Construct the
To Draw an Arc
To Draw an Arc
To Draw an Arc
Circle,
Circle,
Circle,
291
33
to
an
33
32
Involute of a
of a,
of a,
of a,
Tangent
Tangent
Tangent
4;
to a Straight Line
to
to
Two
Two
and a Circle
37
Circles
36
Straight Lines
34
305
INDEX.
306
PAGE
To Draw a Right Line equal to Half the Circumference

Circle, To Draw a Tangent between Two
Circle, To Draw Tangents to Two
Circle, To Find the Length of an x\rc of a, Approximately
Circle, To Inscribe a, within a Triangle
Cissoid, To Draw the
Circle,
of a
31
33
34
47
35
49
184
Cistern
Closets
V.
Compass
193
2
Complete Information on Pencil Drawing

Connecting Rods
Conventional Breaks
290
272
61
Conventional Lines
60
Conventional Screw-threads
62
Conventions
56
Conventions, Shading
104
Cornice
190, 213
Cotter and Gib
25 7
Cotters
'
254
268
Coupling, Friction
Coupling, Stuart's
Clamp
270
Crane Hooks
264
Cross-sections
Curves, Irregular
Cycloid,
To
62
"
Describe the
46
D
Dark Surfaces
Development
Development
Development
Development
Development
Development
of a
104
Locomotive Gusset Sheet
of the Surface of a
97
Cone
of the Surface of a Cylindrical
93
Dome
96
of the Surface of a Right Cylinder
of the Surfaces of a
92
Hexagonal Prism
90
Problems
155
Dihedral Angles
75
Dimensioning Drawings
Dimension Lines
Direction, The, of the Rays
297, 302
291
of Light
105
Directions to Students
137
Dividers, Hair-Spring
Doors
Drafting-Room Conventions
Drawing-board
Drawing-pen
Drawing to Scale
Drawings, S izes of Sheets
195
289
1
12,
54
294
INDEX.
307
PAGE
E
Ellipse,
Wiring
Given an,
Ellipse,
To
Electric
Epicycloid,
Epicycloid,
208
to
Find the Axes and Foci
43
Describe an
38
To
To
Describe an Interior
50
Describe the
48
Equilateral Triangle,
To
Construct an
24
Examples of Working Drawings
120
F
Figuring and Lettering
66
Finished Parts of Working Drawings
122
Finish Indications
295
Flanges, Cast Iron
291
Floors
192
Framing Joints
164
G
Geometrical Drawing
16
Geometrical Drawing Problems
149
Glass-paper Pencil Sharpener
Gothic Letters
Grade
69
of Pencils
294
H
Handles, Ball Crank
263
Hatch Lines
293
Heating
Heptagon,
210
To
Construct a
28
Hooks, Crane
Hyperbola,
To Draw an
To Describe
Hypocycloid,
264
42
the
48
Ink Eraser
Inking the Pencil Drawing
Ink,
Red
Inks
Instruments
Problems
Intersection, The, of a Cylinder with a Cone
Intersection, The, of a Plane with an Irregular Surface of Revolution
Intersection, The, of Two Cylinders
Intersection
290
295
4
2
156
93
102
96
INDEX.
308
PAGE
Involute, of a Circle,
Isometrical
Isometrical
To
Construct the
45
Cube
Drawing
113
112
Isometrical Drawing, Direction of the
Rays
of Light in
114
Examples of
Isometrical Drawing of a Hollow Cube
Isometrical Drawing of a Two-armed Cross
115
Isometrical Problems
158
Isometrical Drawing,
Isometrical Scale,
The
117
116
114
K
Keys
249
Keys, Fixed
25 2
Keys, Flat
250
Keys,
Round
25
Keys, Saddle
249
Keys, Sliding Leather
253
Keys, Sunk
250
Keys,-
Woodruff
25 3
Key ways in Hubs

Knuckle Thread
297
235
L
Lathing.
Leads
for
185
Compass
13
Lettering
137- 147, 168, 214
Lettering and Figuring
64
Lettering, Style of
292
Line of Motion
60
Line of Section
60
Line of Shade
Line,
Line,
Lines
To Divide a
To Draw a, Parallel
106
21
to
Another
19
291
M
Machine Details
Masonry Work
Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design
Model of the Co-ordinate Planes
Moulding, The " Apophygee "
Moulding, The " Cavetto " or " Hollow "
Cyma Recta "

Moulding, The " Echinus," " Quatrefoil," or " Ovolo"
Moulding, The "
228
182
122
8r
52
5 r
51
52
IXDEX.
309
PAGE
Moulding, The " Cyma Reversa "

Moulding, The " Scotia "
52
Moulding, The " Torus "
52
51
N
Needles
8o
Notation
Notes on Drawings
302
Nut
Nut Wrench
240
259
O
To
Octagon,
Construct an
28
Orders of Architecture
171
Oval,
To
74
Construct an
43
P
Painting
202
Paper
To
Parabola,
Pattern
Construct a
Numbers
302
Pencil
Pencil
41
Drawings
293
Pencil Eraser
Pencil,
To Sharpen
the
Pen, Drawing
To Sharpen the Drawing

Pentagon, To Construct a
Perpendicular. To Erect a
Pen,
Pipe Threads
The
Plastering
Polygon,
28
17
236
Planes of Projection,
Plumbing
10
75
187
.
203
To
Construct a
26
Porches
190
Advanced Mechanical Drawing

Geometrical Drawing
Problems
in
Problems
in
Problems
in Intersections
Problems
in Isometrical
Problems
in
149
i>6
Drawing
158
Mechanical Drawing
134
Projection of the Helix as Applied to Screw-threads

Projection,
277
The
of Plane Surfaces
Projection, The, of Solids
99
84
90
INDEX.
3IO
PAGE
Projection, The, of Straight Lines
Cone
To Find a Mean,
82
Projection, The, of the
Proportional,
To
To
Proportional,
Proportional,
Find a Third,
93
Two Given Lines

to Two Given Lines
to
31
31
Find a Fourth, to Three Given Lines
32
6
Protractor
Q
To Draw
Quatrefoil,
the
...
53
R
Rays
of Light
104
Rays, Visual
104
Red Ink
295
Rhomboid, To Construct the

Right Angle,
Roman
To
21
Trisect a
24
Letters
67
Roof
190
S
Scale
Scale,
Guard
Drawing
6
to
12,
Scale on Drawings-.
Scale,
To
Construct a
Schiele's Curve,
54
300
55
To Draw
50
Screw-threads, Conventional
Screw-threads, Regular
296
100
Screws
228
62, 239,
Section Lines
56
Section Lines, Standard
58
Shade Lines
Shade Lines and Shading
Shade, To, a Concave Cylindrical Surface
Shade, To, the Elevation of a Sphere
Shade, To, a Right Cone
no
Shade, To, a Right Cylinder
109
Shadows
in
To
Sharpen Pencil, To
297
103
108
no
Sharpen Pen,
10
Sheet Brass
Sheet Celluloid
Sheet-metal Pattern Drafting

Shingles
" Sibley College " Set of Instruments
" Sibley College " Set of Irregular Curves
216
190
2
INDEX.
3 II
PAGE
Sketches, Freehand
287
Source of Light
104
Spiral,
Split
To
Describe the
44
248
Pins
Sponge Rubber
260
Springs
Square Thread
Square,
To
235
Construct a
25
Standard Screw Threads
23
Stippling
100
T
Table, Decimal Equivalents
275
Table, Heat Colors
275
Table of A. L. A. M. Screw Threads

Table of Chains
246
Table of Circumferences and Areas of Circles

Table of Crane Hooks
276
Table of Flanges, Cast Iron
262
262
266
Table of Hand Wheels
267
Table of Shaft Collars

Table of Standard Screw Threads
267
Table of Taper Pins
249
244
Table of Washers
263
Table of Wire and Sheet-metal Gauges
274
Tacks
Taper Pins
248
Third Dihedral Angle
75
Tinting Brush
Tinting Saucer
Title,
Title,
Standard
The, of a Working Drawing
148
122
Titles
292
Tracing Cloth
Trefoil,
To
6,
Describe the
301
53
Triangles
Triangle,
To
Construct a
25
Triangular Scale
Triangulation
221
T-square
Type Specimens
70
U
United States Standard Screw Threads
Use of Compasses
Use of Dividers or Spacers.
232
1
13
INDEX.
312
PAGE
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
Use
Drawing- tward. ........_....

of Drawing-pen
of
of Instruments
of Irregular Curves
14
of Pencil
of Protractor
14
of Scale
12
of Spring
Blows
14
of Triangles
of T-square
V
Visual
Rays
104
Volute,
To
45
Describe the " Ionic "
W
Washers
263
Water-colors
Water Glass
Whitworth V Thread
Wire Gauges
Woodruff Keys
Working Drawings
Working Drawings, Examples of
Working Drawings, Method of Making
Working Drawing, What is a
Wrench
,
Writing-pen
676
233
274
254
118, 159
119
119
119
259
6
**
\V
'
,/
'-
*Hr
/%
*-
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS
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Dibujo Mecánico - Elemental y Avanzado (English)

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s

Drawing and Designing,

FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

Copyright, 1898, 1908, 1910,

THE SCIENTIFIC PRESS

PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.

was enlarged and improved by

Mechanical Drawing "

Lettering " and

the fourth edition, the

and improved by adding courses

work has been

Advanced Mechanical Draw-

ing consisting of short elementary courses in

and Working Drawings made from freehand

sketches of small machine parts.

preclude the necessity of using several

text-books in high schools, manual-training high schools, university

preparatory schools, technical colleges, and evening classes

of courses are given to

meet the needs of students

preparing for different trades and professions.

With the addition

has been thought desirable

Mechanical Drawing "

Elementary and Advanced."

gratifying to the writer to learn that the improve-

in the third edition

and students and

were well received by both teachers

hoped that the additions

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.

problems covering the

requirements in mechanical drawing for entrance to the more

machine drawing, elementary machine de-

and architectural drawing.

plate, as introduced in this edition,

has been found necessary

Mechanical Drawing" a concrete

university preparatory schools,

for the finishing of

their students in a given term.

mined by taking note

working on the same

and a conservative average taken, so that any

any of the plates

and with an honest endeavor may

in the time given.

be found to be of great practical benefit to students

in all kinds of engineering drafting,

the most approved practice in drafting

on the "Present Practice

system in their drawing courses that

and enable them

will interest Instructors

best practice in the leading

end of the book,

and most progressive drafting rooms

of the author are

who have used

due and are most cordially

words and timely

In the course of a large experience as an instructor