Designing an Online Course for Engagement and Retention

Aaron M. Isom

Utah Valley University

Dr. Suzy Cox, Dr. Mary Sowder

February, 2017
 Literature Review

Retention in online courses has been a major concern for many universities. This section

addresses how course development that focuses on engaging instruction may increase online

retention and result in future increased online enrollments. This chapter will cover the literature

that explores the history of online enrollments and retention, online course development models,

learning theories, and online engagement best practices for instructional design.

Online Courses

Postsecondary institutions across the United States have reported annual growth in online

enrollment since 2002. Babson Survey Research Group has been conducting surveys on online

enrollments and the Online Learning Consortium has been publishing the surveys as public

online reports. The first published survey was conducted in 2002 and reported that 1.6 million

students were taking at least one online course (Allen, Seaman, Survey, & Seaman, 2014). A

decade later, another published survey reported there were 7.1 million students taking at least

one online class during the fall of 2012 (Allen et al, 2014). In the decade from 2002 to 2012,

online enrollment grew by 33.5%, or a growth rate of 6.1% annually (Allen et al., 2014), and

could continue to rise in the coming years. With online enrollment growing steadily, the issue of

retention and completion is an ever-growing concern among institutions (Allen et al, 2014).

For an online class, attrition is defined as withdrawal from, dropping out of, or failing to

complete a course (Hart, 2012). Diaz (2002) reported that there are many reasons why students

decide to drop an online course, including demographics, quality of instruction, apathy, student

factors, situational factors, and educational system factors. Depending on the situation, these

factors can both positively and negatively affect persistence. For example, Hart (2012) explained

that, the presence of family support can increase persistence whereas the lack of family support
can decrease student persistence (p. 30). While instructional designers do not have control over

such factors as a students family situation, they can consider course design elements that may

impact retention.

Hart (2012) lists some factors of persistence that help students complete an online course.

Some of these facilitators are flexibility of a course to balance work and family constraints, a

course in an asynchronous format to allow self-control of schedules between work and family,

and time management assistance to allow students to better complete work in a timely manner.

Hart (2012) also lists more factors of persistence that are relative to engagement in a

course. Those facilitators that Hart outlined are quality of interactions and feedback between the

student and instructor, satisfaction and relevance of the course for the student needs and interest,

and a course that allows personal growth at a self-paced rate to allow self-motivation and

efficacy. In addition, social connectedness or presence in the online course with peers and the

instructor is very important (Hart, 2012, pp. 3233).

Hart (2012) also listed barriers that make it difficult for students to persist in online

courses. Some of those barriers are lack of basic computer skills, lack of computer accessibility

or internet, accessing resources, lack of course engagement, feelings of isolation, work or family

issues, and poor communication from the instructor (pp. 3738).

Another study conducted by Park and Choi (2009) sought to determine the factors that

influence an online students decision to drop out of or persist in the online course. Park and

Choi (2009) stated:

The number of adult learners who participate in online learning has rapidly grown in the

last two decades due to online learnings many advantages. In spite of the growth, the
 high dropout rate in online learning has been of concern to many higher education

institutions and organizations. (p. 207)

Park and Choi sought to help stakeholders identify factors that may have caused students to

dropout or persist in their study to increase retention rates.

Park and Choi (2009) found in their study that adult learners are more likely to drop out

of online courses when they do not receive support from their family and/or organization while

taking online courses, regardless of learners academic preparation and aspiration (p. 215).

While administrators and instructors should consider external factors, like family and careers, it

would be difficult to control those external factors. Park and Choi argue, however, that course

developers can provide support built into the course. Important factors such as course design

strategies and learners motivation should be prioritized at the course development stage in order

to make the course participatory and interesting and to keep learners engaged (Park & Choi,

2009, p. 215).

In addition to support, course developers should design courses that attempt to meet the

learners needs, as Park and Choi argued (2009). Learners in an online environment can easily

lose motivation unless the course is designed to stimulate their active participation and

interaction and meet their expectations. Therefore, an online course needs to be designed in ways

to guarantee learners satisfaction and be relevant to learners needs (Park & Choi, 2009, p.

215). Park and Choi (2009) concluded in their study that instructional designers should

systematically analyze external factors surrounding learners and use the analysis results to

initiate learning and motivate learners so that the high dropout rate can be decreased (p. 215).

Following a sound instructional design model can assist designers in integrating motivating

factors into the course design.

Instructional Design Models

Using a systematic design process is the first step in creating quality online courses that

are engaging for students. According to Shank and Sitze (2004), instructional designers use a

wide variety of course-level design principles when designing online courses; however, most of

those principles have three things in common: iterative stages of design, development, and

evaluation. Among those models, the simplest systematic process to understand is the ADDIE

model, which is used at the course development level.

ADDIE. Instructional designers use the ADDIE development model to guide the

development of online courses. In an article titled Bringing ADDIE to Life: Instructional

Design at Its Best, Christine Peterson (2003) wrote, Employing the ADDIE model in

development of a program or course can assist developers in instituting a learner-centered

approach rather than a teacher-centered approach, making the program more applicable and

meaningful for learners (p. 227).

Course developers use the five phases of the ADDIE model as a framework during course

development. The five stages of the model are analysis, design, development, implementation,

and evaluation. The ADDIE model is the most widely used course-level framework model

because it provides a basic, systematic approach that is easy to use, but instructional designers

use a wide array of variations of this model (Peterson, 2003). Peterson emphasizes the

importance of thorough planning during the first two stages to decrease the necessity of planning

and research during the last three stages.

Analysis. In instruction design, the first stage is analyzing the course learning objectives.

Then, the instructional designer will develop a task analysis to identify the instructional content
of the specific skills related to the job or course (Peterson, 2003, p. 229). Gagn (2005) listed

four important steps in the analysis process stage.

Step 1. First, determine the needs for which instruction is the solution. 2. Conduct an

instructional analysis to determine the target cognitive, affective, and motor skill goals

for the course. 3. Determine what skills the entering students are expected to have, and

which will impact learning in the course. 4. Analyze the time available and how much

might be accomplished in that period of time. (p. 22)

Essentially, this stage determines what the student should already know before taking the

course and what they should know by the end of the course. The analysis is conducted in

consultation with stakeholders for the coursetypically the supervisors or administrators who

have requested the course, potential students, and others who have a vested interest in the

instruction (Jonassen, Tessmer, & Hannum, 1999).

Design. In the design stage, the work focuses on researching and planning objectives,

instructional strategies, media, and methods to achieve successful delivery and learning

outcomes (Peterson, 2003). The instructional designer also determines how the student will be

assessed on the course objectives, and researches which forms of assessments will be meaningful

and align with course goals and objectives (Peterson, 2003). A key player in this stage is a

subject matter expert (SME). The instructional designer will ordinarily work with a subject-

matter expert to determine the skills be to taught and a strategy for teaching them (Gagn, 2005,

p. 26).

Development. In this stage, instructional designers use the data gathered in the previous

two stages to create an actual product. Peterson (2003) refers to three specific areas that course

designers focus on during this stage as the designer transitions from the research and planning to
the production stage: drafting content, producing media, and evaluating the product for

improvements. It is importation to know that evaluation during this stage is formative to

determine if the students or audience will learn from the product and how it can be improved

before implementation (Peterson, 2003, p. 231).

Implementation. The implementation stage is the real-world application of the developed

product. Students and instructors will use the product and may provide feedback for developers,

who can then make necessary modifications to the course to ensure the product is effective.

Course designers must realize that a product is never entirely finished because there is always a

continuation of analyzing, redesigning, and enhancing the product (Peterson, 2003). It is also

important that course designers understand that it can be counterproductive to the

implementation of the program if the product or course is left in its normal state (Peterson,

2003, p. 231).

Evaluation. Evaluation is the last stage of the ADDIE model. While evaluation can and

should occur formatively throughout the previous stages, it is necessary to perform a formal

evaluation during or after the implementation stage. The evaluation can be completed by

stakeholders, developers, instructors, or students to determine if the course objectives were met.

During this stage the designer must determine if the problem has been solved (relevant to

training programs), if the objectives have been met, the impact of the product or course, and the

changes that are necessary in the future delivery of the program or course (Peterson, 2003, pp.

231232). Peterson (2003) argues that this stage should be an integral part in the continuation of

analysis and effective implementation of future courses and programs (p. 232).

Backward design. Another approach to instructional design is the backward design

model proposed by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe. Assessment creation typically comes after
lesson planning, but Wiggins and McTighe researched and advocate reversing the process by

focusing on course objectives and creating assessments first, then planning the lessons (Wiggins

& McTighe, 2001). They wrote, Rather than creating assessments near the conclusion of a unit

of study, backward design calls for us to operationalize our goals or standards in terms of

assessment evidence as we begin to plan a unit or course (Wiggins & McTighe, 2001, p. 8). The

curriculum sequence for backward design has three stages: (1) Identify desired results, (2)

Determine acceptable evidence, and (3) Plan experiences and instruction (Wiggins & McTighe,

2001). In their research, Wiggins and McTighe (2001) reported that teachers who used the

backward design method have described that the process of thinking like an assessor about

evidence of learning not only helps them to clarify their goals but also results in a more sharply

defined teaching and learning target, so that students perform better knowing their goal (pp. 8

9). This model integrates nicely with the ADDIE model for designing courses, as it promotes

careful consideration of objectives and assessments in the analysis and design phases.

Lesson Design Models

While instructional design models help an instructional designer meticulously plan and

develop a course, more specific models are needed to design individual lessons and activities

within the course. Gagns nine events of instruction is a widely used model for lesson design

that ensures that internal learning developments have been reinforced (Gagn & Driscoll, 1988).

Gagn and Driscoll describe the internal transformations of information as it moves through the

memory process. Internal events such as attention, pattern recognition, retrieval, rehearsal,

encoding, and retention are some of the processes that are accountable for the series of

information transformations (Driscoll, 2000).

 Gagns nine events of instruction theory. The nine events of instruction that Gagn

proposed enable information transformations during the learning process and support the

memory processes, although the nine events order is not frim (Gagn & Driscoll, 1988).

Event 1: Gaining attention. Instruction must gain learners attention by being oriented

and receptive to incoming information, and gaining attention is accomplished by some sort of

stimulus change (Driscoll, 2000, p. 364), such as verbal signals or turning the lights on and off.

Event 2: Informing learners of the objective. Informing learners of the objectives, goals,

or learning outcomes can motivate learners by preparing them for the new materials. This in turn

should alert the learners to and feel more receptive to any stimuli related to that goal (Driscoll,

2000, p. 365).

Event 3: Stimulating the recall of prior learning. Learning often builds upon prior

knowledge; however, recalling something that was learned previously to solve a new problem or

new situation can often be difficult. To prepare learners for encoding or transfer, instructors

should assist them in recalling relevant and prerequisite information (Driscoll, 2000, p. 365).

Event 4: Presenting the stimulus. According to this model, there are four potential

learning outcomes. For any learning outcome, the presented stimulus emphasizes unique features

or elements that are essential to the desired outcome (Driscoll, 2000). If the learning stimuli is

reading a textbook, watching a film or PowerPoint presentation, or listening to a lecture, then

information acquisition is the learning outcome (Driscoll, 2000). If intellectual skill learning is

the outcome, then the most effective stimulus is one that prominently displays distinctive

features of the concept or rule to be learned (Driscoll, 2000, p. 366). Motor skills, otherwise

known as cognitive strategy learning, consists of demonstrating the desired outcome or giving

verbal directions (Driscoll, 2000, p. 366). Attitude learning uses a demonstration of the desired
action or choice, generally by a model (Driscoll, 2000, p. 366). This concept of selecting stimuli

to promote a desired learning outcome is strongly connected to the use of both the ADDIE and

backward design models.

Event 5: Providing learning guidance. Depending on the learning outcome, an instructor

or designer should include learning activities that are meaningful and help guide the learner to

encode information into long-term memory. According to Driscoll (2000), semantic encoding is

the primary process of learning guidance that an instructor or designer should focus on. Gagn

and Driscoll (1988) explained that, in general, guidance may take the form of suggestions for

organization the content, associating it with other materials by elaboration, or indicating

mnemonic techniques (p. 122). This event should focus on discovery learning by allowing

learners to figure things out for themselves without being told just what to do (Driscoll, 2000,

p. 366).

Event 6: Eliciting performance. In event 6 the instructor or designer, under the

presumption that learners have now learned and encoded the lesson into long-term memory,

assesses the learners by having them become the demonstrators, and gauges what the students

have learned. The learners must now produce a performance, something that is an appropriate

indicator of what was learned (Driscoll, 2000, p. 367).

Event 7: Providing feedback. After the learners demonstration, an instructor should

provide feedback so learners can correct their errors or provide positive reinforcement and

performance improvement. For instructors, providing feedback should be aimed at showing

learners how to improve their current skill. Similarly, feedback for cognitive strategy learning

may inform learners as to how their performance might become more strategic or more creative

(Driscoll, 2000, p. 368).

 Event 8: Assessing performance. According to Driscoll (2000), learning is defined in

terms of a change in behavior or performance that persists over time. In other words, a new skill

must be performed dependably before most teachers will agree that is has been well learned (p.

368). When an instructor gives valuable feedback, students performance can be increased,

which benefits students because grades are typically assigned based on the assessment of the

performance event.

Event 9: Enhancing retention and transfer. Gagn and Driscoll (2000) thought of

retention as memory recall of encoded information of a skill or a lesson and the ability of

students to transfer this information to use in variety of contexts. To enhance retention and

transfer, an instructor or developer should use scenarios such as role playing, group discussions,

discovery learning, and other activities of this nature. Driscoll (2000) explained that the point of

these activities is to encourage students to reflect upon their own knowledge and belief systems

as they are exposed to those of other people (p. 369). Computer-based simulations, argues

Driscoll (2000), can be useful to help students use their attitudes to discover learning situations,

make decisions, and learn from the results, thus making more personal the information

associated with attitudes (p. 369).

Models of instruction. While Gagns nine events are a powerful and popular method

for organizing instruction, there are other approaches that help designers and instructors target

specific learning outcomes. Sometimes referred to as models of teaching, models of instruction

are specialized methods for facilitating learning (Kilbane & Milman, 2014, p. 18). They are

used to encourage certain learning outcomes through the use of established activities to achieve

the required standards of a discipline (Kilbane & Milman, 2014, p. 18). Kilbane and Milman

(2014) explain, In a lesson when an instructional model is used, learners progress though
defined steps that intentionally structure and support their achievement of specific cognitive,

psychomotor, and/or effective learning goals (p. 18). An instructional designer can select a

model to address specific academic content and specialized activities from the wide availability

of models (Kilbane & Milman, 2014. These models include specific approaches for vocabulary

acquisition, concept development, concept attainment, inquiry, integration, and more.

Learning Theories

In addition to models for designing courses and lessons, there are many theories about

how people learn, and each should be considered in designing quality online courses (Aragon,

2003). The four major theories for learning are behaviorism, cognitivism, social cognitivism, and

constructivism (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). Online learning can utilize aspects from all four of

these learning theories. Additionally, Knowles (1984) proposed that adult learning is unique and

the needs of adult learners must be addressed in the development of online courses.

Behaviorist theory. The first of the major learning theories is behaviorism. Essentially

behaviorist theory states that learning is changed behavior that occurs through conditioning

(Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 26). In other words, when behavior is reinforced or rewarded, it

is likely to continue; if it is not reinforced it is likely to disappear (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p.

26). Teaching complex behaviors requires three principles identified by behaviorists: shaping,

chaining, and fading (Driscoll, 2000). This literature review will focus on the principle of

shaping, because shaping focuses on positive reinforcement. Driscoll (2000) defines shaping as

reinforcement of successive approximations to a goal behavior (p. 46). Essentially Driscoll

(2000) describes shaping as a target behavior and each step toward the target behavior is

reinforced until the learner is able to fully perform that target behavior.
 According to Aragon (2003), online classes should be made up of behaviorism elements

such as positive reinforcement and repetition. Anderson (2008) describes instructional

implications for using behaviorism in an online class as follows: Learners should be told the

explicit outcomes of the learning so they can set expectations and judge for themselves whether

or not they have achieved the outcome of the online lesson (p. 20).

Assessments must be issued so learners can determine whether the learning outcome has

been achieved and so the instructor can check [the] individual learners achievement level and

provide appropriate feedback (Anderson, 2008, p. 21). Course materials must be sequenced in a

manner to promote learning. For example, the sequencing could take the form of simple to

complex, known to unknown, and knowledge to application (Anderson, 2008, p. 21). Finally,

feedback must be provided to learners so that they can monitor how they are doing and take

corrective action if required (Anderson, 2008, p. 21).

Cognitivist theory. Cognitivist theory is centered on the learners processing of

information and the ability to recall it later. Information is sensed from the environment and

processed into short-term and long-term memory for later recall. This theory explains a lot

about how we use the brain and our senses to process information (Merriam & Bierema, 2014,

p. 31).

Information processing. Anderson (2008) states that cognitive learning is an internal

process that involves memory, thinking, reflection, abstraction, motivation, and metacognition.

Cognitive psychology looks at learning from an information processing point of view, where the

learner uses different types of memory during learning (p. 21) Driscoll (2000) outlined three

basic stages of the memory process: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory. Driscoll (2000) claims that each stage of the process is assumed to be responsible for

transferring information from one stage to the next (p. 76).

Sensory memory is essentially the senses, and it functions to hold information in

memory very briefly, just long enough for the information to be processed further (Driscoll,

2000, p. 76). Learners use their sensory systems to register the information in the form of

sensations (Anderson, 2008, p. 23). Within the online course, it is vital that important

information is placed in the center of the screen for reading from left to right, and important

information should be highlighted to attract the learners attention (Anderson, 2008).

Furthermore, for learners to utilize sensory systems in an online course, learners should

be informed why the lesson is important to focus their attention on information throughout the

lesson. Finally, for learners to register information in the form of sensations, Anderson (2008)

suggests, The difficulty level of the material must match the cognitive level of the learner, so

that the learner can both attend to and relate to the material (p. 23).

Short-term memory is working memory in a temporary area and, according to Driscoll

(2000), further processing is carried out to make information ready for long-term storage or

response (p. 77). Long-term memory is permanent storage for information after it is transferred

from the short-term memory, and Driscoll (2000) argues that long-term memory is capable of

retaining an unlimited amount and variety of information (p. 77). The process of moving

information into long-term memory is called encoding and for encoding to occur, according to

Anderson (2008), the presented information should be in different modes to enable processing

and transmitting to long-term memory. Anderson (2008) also explains techniques for using

cognitivism in an online class by allowing learners to sense and perceive the information, and

must include strategies to facilitate high-level processing for transfer of information to long-term
memory. After learners acquire the information, they create personal knowledge to make the

materials meaningful (p. 29). Other strategies for an online class should allow students to apply

the material in different and real-life situations (Anderson, 2008, p. 29), which will also

motivate students.

When designing online instruction, instructional designers should be very aware of

factors that influence students cognition and deliver instruction in a way that is engaging for the

senses, meaningful, organized, and promotes higher-order thinking. They can leverage strategies

such as chunking, advance organizers, dual coding, and levels of processing to encourage

learning and retention.

Chunking. In an attempt to avert cognitive overload in online learners, learning materials

should be in chunks of five to nine items on a screen (Anderson, 2008). Because of the limited

amount that can be stored in short-term memory, chunking assists learners to store information in

short-term memory (working memory) (Gagn, 1988). Because working memory has

restrictions, short sentences are used in printed instruction, and the main points of short

sentences can be readily stored (Gagn, 1988, p. 88). For long sentences, learners must store

the beginning ideas before taking in those on (Gagn, 1988, p. 88). In addition, according to

Gagn (1988), added rehearsal must be done, and often re-reading of the initial parts of the

sentence becomes necessary (p. 88).

Advance organizers. Gagn (1988) explains that advance organizers consist of two parts

to its definition, which are verbal material which isa reminder of something the learner

already knows, andan organization of information to be learned (p. 89). The retrieval of

information from long-term memory should use strategies that allow learners to promote

understanding of new information. David Ausubel (1960) showed that learning and retention of
unfamiliar but meaningful verbal material could be facilitated by the advance introduction of

relevant subsuming concepts (organizers) (p. 271). Advance organizers could be available at the

beginning of a task to help the learner to relate previous material to the new material; or in other

words, organizers help to bridge the gap between what is already known and what is to be

learned (Ausubel, 1960, p. 271). Therefore, Ausubel (1960) suggested that, advance organizers

in the teaching of meaningful verbal material could lead to more effective retention (p. 271).

Anderson (2008) recommends the use of advance organizers to activate existing

cognitive structure or to provide the information to incorporate the details of the lesson (p. 24).

While conceptual models provided to learners assist them to retrieve existing mental models or

to store the structure they will need to use to learn the details of the lesson (Anderson, 2008, p.

24). The use of pre-instructional questions, according to Anderson (2008), sets expectations and

stimulates the learners existing knowledge and use pre-requisite test questions to activate the

prerequisite knowledge structure required for learning the new materials (p. 24).

If there are more than nine items in a lesson, the organization of the items should be

shown in the form of an information map, argues Anderson (2008). Information maps can show

the big picture and details of the lesson to help learners comprehend. During the development

stage of online classes, information maps can capitalize on the processing and visual

capabilities of the computer to present information maps to learners, or to ask learners to

generate information maps using map-making software (Anderson, 2008, p. 26).

Dual-coding. According to Paivio (1990), human cognition is unique in that it has

become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and

events (p. 53). Paivio (1990) discussed using textual, verbal, and visual information to support

information processing and coding into long-term memory so it can be recalled with
corresponding identifiable objects and activities, both verbal and nonverbal (p. 54). Paivio

(1990) refers to the process of functional activities that engage the two classes of representation,

including activation of either by appropriate stimuli (encoding), activation of one by the other

(recording), organization and elaboration of information with each, as well as transformation,

manipulation, and retrieval of information from either class (p. 54).

Textual, verbal, and visual information should be presented in different modes to

encourage encoding; thus, according to Anderson (2008), dual-coded information is processed

in different parts of the brain, resulting in more encoding. Presenting information in different

modes also accommodates individual differences in processing (p. 28). This type of coding in

an online class, according to Anderson (2008), results in more encoding and processing

information in the brain and facilitates individual differences in processing. The use of textual,

verbal, and visual information should be used to contextualize the learning and to facilitate deep

processing (Anderson, 2008, p. 28).

Blooms taxonomy and levels of processing theory. In the mid-20th century the

cognitive domain was identified by Blooms taxonomy (Forehand, 2005). Then in the late 20th

century and early 21st century modernists revised the original Blooms taxonomy to clarify

cognitive domains (Forehand, 2005). The most noticeable changes were to the terminology.

Basically, Blooms six major categories were changed from noun to verb forms. Additionally,

knowledgethe lowest level of the originalwas renamed and became remembering. Finally,

comprehension and synthesis were retitled to understanding and creating (Forehand, 2005).

The steps start with the lowest and end with the highest cognitive domain: remembering,

understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating. The terms are defined as follows,

again starting with the lowest (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001, pp. 6768):
 Remembering: Retrieving, recognizing, and recalling relevant knowledge from long-term

memory.

Understanding: Constructing meaning from oral, written, and graphic messages through

interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, inferring, comparing, and

explaining.

Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through executing, or implementing.

Analyzing: Breaking material into constituent parts, determining how the parts relate to

one another and to an overall structure or purpose through differentiating, organizing, and

attributing.

Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and standards through checking and

critiquing.

Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or functional whole; reorganizing.

Robert S. Lockhart and Fergus I. M. Craik (1972) divided memory processes into three

stages: sensory, working, and long-term. Lockhart and Craik (1972) referred to memory

processing as deep learning, and they argued that deep learning involves higher level or active

cognitive processing, as opposed to surface learning where students use lower level cognitive

functions such as simple memorization or rote learning (Czerkawski, 2014, p. 29). According

to the processing model, lower level cognitive functions are referred to as shallow processing,

and higher cognitive functions are referred to as deep processing (Lockhart and Craik, 1972).

Metacognition. Online course developers should design courses in a way that encourages

the use of metacognitive skills, according to Anderson (2008). Anderson (2008) argues,

Metacognition is a learners ability to be aware of his or her cognitive capabilities and use these
capabilities to learn. When learning online, learners should be given the opportunity to reflect on

what they are learning, collaborate with other learners, and check their progress (p. 29).

Cognitive styles. Anderson (2008) argues that materials in an online learning course

should incorporate activities that allow learners to choose an activity of their choice based on

their personal preferred cognitive style. Anderson (2008) refers to four cognitive styles, or types

of learners: concrete-experience learners, reflective-observation learners, abstract-

conceptualization learners, and active-experimentation learners. Furthermore, Anderson (2008)

discusses strategies to help each type of learner acquire new material and transfer the new

material into long-term memory. Such strategies in an online environment are applying,

analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating high-level learning. These strategies for engaging

different cognitive skills are closely aligned to the levels of Blooms taxonomy.

Social cognitive theory. To a certain degree social cognitive theory is related to

cognitive theory and behaviorism, and cognitive theory and behaviorism can be combined to

simulate social cognitive theory. However, the complexity of social cognitive theory is important

to adult learning because it focuses on a persons typical mode of thinking, remembering, or

problem solving. (Anderson, 2008, p. 27). When one person obverses another person, the

observer is learning to model behavior from the person they are observing. Albert Bandura

(1977) argues, however, that people do not enact everything they learn (p. 28). According to

Bandura (1977), they are more likely to adopt modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they

value than if it has unrewarding or punishing effects (p. 28).

Skills are not refined by modeling alone; modeling must also include self-corrective

adjustments learned by performance feedback (Bandura, 1977) This type of learning can be

referred to as corrective learning (Bandura, 1977, p. 78) and results in a change in behavior.
Change in a behavior by modeling someone for a specific outcome needs to come from self-

efficacy (Bandura, 1977). According to Bandura (1977), self-efficacy refers to how much effort

people will expend, and how long they will persist in the face of obstacles and aversive

experiences (p. 80). To change behavior one must intentionally do so, which Bandura (2001)

refers to as human agency. A course of action in the future is characterized from an intention and

is not simply an expectation or prediction of future actions but a proactive commitment to

bringing them about (Bandura, 2001, p. 6).

Anderson (2008) acknowledges that students in online courses need to be motivated: It

does not matter how effective the online materials are, if learners are not motivated, they will not

learn. The issue is whether to use intrinsic motivation (driven from within the learner) or

extrinsic motivation (instructor- and performance-driven) (p. 28). Anderson (2008) outlines four

strategies to encourage motivation in an online class:

Attention: Capture the learners attention at the start of the lesson and maintain it

throughout the lesson.

Relevance: Inform learners of the importance of the lesson and how taking the lesson

could benefit them. Strategies could include describing how learners will benefit from

taking the lesson, and how they can use what they learn in real-life situations.

Confidence: Use strategies such as designing for success and informing learners of the

lesson expectations. Design for success by sequencing from simple to complex, or from

known to unknown, and use a competency-based approach where learners are given the

opportunity to use different strategies to complete the lesson.

Satisfaction: Provide feedback on learners performance and allow them to apply what

they learn in real-life situations. (p. 28)

 Aragon (2003) argues that during development of an online class, a designer can present

new information in motivating ways, limiting the amount of information presented, and

connecting new information to prior knowledge (p. 33). Additionally, to promote learning from

a social cognitivist perspective, designers should incorporate modeling of desired behaviors

through video and other demonstrations (Doyle, 2011).

Constructivism theory. The theory of constructivism explains that learning is how

people make sense of their experiencelearning is the construction of meaning from

experience (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 36). Ultimately, an individual has an experience and

learns or constructs knowledge from that experience (learning by doing). Thus, constructivism is

about learning, not a description of teaching (Fosnot, 2005, p. 33). Knowledge is acquired by

learners interacting with their surroundings. A few general constructivist principles that lists as

essential to learning are the following (Fosnot, 2005, p. 33):

Leaning is not the result of development; leaning is the development. It requires

invention and self-organization on the part of the learner. Thus, teachers need to allow

learners to raise their own questions, generate their own hypotheses and models as

possibilities, test them out for viability, and defend and discuss them in communities of

discourse and practice.

Disequilibrium facilitates learning. Errors need to be perceived because of learners

conception, and therefore not minimized or avoided. Challenging, open-ended

investigations in realistic, meaningful contexts need to be offered which allow learners to

explore and generate many possibilities, both affirming and contradictory.

Contradictions, in particular, need to be illuminated, explored, and discussed.

 Reflective abstraction is the driving force of learning. As meaning makers, humans seek

to organize and generalize across experiences in representational form. Allowing

reflection time through journal writing, representation in multisymbolic form, and/or

discussing connections across experiences or strategies may facilitate reflective

abstraction.

Dialogue within a community engenders further thinking. The classroom needs to be seen

as a community of discourse engaged in activity, reflection, and conversation (Fosnot,

1989). The learners (rather than the teacher) are responsible for defending proving,

justifying, and communication their ideas to the classroom community. Ideas are

accepted as truth only insofar as they make sense to the community and thus they rise to

the level of taken-as-shared (Fosnot, 1989, pp. 3334),

Constructivism in an online environment poses a challenge for course developers in that

it is typically involves a complex and collaborative approach to learning. Nevertheless, problem-

based learning (PBL) encompasses the general principles of the theory because PBL is based on

social constructivism, a learning paradigm that suggests collaboration between and among

students and instructor actively engages students in the learning process as conceptual

knowledge is created and shared (Amelink & Hall, 2012, p. 1).

The real-world situations used in PBL encourage learning because there are no clear right

or wrong answers, and problem-solving activities engage students to work in teams and consider

diverse ideas and perspectives (Amelink & Hall, 2012). Problem solving also encourages

students to plan and monitor their steps by regulating feedback progress from multiple sources.

(Amelink & Hall, 2012).

 Constructivism in an online learning environment requires thinking in detail about how

to facilitate interactions between students as well as getting students to engage with the course

content through electronic mediums (Amelink & Hall, 2012, p. 1). Electronic mediums such as

online resources and chats, discussion forums, blogs, and wikis encourage students to interact

with each other as a team and provide feedback; in other words, they are designed to promote

purposeful collaboration between students and those that utilize multiple methods to deliver

content as well as assess the transfer of knowledge are more likely to see increased gains in

student learning (Amelink & Hall, 2012, p. 1).

Malcolm Knowless theory of andragogy assumptions. In 1973, Malcolm Knowles

recognized that adult learning is different from child learning. Pedagogy is often associated with

teaching children, so Knowles co-coined the term andragogy to refer to helping adults learn

(Merriam & Bierema, 2014). The pedagogical model emphasizes contentcontent determined,

organized, delivered, and evaluated by the teacheran anagogical model emphasizes process

(Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 47). Stavredes (2011) describes andragogy as a learner-centered

approach to learning in which the adult learner determines the goals for learning and how they

will be achieved (p. 13). Knowles (1984) described six assumptions of adult learning: the

learners self-concept, experience, readiness to learn, internal motivation, need to know, and

problem-centered orientation. All six assumptions are essential to andragogy and provide a

theory on how adults learn. Instructional designers consider andragogy as a framework for

creating courseware for adults and use each of the following assumptions in an online

environment, according to Cercone (2008).

Self-concept. When a person matures, their dependent personality moves to a self-

directing concept personality (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). In order for this process to occur,
adults need to be actively involved in the learning process (Cercone, 2008, p. 154). According

to Cercone (2008), involvement in the learning process for adults within an online course can

consist of peer-learning groups, object manipulation on a computer, group projects, role-playing,

case studies, and simulations to develop the learners self-direction. Cercone (2008) also

suggests that an online course should be divided into small manageable units or subunits that

can be completed in relatively short amounts of time for logical stopping and starting points (p.

155).

Experience. According to Merriam and Bierema (2014), an adult accumulates a

growing reservoir of experience, which is a rich resource for learning (p. 49). Therefore, new

information should relate to previous knowledge and experience for adult learners, and the

instructor should acknowledge this prior experience because adults need to connect new

knowledge to past events (Cercone, 2008, p. 157). The course or instructor should provide

practical new information that relates to prior experience and offers practical examples so the

learner can relate new topics from preceding topics by including tasks that let the participants

use their knowledge and experience (Cercone, 2008, p. 157). Preceding

Readiness to learn. Learning adults must see a link between the content and how it will

apply to their lives so they can use the knowledge to apply the content immediately (Cercone,

2008). Students are problem-centered, so incorporating activities in assignments that students

can relate to, such as real situations or events (Cercone, 2008, p. 157) will increase readiness to

learn. Also, according to Cercone (2008), assignments must reflect the maturity level of the

learner and should include opportunities for solving problems in groups (p. 157). Finally, as

Merriam and Bierema (2014) stated, The readiness of an adult to learn is closely related to the

developmental tasks of his or her social role (p. 157).

 Internal motivation. Knowles (1984) stated, Adults do not learn for the sake of

learning; they learn in order to be able to perform a task, solve a problem, or live in a more

satisfying way (p. 12). Merriam and Bierema (2014) suggested that self-actualization comes as

internally motivated goal for adults, rather than externally. Internal motivation for adults to learn

in an online course can consist of testing, applying concepts to tasks or problems, and being

challenged to succeed (Cercone, 2008). Additionally, internal motivation along with the other

assumptions of andragogy place this theory squarely in a humanistic framework where the

individual is at the center of the learning transaction, where self-direction and independence are

valued, and where learning leads to personal growth (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p. 54).

Need to know. Knowles (1984) simply wrote, We have a dictum in adult education that

one of the first tasks of a facilitator of learning is to develop the need to know what will be

learned (p. 12). Moreover, if adults can see why it is important to learn something before they

begin a learning activity, their motivation is that much stronger (Merriam & Bierema, 2014, p.

55). However, there are situations where an adult learner may feel that material is irrelevant, but

the material is required and used in preparation for new future material. In cases where the

learner may feel material is irrelevant but required, the adult learner cannot rely on internal

motivation but relies instead on need to know (Merriam & Bierema, 2014). Adults need to know

why they are learning something new and how it will benefit them so that the adult learner

believes that he or she is being prepared for tasks and responsibilities that are more challenging

or complex than current tasks (Cercone, 2008, p. 145).

Problem-centered orientation. Merriam and Bierema (2014) stated, Problem-centered

learning is preferred by adults because it is more engaging and lends itself to immediate

application, which in turn solidifies the learning (p. 54). For adults to Application for adults
learning setting adults need to know and feel that learning focuses on issues that directly

concern them and want to know what they are going to learn, how the learning will be

conducted, and why it is important. (Cercone, 2008, p. 157). Therefore, Cercone (2008)

suggested that the course should not be teacher-centered but learner-centered so students can

focus on themselves. To also increase engagement in problem-centered learning, the students

should know how the course objectives would be used for the learners to know ahead of time

what is expected and the course should be flexible to allow students to personally input on issues

that the whole class can address (Cercone, 2008).

Implementing Learning Theories and Instructional Design Models for Online Engagement

It would be overwhelming to attempt to design instruction with every aspect of every

learning theory in mind at all times. However, it is important that these theories inform and shape

course design. As Aragon (2003) claimed:

Quality online learning environments should be made up of elements of behavioral

learning theory (for example, using positive reinforcement and repetition), cognitive

learning theory (for example, addressing multiple senses, presenting new information in

motivating ways, limiting the amount of information presented, and connecting new

information to prior knowledge), and social learning theory (for example, encouraging

group interaction, peer assessment, and personal feedback). (p. 33)

Good course design stems from integrating the most positive and powerful aspects of

each individual learning theory in an online learning environment (Aragon, 2003, p. 34). Using

each theory, instructional designers can keep in mind seven principles as guidelines when

developing engaging activities for an online course. Aragon (2003) outlined the seven principles

as follows: (1) address individual differences, (2) motivate the student, (3) avoid information
overload, (4) create a real-life context, (5) encourage social interaction, (6) provide hands-on

activities, and (7) encourage student reflection (p. 34). It is crucial for these seven principles to

be implemented into an online environment, along with technology tools, to provide an effective

learning experience (Aragon, 2003).

Features of Effective Online Environments

Many tools are available to increase online engagement in any particular subject and

course. Some of the technologies that can be incorporated into an online learning environment

are discussion boards, interactive games, blogs, wikis, and podcasts.

Discussion boards. Online discussions can be synchronous (real-time) or asynchronous

(delayed). Synchronous discussions occur via tools like Internet chat and instant messaging

(Aragon, 2003, p. 74), whereas asynchronous discussions occur over Web-based bulletin boards

and discussion lists (Aragon, 2003, p. 74). Both types of discussions can be used in any type of

class. Aragon (2003) argued that while synchronous discussion provides social interaction that

mimics the face-to-face interaction in the traditional classroom, asynchronous discussion

supports high-level learning because it allows learners to formulate their ideas through

thoughtful interactions with the ideas and responses from their peers (p. 73). Therefore,

asynchronous discussions provide an opportunity for learners to engage and reflect upon the

discussion as a community, and to be graded by the instructor using a predetermined rubric.

Interactive games. Games have different functions in our lives, but there is a new genre

of games called serious games (Wu, Richards, & Saw, 2014). The purpose of serious games is

to help incorporate educational elements into a fun way of learning, with the idea being to

provide an instruction environment that is enjoyable and achieves the learning objectives (Clark

& Mayer, 2008). Horton (2006) gave a few examples of different forms of DGBL (Digital Game
Based Learning): quiz-show, word puzzles, jigsaw puzzles, adventure games, software

simulations, device simulations, personal response simulations, mathematical simulations, and

environmental simulations (p. 146).

Because of the growing attention on DGBL, a significant amount of research has been

done to determine if DGBL is a constructive and engaging method of teaching. Clark and Mayer

(2008) wondered whether online learning games would replace books and traditional learning.

Clark and Mayer (2008) also stated that most research on online-based learning focused on how

to optimize the processing of information contained in multimedia or hypermedia documents (p.

22).

Clark and Mayer (2008) pointed out, we do have some accumulating evidence about

how games and simulations can be designed to promote learning (p. 345). Furthermore, Pivec

(2007) describes DGBL as a competitive activity in which students are set educational goals

intended to promote knowledge acquisition. (p. 390). Pivec (2007) goes on to explain that the

design of games promotes either learning or the development of cognitive skills, or it takes the

form of simulations by allowing learners a hands-on experience with using their skills in a virtual

environment. Horton (2006) wrote, Games and simulations may provide a complete model of a

real-world system of just a rapid-fire series of questions to answer (p. 141). Horton (2006)

concluded that games must, teach first and entertain second (p. 141).

Games have the opportunity to provide engaged learning, but they must be designed in

ways that promote learning. That way we can get the best of both worldsfun and learning!

(Clark & Mayer, 2008, p. 354). Horton (2006) stresses that games should require the learner to

make the same kinds of decisions as in the real activity (p. 160). Horton (2006) continues, In

most learning games it is more important that the learner make authentic decisions than that the
learner execute those decisions in a realistic way (p. 160). However, Horton (2006) also

emphasizes that, The game need not closely mimic the task for which it prepares the learner so

long as it exercises the skills and knowledge needed in the real task (p. 163).

Clark and Mayer (2008) explain that the designer of the game must combine motivational

and instructional structures by managing extraneous mental load so that the game challenge,

fantasy, and control elements do not subvert learning (p. 357). However, Clark and Mayer

(2008) also state that games or simulations that overwork the cognitive load of a learner defeats

the purpose of the game. In addition, they clarify that a game or simulation that includes highly

detailed and realistic visuals and audio may overload the memory (Clark & Mayer, 2008, p.

357). In or der not to destroy the learning process while still helping the different aspects of the

games to support learning, Clark and Mayer (2008) suggest that games must have four

characteristics for motivation and enjoyment: challenge, control, curiosity, and fantasy.

Meanwhile, Qing, Lemieux, Vandermeiden, and Nathoo (2014) warn that while people

may find a serious game an excellent way of retaining information, some would find it dull and

uninteresting; this would be similar to trying to blanket a lesson onto a classroom full of children

in a classroom setting with different types of learning styles; digital games will not appeal to

everyone taking an online class (Ronimus, Kujala, Tolvanene, & Lyytinen, 2014).

Blogs, wikis, and podcasts. Blogs are useful as an online collaboration tool because

blogs engage people in knowledge sharing, reflection, and debate, they often attract large and

dedicated readership (Boulos, Maramba, & Wheeler, 2006, p. 1). Blogs can also engender the

drawing together of small virtual groupings of individuals interested in co-construction

knowledge around a common topic within a community of practice (Boulos et al., 2006, p. 1).

Wikis also provide an interesting collaboration experience in an online class because:

 Wikis can be used as a source for obtaining information and knowledge, and also as a

method of virtual collaboration, e.g., to share dialogue and information among

participants in group projects, or to allow learners to engage in learning with each other,

using wikis as a collaborative environment to construct their knowledge or to be part of a

virtual community of practice. (Boulos et al., 2006, p. 1)

Finally, podcasts (including audio and video) are valuable in an online or mobile world

because they have the potential of offering superior support for auditory learners (it is claimed

that the primary learning style in at least 30% of learners is auditory, and also for visual learners

in case of vodcasts (Boulos et al., 2006, p. 1).

Instructor involvement. Aragon (2003) argues that if an institution is committed to

following best practices in order to provide positive online experience for students, it relies on

the online instructor to provide the positive experience. Aragon (2003) identifies some of the

characteristics of successful online instructors. Instructors who have their broad-based life

experience in addition to their academic credentials by being understanding and flexible in

dealing with students by understanding that students are working professionals with difficult

situations (Aragon, 2003).

Successful instructors should be proponents of online learning and understanding that an

instructor wealth of knowledge and experience engages students (Aragon, 2003). Valuing critical

thinking is an essential characteristic that an online instructor should have to engage students in

both reflective observation and abstract conceptualization (Aragon, 2003, p. 84). Lastly, an

online instructor should be trained in online instruction, because online instruction practices are

not synonymous with those of a classroom program (Aragon, 2003, p. 84).

 Furthermore, Aragon (2003) argues that instructor scan fulfill their role and be successful

online instructors by involving themselves with the students in the online course to provide a

sense of community (in other words, encourage social learning). The successful online instructor

should contribute to discussion boards, promptly answer email, provide frequent feedback, strike

up conversations, share personal stories and experiences, use humor, use emoticons, address

students by name, and allow students options for addressing the instructor.

Conclusion

This chapter has covered the literature that explored the history of online enrollment and

retention, online course development models, learning theories, and online engagement best

practices for instructional design. The literature that was researched and explored provided an

important overview of the fundamentals of course design that instructional designers use when

developing an online course. The next chapter will apply the models, theories, and best practices

to outline the development of an engaging online course.

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