The Development of the First Chain Reacting Pile

Author(s): Enrico Fermi

Source: Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 90, No. 1, Symposium on
Atomic Energy and Its Implications (Jan., 1946), pp. 20-24
Published by: American Philosophical Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3301034
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 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST CHAIN REACTING PILE

ENRICO FERMI

Professor of Physics,University of Chicago

(Read November 17, 1945, in the Symposium on Atomic Energy and its Implications)

IT has been known for many years that vast are capable of producing new reactions. One can
amounts of energy are stored in the nuclei of many then conceive the possibility that when a first re-
atomic species and that their release is not in action takes place the particles produced by it may
contradiction with the principle of the conserva- have a sufficient activity to determine in the
tion of energy nor with any other of the accepted average more than one similar reaction. When
basic laws of physics. In spite of this recognized this is the case in each "generation" the number
fact, it was the general opinion among physicists of reacting nuclei increases until the process
until recently that a large scale release of the "burns" a sizable fraction of the original material.
nuclear energy would not be possible without the Whether the chain reaction develops or not de-
discovery of some new phenomenon. pends on whether the number of new processes
The reasons for this somewhat negative atti- produced by the particles emitted by a first process
tude were the following: Two types of processes is larger or smaller than one. This number is
in which nuclear energy could be released might called "reproduction factor."
be considered in principle. Various nuclear re- For all processes known until the discovery of
actions take place spontaneously with production fission early in 1939, however, the reproduction
of energy when two nuclei are brought in contact. factor was in all cases enormously smaller than
The simplest of many possible examples is per- one. The fission process opened a new way.
haps that of ordinary hydrogen. Two hydrogen Almost immediately after the announcement of
nuclei when brought in contact are spontaneously the discovery the possibility was discussed that
capable of reacting forming a deuterium nucleus when the two fragments separate they may be
and emitting an electron. The energy liberated excited so highly that neutrons may "evaporate"
in this process is about 1.4 Mev per process, out of them. This conjecture was soon confirmed
equivalent to 1.6 x 1010 calories per gram or by experimental observations on both sides of the
about two million times the combustion energy Atlantic.
of
an equal amount of coal. The reason why hy- In the spring of 1939 it was generally known
drogen is not a nuclear explosive is that two that a fission that can be produced by the collision
hydrogen nuclei never come in contact under of a single neutron with a uranium atom was
ordinary conditions, owing to the repulsion of thecapable of producing more than one new neutron,
positive electric charges of the two nuiclei. There probably something of the order of two or three.
is no theoretical reason that prevents the coming It was felt at that time by many physicists that a
together of the two nuclei; indeed this could be chain reaction based on the uranium fission was
achieved both by very high temperatures and by a possibility well worth investigating.
very high pressures. Temperatures or pressures At the same time this possibility was viewed
that are, however, well beyond the limits that with hope and with great concern. Everybody
could be achieved by ordinary means. Actually was conscious early in 1939 of the imminence of a
temperatures large enough to permit nuclear re- war of annihilation. There was well founded fear
actions to proceed at an appreciable rate are that the tremendous military potentialities that
prevalent in the interior of many stars, in par- were latent in the new scientific developments
ticular of the sun; these reactions are generally might be reduced to practice first by the Nazis.
recognized as the main source of the energy Nobody at that time had any basis for predicting
irradiated by the stars. the size of the effort that would be needed, and
A second possible pattern for the liberation of it well may be that civilization owes its survival
nuclear energy is the chain reaction. In most nu- to the fact that the development of atomic bombs
clear disintegrations particles are emitted (a-par- requires an industrial effort of which no belliger-
ticles, protons, or neutrons) which in their turn ent except the United States would have been

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, VOL. 90, NO. 1, JANUARY, 1946

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 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST CHAIN REACTING PILE 21

capable in time of war. The political situation

combination forms of water or paraffin for the
of t-he moment had a strange effect slowing
on thedown of neutrons. Further study indi-
behavior
cates, however,
of scientists. Contrary to their traditions, theythatset
hydrogen is not well suited
up a voluntary censorship and treated the matter
to the purpose. This is due to the fact that the
as confidential long before its importance hydrogen nuclei was have an appreciable tendency to
recognized by the government and absorb secrecy
neutrons with be-which they combine to form
came mandatory. the heavy hydrogen nucleus, deuterium. For this
To proceed with the steps thatreason led when
to the de- is used for slowing down
hydrogen
velopment of the chain reaction, theIneutrons
woulda like to
new parasitic absorption is intro-
point out that, on the basis of the duced information
which eats up dangerously into the small
available at the end of 1939, twopositive linesexcess
of attack
of neutrons needed to maintain
to the problem appeared worth the while. One in-
chain reaction.
volved as a first step the separation Other out of light elements had, therefore, to be con-
ordinary
uranium of the rare isotope 235 which is re- sidered for slowing down the neutrons. None of
sponsible for the slow neutron fission of uranium. them is as effective as hydrogen for this purpose
Since this separation eliminates the parasitic ab-but it was hoped that their lower absorption might
sorption of neutrons by the abundant isotope 238, overcompensate for this drawback. Very little
it was felt that once uranium containing a highwas known in 1939 of the absorption properties
percentage of 235 were available it would be easyof many light elements. Only in a few cases
to produce a chain reaction. The real difficulty rather uncertain upper limits were to be found
was of course to obtain isotope separation on a in the literature. The most obvious choices ap-
large scale. peared at the time to be deuterium in the form
The second line of attack, the one that I pro-of heavy water, helium, beryllium, or carbon in
pose to discuss in this paper, envisaged the use ofthe form of graphite.
natural uranium. The problem to assemble this In the discussions that we had in the group
material in a way proper to produce a chain re-working on the problem at Columbia University
action is of course considerably more tricky than in 1939 and 1940, and which included George
the similar problem for U-235. Indeed the neu-Pegram, Leo Szilard, and Herbert Anderson, we
trons produced by a primary fission must be used reached the conclusion that graphite offered the
very sparingly in order to keep a positive surplus most hopeful possibilities due primarily to the
in spite of the loss due to the large parasiticready availability of this substance. In the spring
absorption of U-238. Great care must be exerted of 1940 experimental work on the properties of
in order to make the balance between useful andgraphite was initiated at Columbia University
parasitic absorption of the neutrons as favorable using a few tons of graphite supplied to us through
as possible. Since the ratio of the two absorptionsthe Chairman of the Uranium Committee, Dr.
depends on the energy of the neutrons and, aside Briggs. Two problems were attacked and solved
from details, is greater for neutrons of low ener- at that time. One consisted in the determination
gies, one of the steps consists in slowing downof the absorption properties of graphite for neu-
the neutrons from their initial high energy, whichtrons and one in the study of its effectiveness for
is of the order of 1 Mev, to an energy as low as slowing down neutrons. The technique used in
that of thermal agitation. A simple process to these experiments consisted in setting up a square
achieve this end has been known for some time. column of graphite a few feet thick. A small
It is based on the obvious fact that when a fastsource of neutrons consisting of a few grams of
neutron collides against an atom and bounces off beryllium mixed with radon, or radium, was
some of its energy is lost as recoil energy of the placed on the axis of this column. The neutrons
atom. The effect is greater for light atoms which emitted by it diffuse through the column and are
recoil more easily and is maximum for hydrogen gradually slowed down to thermal agitation en-
but quite appreciable also for all light elements. ergy; they keep on diffusing after this until
In order to slow down the neutrons we shall they are either absorbed or diffuse out of the
have, therefore, to spread the uranium through- column. The distributiQn, both in space and
out a mass of some convenient light element. The energy, of the neutrons throughout the column
most obvious choice would be the lightest element, was mapped using detectors sensitive to neutrons
hydrogen, which has currently been used in its of various energies and the results were fitted into

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 22 ENRICO FERMI

a mathematical theory of the diffusion process. sult, it is clear that they should be known in-
The results of these investigations permitted to de- dividually with extreme accuracy to make a pre-
velop a mathematical method for calculating with diction possible. The measuring methods de-
fair accuracy all the life history of a neutron from veloped -up to 1941 seldom permitted the measure-
the moment of its emission as a fast neutron to ment of nuclear properties with an accuracy better
the moment of its final absorption. than 10 per cent and were therefore inadequate
At the same time work was initiated in order to give a basis for calculations that would permit
to determine the excess number of neutrons answering in a reliable way the question of
emitted by natural uranium when a thermal neu- whether the chain reaction with natural uranium
tron is absorbed by it. Since a considerable frac- and graphite was or was not possible.
tion of the thermal neutrons absorbed by uranium In any system of finite dimensions some neu-
is captured by U-238 and does not give rise to trons escape by diffusing out of its surface. This
fission, this excess turns out to be fairly small loss of neutrons by escape can in principle be
and makes it therefore very essential to avoid as eliminated by increasing the size of the system.
much as possible parasitic losses so as to end up It was clear in 1941 that the balance of neutrons
with a positive margin that may make the chain capable of sustaining a chain reaction, even if at
reaction a possibility. A simple trick permits a
all positive, would be so small as to make it neces-
very considerable reduction of the parasitic losses
sary to use a system of very large size in order to
that take place while the neutron is being slowed
eliminate most of the loss of neutrons by escape.
down. Instead of spreading the uranium uni-
It was important to devise methods capable of
formly throughout the mass of graphite, it is
answering the following questions: (1) whether a
more convenient to arrange it in lumps distributed
system containinlg lumps of uranium distributed
in some suitable lattice configuration throughout
through the graphite in a given lattice arrange-
the graphite. This device makes it less probable
ment would become chain reacting provided its
for a neutron to encounter a uranium atom dur-
dimensions were infinitely large; and (2) assum-
ing the slowing down process when its energy
ing a positive answer to the previous question,
makes it particularly vulnerable to parasitic
what minimum dimensions would be needed actu-
absorption.
ally to achieve the chain reaction? These mini-
In working out the effectiveness of this method,
mum dimensions are usually called the critical size
the group working at Columbia was very ma-
of the pile. Since the method of detailed calcula-
terially reinforced by the collaboration with a new
tion from the values measured for the constants
research group that was set up at Princeton
was inadequate as explained before, one had to
University. In the spring of 1941 sufficient data
devise some way that would give more directly
on the details of the process had been gathered to
the required answers.
enable one to form a relatively clear picture of the
A brute-force method for this would be to set
importance of the variotus factors and of the best
up a system of the given structure and keep on
devices to be used in order to minimize the un-
adding to it until a chain reaction actually is
favorable items.
achieved or the system refused to react even when
In principle it would be possible to measure
built up to enormous size. This method obviously
with great accuracy the absorption and scattering
would be exceedingly expensive both in materials
properties of neutrons for all energies and for all
and labor. Fortunately it is possible to obtain a
atoms involved arnd to use these results in a
fairly accurate answer to the two questions by
mathematical theory of the process so elaborate
using a relatively small sample of the structure
as to make it possible to predict the behavior of
under investigation. The first experiments of this
a given system accurately enough to answer the
type, the so-called intermediate or exponential ex-
question whether a given system would or would
not be chain reacting purely on a basis of calcu-
periments, were set up at Columbia University in
lation. The practical feasibility of this program
the summer and fall of 1941. A lattice structure
did not appear too hopeful. We know now that
was set up containing cans filled with uranium-
the positive excess that makes possible a chain re-oxide spread throughout a mass of some thirty tons
action in a graphite-uranium system is of only a of graphite. A primary source of neutrons was
few per cent. Since many factors of absorption inserted at the bottom of this mass and the distri-
anid production of neutrons enter in the final re- bution of the neutrolns throughout the mass was in-

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 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST CHAIN REACTING PILE 23

vestigated in detail and compared was with the theoreti-

organized and some amount of cast uranium
cal expectation. metal was produced. The results of the exponen-
The result of this first experiment was somewhattial experiments improved correspondingly to the
discouraging in that it indicated that a system of point that the indications were that a chain react-
that structure, even if built up to infinite size, ing unit could be built using these better brands of
would still have a negative balance of neutrons materials.
and more precisely a loss of 13 per cent of the The actual erection of the first chain reacting
neutrons each generation. In spite of this nega- unit was initiated in October 1942. It was planned
tive result hope was not abandoned. Indeed siza- to build a lattice structure in the form of a huge
ble improvements to this first structure could be sphere supported by a wooden structure. The
expected as indicated below. structure was to be erected in a Squash Court on
Early in 1942 all the groups working on the the campus of the University of Chicago. Since
production of a chain reaction were united at the we were somewhat doubtful whether the dimen-
Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chi- sions as planned would be sufficiently large, the
cago under the general leadership of Arthur Comp- structure was actually built inside a huge tent of
ton. During 1942 some twenty or thirty expo- balloon cloth fabric that in case of need could have
nential experiments were carried out at Chicago in been sealed for the purpose of removing the air
the attempt to improve on the conditions of the in order to avoid the parasitic absorption of the
first experiment. Two different types of improve- atmospheric nitrogen. This precaution actually
ments were pursued. One consisted in a better proved unnecessary.
adjustment of the dimensions of the lattice and the It took a little over one month to build the struc-
other in the use of better materials. Impurities ture. A large number of physicists, among them
had to be eliminated to a surprisingly high extent W. H. Zinn, H. L. Anderson, and W. C. Wilson,
from both uranium and graphite since the para- collaborated in the construction. During this time
sitic absorption due to elements appearing as com- the approach to the chain reacting conditions was
mon impurities in uranium and graphite was re- followed day by day by measuring the neutron
sponsible for a loss of an appreciable fraction of intensity building up inside the pile. Some neu-
the neutrons. The problem was tackled to organizetrons are produced spontaneously by uranium in
large-scale production of many tons of graphite very small numbers. When the system approaches
and uranium of an unprecedented purity. Also the critical size, each of these neutrons multiplies
the production of uranium in metallic form was for several generations before final absorption. In-
vigorously pursued. Up to 1941 uranium metal deed, when the reproduction factor of the pile is,
had been produced only in very small amounts, for instance, 99 per cent, each neutron multiplies
often of questionable purity. Uranium metal was in the average one hundred generations. Conse-
mostly produced in the form of a highly pyrophoric quently, the density of neutrons increases through-
powder which in several cases burst spontaneouslyout the mass as the critical dimensions are ap-
into flames when coming - in contact with air. proached and tends to diverge at the critical size.
These pyrophoric properties were only somewhat By watching the rise of the neutron density, one
reduced by sintering the powder into compact obtains, therefore, a positive method for extrapo-
blocks. Some of these sintered blocks were used lating to the critical size.
in exponential experiments carried out in order to Appreciably before the dimensions originally
obtain information on the properties of a system planned for the structure were reached, the meas-
containing metallic uranium; while the experi- urements of the neutron density inside the struc-
ments were in progress the blocks were burning ture indicated that the critical size would soon be
so fast that they felt hot to the touch and we were attained. From this time on work was continued
afraid that they might actually burst into flamesunder careful supervision so as to make sure that
before we could go through with the experiment.criticality would not be inadvertently reached
Toward the fall of 1942 the situation as to the without proper precautions. Long cadmium strips
production of materials gradually improved. were inserted in slots that had been left for this
Through the joint efforts of the staff of the Metal-purpose in the structure. Cadmium is one of the
lurgical Laboratory and of several industria-l firms,
most powerful absorbers of neutrons and the -ab-
better and better graphite was obtained. Indus- sorption of these strips was large enough to make
trial production of practically pure uranium-oxide sure that no chain reaction could take place whil-e

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 24 ENRICO FERMI

they were inside the pile. Each morning the cad-
mium strips were slowly removed, one by one, and
a determination of the neutron intensity was car-
ried out in order to estimate how far we were from
the critical conditions.
On the morning of December 2, 1942, the indi-
cations were that the critical dimensions had been
slightly exceeded and that the system did not chain
react only because of the absorption of the cad-
mium strips. During the morning all the cad-
mium strips.but one were carefully removed; then
this last strip was gradually extracted, close watch
being kept on the intensity. From the measure-
ments it was expected that the system would be-
come critical by removing a length of about eight
feet of this last strip. Actually when about seven
feet were removed the intensity rose to a very high never exceeded two hundred watts. It proved,
value but still stabilized after a few minutes at a
finite level. It was with some trepidation that the
order was given to remove one more foot and a
half of the strip. This operation would bring us
over the top. When the foot and a half was pulled
out, the intensity started rising slowly, but at an
increasing rate, and kept on increasing until it was
evident that it would actually diverge. Then the
cadmium strips were again inserted into the struc- Company, only about two years after the experi-
ture and the intensity rapidly dropped to an in-
significant level.
This prototype of a chain reacting unit proved
to be exceedingly easy to control. Intensity of its
operation could be adjusted with extreme accuracy
to any desired level. All the operator has to do
is to watch an instrument that indicates the inten-
sity of the reaction and move the cadmium strips
in if the intensity shows a tendency to rise, and
out if the intensity shows a tendency to drop. To
operate a pile is just as easy as to keep a car run-
ning on a straight road by adjusting the steering
wheel when the car tends to shift right or left.
After a few hours of practice an operator can keep
easily the intensity of the reaction constant to a
very small fraction of 1 per cent.
The first pile had no device built in to remove
the heat produced by the reaction and it was not
provided with any shield to absorb the radiations
produced by the fission process. For these reasons
it could be operated only at a nominal power which
however, two points: that the chain reaction with
graphite and natural uranium was possible, and
that it was very easily controllable.
A huge scientific and engineering development
was still needed to reduce to industrial practice the
new art. Through the collaboration of all the men
of the Metallurgical project and of the Du Pont
mental operation of the first pile large plants based
essentially on the same principle were put in opera-
tion by the Du Pont Company at Hanford, pro-
ducing huge amounts of energy an(l relatively
large amounts of the new element, plutonium.

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