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Chapter one
Contents
Computers, parts of computers and their roles
CSE 101- Principles of Computing Data and Networking
Operating systems
Accounts
Mekelle Institute of Technology Command prompt
2015 Command options and arguments
DOS and Unix common commands
The Job of the Shell

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The Role of Computers

Goals of the chapter
After completing lesson, you will be able to:
Describe the importance of computers in todays world. In Business and Industry
Identify the main parts of a computer.
In Publication Field
Identify the primary hardware components of a computer.
Define an operating system and its role.
In Education Field
Define the term program.
Explain what is meant by data. In Government Organizations
Define the term network, and identify the benefits of networking.
Define the term Internet. In Medical Field
Exercise common Unix commands
In Science Field

In Entertainment Field

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Parts of a Computer Basic Personal Computer System

A computer system consists of hardware and software components.

1. Input Devices (Keyboard, Mouse, etc.) Hardware is the physical equipment such as the case, storage drives,
keyboards, monitors, cables, speakers, and printers.

2. Output Devices (Monitor, Speakers, etc.) Software is the operating

system and programs.
3. Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory The operating system
instructs the computer how
to operate.
4. Motherboard (Circuit Board)
Programs or applications
5. Expansion Cards (Video Card, Sound Card, or NIC) perform different functions.

6. Hard Drive Ports and Connections (USB, Firewire, etc.)

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Computer Cases and Power

Power Supplies
Supplies
Computer case
The power supply converts alternating-
Provides protection and support for internal components
current (AC) power coming from a wall
Should be durable, easy to service, and have enough room
for expansion outlet into direct-current (DC) power, which
Power supply is a lower voltage.
Converts AC power from the DC power is required for all of the
wall socket into DC
components inside the computer.
Must provide enough power
for the installed components Cables, connectors, and
and future additions components are designed
to fit together comfortably.
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Never force any connector or component.

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Four Basic Units of Electricity Power Supplies

Voltage (V) is a measure of the force required to push electrons
through a circuit. Voltage is measured in volts. A computer power
supply usually produces several different voltages. CAUTION: Do not open
Current (I) is a measure of the amount of electrons going through a
circuit. Current is measured in amperes, or amps (A). Computer power a power supply.
supplies deliver different amperages for each output voltage.
Power (P) is voltage multiplied by current. The measurement is called Electronic capacitors
watts (W). Computer power supplies are rated in watts.
Resistance (R) is the opposition to the flow of current in a circuit. located inside of a
Resistance is measured in ohms. Lower resistance allows more current
to flow through a circuit. power supply can
Formulas
V = IR
hold a charge for
P = VI extended periods of
time.
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Internal Components Motherboards

The main printed circuit board.
Contains the buses, or electrical
pathways found in a computer.
Buses allow data to travel
among the various components.
Also known as the system board,
the backplane, or the main board.
Accommodates CPU, RAM, expansion slots, heat sink/fan
assembly, BIOS chip, chip set, sockets, internal and external
connectors, various ports, and the embedded wires that
interconnect the motherboard components.
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Known as the brain of the computer. Also
referred to as the processor.
Most important element of a computer
system.
Executes a program, which is a sequence of
stored instructions.
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Cooling Systems
Electronic components generate
heat. Too much heat can damage
components.
A case fan makes the cooling
process more efficient.
Case Fan A heat sink draws heat away from
the core of the CPU. A fan on top
CPU Fan of the heat sink moves the heat
away from the CPU.
Fans are dedicated to cool the
Graphics-processing unit (GPU).
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Parts of a Computer
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
A device that interprets and runs the commands that you
give to the computer.
Also referred to as the processor.
Two major brands are Intel and AMD.
Examples: Intel Core 2 Duo, AMD Turion X2
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Parts of a Computer
Memory
Memory is where information is stored and retrieved
by the CPU.
There are two main types of memory:
Random Access Memory (RAM): It is the main
memory and allows you to temporarily store
commands and data.
Read Only Memory (ROM): It is the memory that
retains its contents even after the computer is
turned off.
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Read-only Memory (ROM) Serial Ports and Cables

Basic instructions for booting the computer and loading the
operating system are stored in ROM. A serial port can be either a DB-9,
ROM as shown, or a DB-25 male
ROM Types Description
Types connector.
Information is written to a ROM chip when it is
ROM Read-only memory chips manufactured. A ROM chip cannot be erased or Serial ports transmit one bit of
re-written and can become obsolete.
data at a time.
Information is written to a PROM chip after it is
Programmable read-only To connect a serial device, such
PROM manufactured. A PROM chip cannot be erased
memory or re-written.
as a modem or printer, a serial
Information is written to an EPROM chip after it
Erasable programmable is manufactured. An EPROM chip can be erased cable must be used.
EPROM with exposure to UV light. Special equipment is
read-only memory
required. A serial cable has a maximum
Electrically erasable
Information is written to an EEPROM chip after
it is manufactured. EEPROM chips are also
length of 50 feet (15.2 m).
EEPROM programmable read-only called Flash ROMs. An EEPROM chip can be
memory erased and re-written without having to remove
the chip from the computer.
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Parallel Ports and Cables Network Ports and Cables

A network port, also known as an RJ-45 port, connects a
Parallel ports can transmit 8 computer to a network.
bits of data at one time and Standard Ethernet can transmit up to 10 Mbps.
use the IEEE 1284 standard. Fast Ethernet can transmit up to 100 Mbps.
To connect a parallel Gigabit Ethernet can transmit up to 1000 Mbps.
device, such as a printer, a The maximum length of network cable is 328 feet (100
parallel cable must be used. m).
A parallel cable has a
maximum length of 15 feet
(4.5 m).

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Input Devices Fingerprint scanner

Other Output Devices
Input devices used to enter data or Printers, Scanners, and Fax Machines - Printers are output devices
that create hard copies of computer files. Other all-in-one type
instructions into a computer: printers are designed to provide multiple services such as printing,
Mouse and Keyboard fax, and copier functions.
Speakers and headphones are output devices for audio signals.
Digital camera and digital video Most computers have audio support either integrated into the
camera motherboard or on an adapter card.
Biometric authentication device Audio support includes ports that allow input and output of audio
Digital camera signals.
Touch screen
Scanner
Headphones
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Speakers

Operating System Overview What is OS?

Operating System is a software, which makes a computer to
What is OS? actually work.
What does OS do? It is the software the enables all the programs we use.
Structure of OS
The OS organizes and controls the hardware.
Storage Structure
Multiprogramming OS acts as an interface between the application programs and
the machine hardware.
OS services
Examples: Windows, Linux, Unix and Mac OS, etc.,
User OS interfaces
Computing environment
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What OS does? Structure of Operating System:

Application Programs
An operating system performs basic tasks such as,
System Programs

controlling and allocating memory, Software (Operating System)

prioritizing system requests, HARDWARE

controlling input and output devices,
facilitating networking and
managing file systems.

(Contd)

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Structure of Operating System (Contd): Structure of Operating System (Contd):

The structure of OS consists of 4 layers:
1. Hardware
provides basic computing resources such as
CPU, Main memory, I/O Devices, etc,
2. Software (Operating System)
Controls and coordinates use of hardware
among various applications and users
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3. System programs: or System Software are the
programs which enable the computer hardware or
system to run (without these the computer as a
whole or parts of it's functionality would not
work).
The programs and the file that comprises the
operating system are called system software.
These files include configuration files, system
preferences, system services, libraries of
functions and the drivers for the hardware
installed on the computer.
Examples include the operating system, device
drivers.
This layer consists of compilers, Assemblers, linker
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Structure of Operating System (Contd): Open vs Closed Source operating systems

4.Application programsor Application Software
are the programs written to for specific
applications or execution of specific tasks. e.g.
Microsoft Word is an application software for
word processing. Internet Explorer and Mozilla
Firefox are application software written for
internet browsing. Computer games are also
application programs.
Define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users:
Word processor, web browsers,
database systems, video games
This is dependent on users need. Ex. Railway
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reservation system, Bank database management 29
etc.,
Linux is the most well known Open Source OS and Windows is
the most well known Closed Source OS. So what does this mean?
Open Source programs are programs where you can see the
code (the source), you can edit it, copy it and use as you wish
within the confines of an open source license.
As a result of this Linux is not developed by one person or
one company but uses code developed by thousands of
people, working for different organizations all over the world.
And as a result there are many different versions (known as
distributions) of Linux out there including Ubuntu, Slackware
and Fedora.
Android is built using Linux code.
Closed Source software doesn't allow people to look at the code
or adapt it. Companies normally sell closed source products and
you'll have to pay for a copy of Windows.
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Home Work
1. What is utility software? Give examples? Four Components of a Computer System
2. What is the purpose of translator software, give full definitions of the following
translator soft-wares.
Assembler
Compiler
Interpreter
Linker
Loader
3. State which program goes with the definition? System program or application
program?
a) Gets installed when the operating Program type?
system is installed on the computer

b) Users often do not interact with system

software
c) Includes programs such as compilers,
debuggers, drivers, assemblers

d) Includes media players, word

processors, and spreadsheet programs.
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Computer Startup Computer Startup

There is a program on the motherboard called the
system BIOS(Basic I/O System)
BIOS contains low-level I/O software including:
Procedures to read the keyboard
Procedures to write to the screen
See how much RAM is installed
The bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or
reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally
known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
It is the initial program run when a computer is
powered on or booted

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Computer System Organization Computer-System Operation

Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to shared
memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently.
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type.
Each device controller has a local buffer.
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller.
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation
by causing an interrupt.

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Storage Structure Storage Hierarchy

Main memory The only large storage media that Storage systems are organized in hierarchy.
the CPU can access directly. Speed
Secondary storage extension of main memory that Cost
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity. Volatility
Magnetic disks rigid metal or glass platters covered Caching copying information into faster storage
with magnetic recording material system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache
for secondary storage.

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Storage-Device Hierarchy Caching

Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer
(in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage
temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
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Performance of Various Levels of Storage Multiprogramming

Movement between levels of storage Multiprogramming is a technique to execute number of

programs simultaneously by a single processor.
hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
In Multiprogramming, number of processes reside in main
memory at a time.
The OS picks and begins to executes one of the jobs in the
main memory.
If any I/O wait happened in a process, then CPU switches from
that job to another job.
Hence CPU in not idle at any time.

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Multiprogramming (Contd) Time Sharing Systems

OS Figure dipicts the layout of
Time sharing, or multitasking, is a logical extension of
multiprogramming system. multiprogramming.
Job 1
The main memory consists of 5 Multiple jobs are executed by switching the CPU between
Job 2 jobs at a time, the CPU executes them.
one by one. In this, the CPU time is shared by different processes, so it is
Job 3 called as Time sharing Systems.
Advantages:
Time slice is defined by the OS, for sharing CPU time between
Job 4 Efficient memory utilization
processes.
Job 5 Throughput increases Examples: Multics, Unix, etc.,
CPU is never idle, so performance
increases.
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Operating System Services Operating System Services (Cont.)

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful
to the user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface
(GUI), Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into
memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or
abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device.
File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Obviously, programs need to read and write files and directories,
create and delete them, search them, list file Information, permission
management.
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful
to the user (Cont):
Communications Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in
user program
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the users and
programmers abilities to efficiently use the system

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Operating System Services (Cont.) User Operating System Interface - CLI

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing CLI allows direct command entry
Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running Sometimes implemented in kernel,
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and sometimes by systems program
file storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O Sometimes multiple flavors implemented
devices) may have general request and release code.
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of shells
computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or
Primarily fetches a command from user
networked computer system may want to control use of that information, and executes it
concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is Sometimes commands built-in,
controlled sometimes just names of programs
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts If the latter, adding new features
If a system is to be protected and secure, precautions must be instituted
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User Operating System Interface - GUI

User Operating System Interface
User-friendly desktop metaphor interface Command Line Interface (CLI): Graphical User Interface (GUI):
Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor The user types commands at a The user interacts with menus and
Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc prompt. icons.

Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various

actions (provide information, options, execute function, open
directory (known as a folder)
Invented at Xerox PARC
Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI command shell
Apple Mac OS X as Aqua GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath
and shells available
Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces (Java Desktop, KDE)

Most operating systems include both a GUI and a CLI.

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Compare Operating Systems Operating System Requirements

Terms often used when comparing operating systems:
Multi-user Two or more users can work with programs Operating systems require a certain amount of hardware resources.
and share peripheral devices, such as printers, at the same These resources are specified by the manufacturer and include such things as:
time. Amount of RAM
Multi-tasking The computer is capable of operating Hard disk space required
multiple applications at the same time. Processor type and speed
Video resolution
Multi-processing The computer can have two or more
central processing units (CPUs) that programs share.
Multi-threading A program can be broken into smaller
parts that can be loaded as needed by the operating
system. Multi-threading allows individual programs to be
multi-tasked.

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.. Continued How to select an operating system

To take advantage of all of the features provided by an OS,
additional hardware resources such as sound cards, NICs,
modems, microphones, and speakers are generally
required.
Many of the OS developers test various hardware devices
and certify that they are compatible with the operating
system.
Always confirm that the hardware has been certified to
work with the operating system before purchasing and
installing it.

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Installation of an Operating System Continued

An OS is installed in a defined section of the hard disk, called a disk
partition.
There are various methods for installing an OS.
The method selected for installation is based on the system hardware,
the OS being installed, and user requirements.
There are four basic options available for the installation of a new OS:
Clean Install
A clean install is done on a new system or in cases where no upgrade
path exists between the current OS and the one being installed.
It deletes all data on the partition where the OS is installed and requires
application software to be reinstalled.
A clean install is also performed when the existing OS installation has
become damaged in some way.
Upgrade
If staying within the same OS platform, it is often possible to do an
upgrade.
With an upgrade, system configuration settings, applications and data
are preserved.
It simply replaces the old OS files with the new OS files.

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Continued
Multi-boot
It is possible to install more than one OS on a computer to create a multi-boot
system.
Each OS is contained within its own partition and can have its own files and
configuration settings.
On start-up, the user is presented with a menu to select the desired OS.
Only one OS can run at a time and it has full control of the hardware.
Virtualization
Virtualization is a technique that is often deployed on servers.
It enables multiple copies of an OS to be run on a single set of hardware, thus
creating many virtual machines.
Each virtual machine can be treated as a separate computer.
This enables a single physical resource to appear to function as multiple logical
resources.
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Continued
Before starting the installation, it is necessary to determine the
partition structure that best meets user requirements.
One of the techniques available to help protect data is to divide the
hard drive into multiple partitions. usually 1 for data 1 for the OS)
It is also necessary to determine the type of file system to use.
A file system is the method the OS uses to keep track of the files.
Commonly used file systems include FAT 16/32, NTFS, HPFS, ext2, ext3.
Each OS is designed to work with one or more of these file system types
and each file system type offers specific advantages.
Careful consideration should be made to the type of file systems
supported by the selected OS and the benefits of each.
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Preparing for OS installation
A pre-installation checklist helps ensure that the installation process is
successful.
1. Verify that all hardware is certified to work with the selected OS.
2. Verify that the hardware resources meet or exceed the published
minimum requirements.
3. Confirm that the appropriate installation medium is available. Current
operating systems are usually available on both CD and DVD medium.
4. If the OS is to be installed on a system that already contains data: (a)
Use system diagnostic tools and utilities to ensure the current OS
installation is in good condition, free of malicious or damaging files
and codes;
(b) Complete a full backup of all important files.
5. If performing a clean-install, verify that all application software is
available for installation.
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Prepare a computer to participate in a network
Once an OS is installed, the computer can be configured to
participate in a network; that means it would be given it an
address to be identified.
A network is a group of devices, such as computers, that are
connected to each other for the purposes of sharing information
and resources.
Shared resources can include printers, documents and Internet
access connections.
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Continued
Continued
To physically connect to a network, a computer must have a network
interface card (NIC).
The NIC is a piece of hardware that allows a computer to connect to the
network medium.
Manual IP Configuration :- The IP address entered is
In addition to the physical connection, some configuration of the referred to as a static address and is permanently assigned to that
operating system is required for the computer to participate in the computer using a Keyboard.
network.
Each computer on a network requires an Internet Protocol (IP) address, Dynamic IP Configuration :- Set up a computer to
as well as other information, to identify it. receive network address dynamically. This allows a computer to request
There are three parts to the IP configuration, which must be correct for an IP address from a pool of IP addresses assigned by another device
the computer to send and receive information on the network:
IP address - identifies the computer on the network. within the network (DHCP)
Subnet mask - is used to identify the network on which the computer is
connected.
Default gateway - identifies the device that the computer uses to access
the Internet or another network.

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Computer naming
In addition to the IP address, some network operating systems make use of
names.
In this environment each individual system must have a unique name assigned
to it.
A computer name provides a user friendly name, making it easier for users to
connect to shared resources such as folders and printers on other computers.
Networking and Its Benefits
New technologies create a new kind of network that delivers more
than a single type of service.
Unlike dedicated networks, these new converged networks are capable
of delivering voice, video and data services over the same
communication channel or network structure.

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Networking and Its Benefits

Networking and Its Benefits
In business, large networks can be used to advertise and sell products, order
supplies, and communicate with customers.
Networks come in all sizes. They can range from simple networks
Communication over a network is usually more efficient and less expensive
consisting of two computers, to networks connecting millions of than traditional forms of communication, such as regular mail or long distance
devices. phone calls.
The Internet is considered a "network of networks" because it is
literally made up of thousands of networks that are connected to each
other.
Here are other uses of a network and the Internet:
Sharing music and video files
Research and on-line learning
Chatting with friends
Planning vacations
Purchasing gifts and supplies

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Components of a network Continued

There are many components that can be part of a network, for example
personal computers, servers, networking devices, and cabling. Hosts are devices that send and receive messages directly across the
These components can be grouped into four main categories: network.
Hosts
Shared peripherals are not directly connected to the network, but
Shared peripherals
Networking devices
instead are connected to hosts. The host is then responsible for sharing
Networking media the peripheral across the network. Hosts have computer software
configured to enable people on the network to use the attached
peripheral devices.
The network devices, as well as networking media, are used to
interconnect hosts.
Some devices can play more than one role, depending on how they are
connected.
For example, a printer directly connected to a host (local printer) is a
peripheral. A printer directly connected to a network device and
participates directly in network communications is a host.
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The role of host computers Peer-to-peer networks

In modern networks, computer hosts can act as a client, a server, or both. Client and server software usually runs
The software installed on the computer determines which role the computer on separate computers, but it is also
plays. possible for one computer to carry out
Servers are hosts that have software installed that enable them to provide both roles at the same time.
information, like email or web pages, to other hosts on the network. This type of network is called a peer-to-
For example, a host requires web server software in order to provide web peer network.
services to the network. The simplest peer-to-peer network
Clients are computer hosts that have software installed that enable them to consists of two directly connected
request and display the information obtained from the server. computers using a wired or wireless
An example of client software is a web browser, like Internet Explorer. connection.
Multiple PCs can also be connected to
create a larger peer-to-peer network but
this requires a network device, such as a
hub.

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Concept of communication (source, destination and

Network Topologies
When networks are installed, a physical topology map is created to record
where each host is located and how it is connected to the network.
The physical topology map also shows where the wiring is installed and the
locations of the networking devices that connect the hosts.
It is very important to maintain and update physical topology maps to aid
future installation and troubleshooting efforts.
it is sometimes necessary to also have a logical view of the network topology.
A logical topology map groups hosts by how they use the network, no matter
where they are physically located. Host names, addresses, group information
and applications can be recorded on the logical topology map.
channel)
All communication methods have three elements in common; the
message source, or sender like are people, or electronic devices, that
need to communicate a message to other individuals or devices. The
second element of communication is the destination, or receiver. A
third element, called a channel, provides the pathway over which the
message can travel from source to destination.

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What is the Internet Internet Service Providers (ISP)

The Internet is a network of networks that connects users in every country in
the world. There are currently over one billion Internet users worldwide.
Up to now the networks we have discussed have been controlled by one
individual or organization. The Internet is a conglomerate of networks and is
owned by no one individual or group.
There are, however, several major International organizations that help
manage the Internet so that everyone uses the same rules.
Any home, business or organization that wants to connect to the Internet must
use an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
An ISP is a company that provides the connections and support to access the
Internet. It can also provide additional services such as Email and web hosting.
ISPs range in size from small to very large and differ in terms of the area they
service (they may service an entire country)
ISPs also differ in the types of connection technologies and speeds they offer.
Examples of well known ISPs include AOL, EarthLink, and Roadrunner.

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The ISPs relation with the internet The ISPs relation with the internet
Describe how you connect to the Internet Individual computers and local networks connect to the ISP at a Point
of Presence (POP).
through the ISP and the ISPs relationship to A POP is the connection point between the ISP's network and the
the Internet particular geographical region that the POP is servicing.
An ISP may have many POPs depending on its size and the area it
services.
Within an ISP, a network of high-speed routers and switches with
multiple links move data between the various POPs.
ISPs connect to other ISPs in order to send information beyond the
boundaries of their own network.
The Internet is made up of very high-speed data links that interconnect
ISP POPs and ISPs to each other.
These interconnections are part of the very large, high capacity
network known as the Internet Backbone.

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Options for connecting to the ISP Options for connecting to the ISP
ISPs provide a variety of ways to connect to the Internet, depending on
location and desired connection speed. Each Internet access technology uses a network access device, such as
a modem, in order to connect to the ISP.
It may be built in to your computer or may be provided by the ISP.
Choices for
The simplest arrangement is a modem that provides a direct
connection: connection between a computer and the ISP.
Dial-Up
However, if multiple computers connect through a single ISP
DSL connection, you will need additional networking devices.
This includes a switch to connect multiple hosts on a local network, and
Satellite a router to move packets from your local network to the ISP network.
A home networking device, such as an integrated router, can provide
Cable modem these functions, as well as wireless capability, in a single package.
Leased line The choice of Internet access technologies depends on availability, cost,
access device used, media used and the speed of the connection.

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Home Work2
1. Write a note and differentiate the following networking devices?
Router
Switch
Hub
Bridge
2. What is the difference between hard ware (MAC) address and IP
address?
3. Differentiate physical topology from logical topology of a network?
4. Compare and contrast wired and wireless media and come up with
clear advantages and disadvantages of each wired and wireless
communication media?
5. When and where is better to use GUI OS and CLI OS?

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