Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Key concepts
1) Hierarchy and organic society
o The term organic society refers to a belief, which became entrenched in
traditional conservative thought in the latter part of the 19th century.
o It was a reaction against the rise of liberal individualism.
o It proposes that society is more than merely a collection of individuals, but it is a
single entity.
o We are connected to each other through our humanity and common
membership of community.
o Organic society is seen as a reality, which is superior to our own, individual
interests.
o The ideal organic society where goals and aspirations of individuals coincide
with the goals of the whole society. 1980s Margaret Thatcher famously
challenged this remarking that there is no such thing as society, implying that
the goals of individuals are superior to those of society as a whole.
o Traditional conservatives believe that there is a natural order into which each
individual fits.
o It is normal and natural that society should be divided by a number of strata.
o The very rigid feudal system had long since disappeared, but there remained a
belief that some kind of class system was inevitable.
o Hierarchy like this supports organic society in that it creates an order and
stability, which the individualistic society lacks.
o Different parts of the hierarchy have different roles that complement each other.
o This implies inequality, but an ordered inequality, and one in which those at the
upper levels of the hierarchy are expected to take responsibility for the welfare
of the lower orders noblesse oblige.
o The idea of hierarchy now appears largely outdated, but the organic society
remains a key idea for many conservatives, not least some of the supporters of
David Camerons style of conservatism.
2) Individualism
o This is a difficult conservative principle to define.
o It has lost much of its value and distinctiveness since it is a value that is now
shared with liberals, most European democratic parties and the British Labour
Party.
o Individual liberty a fundamentally liberal principle, concerns mainly an
absence of external restraint. It refers to the extent to which our activities as
individuals or groups, may be constrained by laws, customs or a moral code. I.e.
in Western democracies the right to freedom of worship.
o Individualism is a more positive concept and refers to choice, opportunity and
self-fulfilment.
o First individualism suggests that each individual and household should be
presented with the widest possible range of choices and opportunities.
o The state should restrict such choices as little as possible, providing a link with
liberal freedom.
o Individualism also implies a sense of privacy and for conservatives private life is
not the concern of the state. To conservatives, a strong barrier should be
preserved between the public and private or individual spheres.
o For conservatives, the individual can best flourish in a stable social, moral and
economic environment.
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o The continuity provided by these gives the necessary scenery in which
individuals can best play their roles securely.
o Michael Oakeshott describes such a society as nomocratic, one where people
enjoy shared morality, values, and beliefs thus creating fertile ground for
individualism.
3) Inequality
o The idea that humankind is naturally divided into a hierarchy is taken as natural
and inevitable.
o Conservatives gradually modified this view of the natural structure of society as
it was becoming clear that society was more fluid than it had ever been and
people had begun to view themselves as individuals rather than members of a
social class.
o By the 1980s conservatives had abandoned their views of a hierarchical
society, but held onto the belief that individuals are unequal in terms of their
abilities and potentialities. This view is shared by both conservatives and
liberals.
o Conservatives have emphasized their belief in a natural inequality in response
to socialist ideas.
o The socialist objective of creating more social and economic equality is seen by
conservatives as a completely artificial aspiration, unnatural to society.
o They suggest that inequality is a positive aspect of society since it creates
competition and dynamism.
4) Human nature
o This is the most fundamental value of conservatism.
o The deepest conservatives take the view that human kind is born with original
sin and must therefore remain severely flawed in character. They will never be
able to achieve perfection. The religious nature of modern US conservatism has
seen a restoration of this view.
o Individuals are not driven by reason, but by basic appetites. These include the
desire for physical prosperity, for property, for power and to avoid deprivation.
o Human nature is ever changing as the nature of society itself is changing.
o There may be periods when people mostly crave freedom and the pursuit of
individualism, while at other times they may be fearful and crave security and
welfare.
o Its a conservative tradition to see people as untrustworthy, self-seeking and
generally feckless.
o This leads to the conclusion that humankind is in need of firm government. The
relationship between the government and the people should be similar to that
between a parent and a child paternalism.
o The conservative view of human nature has a number of implications i.e. in
law and order conservatives believe that the causes of crime and disorder lie
with the individual. This opposes the liberal view that crime and disorder is the
result of economic and social deprivation.
o If there is excess of popular democracy, the country is likely to be poorly
governed.
o The conservative view of representation is that governments should not
slavishly follow the fluctuating desires and demands of the people, but should
use their wise judgment to serve the best interests of the whole community.
o In a modern context this is reflected in the conservative suspicion of the
referendum mechanism, although recently the British Conservative Party has
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supported the use of referendums in some circumstances, i.e. the current plans
to hold an EU membership referendum in 2017.
o Margaret Thatchers policies of the 1980s sought to unlock what she saw as
humankinds natural desire to be free from the shackles of government to
pursue individual goals and to compete with orders in search of prosperity.
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o Modern conservatism has largely ignored this importance since the 1980s. It
has embraced new social theories such as monetarism, privatization and
opposition to the dependency culture, and has attacked traditional institutions
such as the Church of England.
o There is still strong support for traditional institutions in US and French
conservatism, which has proved resistant to excessive social reform.
13) Pragmatism
o Pragmatism pragmatists believe that philosophy should take the methods and
insights of modern science and society into account before implementing radical
policy.
o Conservatives are, above all, pragmatists.
o Oakeshott particularly advocated a pragmatic approach. He asserted that
politics should be a conversation not an argument. He meant that political
action should never be the result of conflict over political dogma and theories.
o Instead it should be the result of a more gentle relationship between
government and the governed.
o A good conservative politician should engage in a relationship with the people
that would allow him or her to reach the decisions based on the imitations and
traditions of the community.
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o Pragmatism implies a flexible approach to politics: an understanding of what is
best for the people, what is acceptable to them and what will preserve a stable
society.
o 1950s example a series of moderate Conservative governments in the UK
were confronted with a number of radical reforms that had been implemented
by the Labour governments of 1945-51.
o The conservatives reached a pragmatic decision to retain Labours radical
initiatives.
Content
Debates about the nature of Conservatism
Defined by a desire to conserve.
Conservatism is a political tradition that contains both constant and variable
principles.
A conservative is one who resists the dominance of fixed political doctrines and
ideologies.
Conservatism is, by nature, a reactionary movement.
When change is needed, conservatives prefer reform.
The nature of thinking depends on the dominant ideas at any age/situation; varying
principles.
Conservative views on the nature of society vary, but all conservatives support
individualism.
Conservatives are pragmatic and believe that good social order and security are the
most basic of human needs.
Order is seen as more important that ideas such as freedom, rights and equality and
they are firm supporters of private ownership as they believe this promotes
individuals to have a sense of belonging to society.
The Peelites Peel recognized that if reform and change were both inevitable and
desirable, it was pointless for conservatives to resist it.
He insisted in his widely acclaimed Tamworth Manifesto of 1834 that conservatism
had to become a pragmatic rather than a reactionary movement.
It was Peel who enabled the British conservative movement to ally itself to free-
market capitalism and so gain the support of the growing middle classes.
Peelite conservatism was therefore pragmatic, tied to capitalism, protection of
property rights and fundamentally middle class in nature.
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One-nationism After Peel came Benjamin Disraeli.
Disraeli was a pragmatist and he decided to venture into how to relate to the working
class.
His main contribution to conservatism throughout Europe were his theories about the
organic nature of society.
He argued that capitalism was creating a society of individuals at the expense of a
general sense of social responsibility. The country was in danger of losing its sense
with the community. People who were too busy pursuing their own selfish ends were
liable to lose a strong sense of nation and society.
Disraeli insisted that the effects of free-market capitalism were class-conflict and a
recipe for revolution. In response to this, Disraeli insisted that it was the role of
conservatives to unite the nation and create one nation.
Disraelian one-nation Toryism was a type of conservatism that had at is core aim the
unity of the people and the avoidance of social conflict. This was a theme in Europe.
According to Disraeli, national unity was to be provided for by 4 main forces:
Constitutional unity, maintenance of tradition, encouragement of patriotism and the
provision of welfare.
One-nation conservatism survives to this day. It formed a powerful opposition from
within the Conservative party to Margaret Thatchers radicalism in the 1980s. They
were known to Thatcher as the wets, as they claimed to be social unifiers and
criticized the new individualist and free-market policies of the Thatcher era. These
wets were forced out of government and lost the argument.
The New Right The term was coined by the USA to describe a new wing of the
Republican Party, represented by Ronald Reagan that gathered around Margaret
Thatchers leadership.
Its main ideas were a revival of a number of past political traditions including classical
liberalism, populism, Whiggism, and conservatism itself. The two strands of the New
Right:
Neo-liberalism Neo-conservatism
- Restoration of free labour, product - Traditional position on morality and
and financial markets wherever lifestyles
possible - Authoritarian stance on law-and-
- Minimal role in regulating the order issues
economy - Heavy emphasis on national self-
- Taxation to be kept to a minimum interest and patriotism
- Belief that welfare is a disincentive - Opposition to excessive
to work and enterprise should be immigration and cultural diversity
kept to a minimum - Opposition to European political
- Support for a free market in Europe integration
- USA: as above, plus: - USA: as above, plus:
- Preference for power to be - Strong religious element to moral
reserved for individual states, not and social issues
federal government - Insistence on protection for US
industry from foreign competition
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multiculturalism, but are not racist as they prefer a monoculture where all citizens
adopt the dominant domestic culture.
They tend to support free-market economics, insisting that the state, although strong,
should be limited to matters of order and security, not industrial and commercial
activity.
Right-wing nationalism the New Right took the traditional conservative philosophy of
nationalism, and raised it to new heights.
As a movement, the New Right was faced by the challenges of both globalization and
the advance of European integration. Its UK supporters reacted strongly by asserting
national interests in the face of these threats to their autonomy of nation-states
everywhere.
Neo-conservatism New Right has been suspicious of state power, it has become
equally concerned by the potential social disorder resulting from increased freedom,
permissiveness, lack of social responsibility and challenges to authority by the
alienated sections of society.
So, just as Burke stressed the need for good order and took a paternalistic view of the
role of the state, so did the New Right.
A strong stance on law and order issues, attempts to restore traditional values and
morality have been adopted.
Putting together the neo-liberal position on the economy and welfare, and the neo-
conservative stance on law and order, moral values and national security gives a
summary of the New Right.
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The impact of conservative thinking on the actions and policies of
political parties and movements
Social and liberal conservatism Although the New Right dominated conservative
parties in the US and Europe, there remained a faction in the conservative movement
that is more progressive and liberal in its outlook.
Its members call themselves social conservatives and the election of David Cameron
elevated social conservatism to a primary position.
Social conservatives retain some of the values of traditional one nation
conservatism. These include:
o A view that society is indeed organic, thus rejecting the New Right neo-liberal
perspective that saw society as little more than a collection of individuals. They
accept that individualism should not be at the expense of a persistent minority.
o Retain the principles that families are the cornerstone of an ordered society.
o Remain firm nationalists who promote the best interests of Britain abroad.
Remaining skeptical of European integration proposals for a referendum to be
held in 2017.
o Cameronian conservatives tend to be suspicious of constitutional reform and
can be seen as traditionalists where the political system is concerned.
o They remain largely authoritarian in their approach to many law and order
issues as they also place a higher value on order than on personal liberty.
o They dont shared the neo-liberal view that welfare benefits are a disincentive to
work as they see a properly targeted benefits system as a means of increasing
opportunities.
There are however some areas in which they consider themselves to be reformers:
o They argue social reform can be effective and its a legitimate function of
government to promote such reform.
o They see education as a key element in social reform. They support Labours
policies of providing a wide degree of choice in educational provision, notably
secondary schooling.
o They emphasise the need for greater social mobility.
o They have a tolerant attitude to different forms of lifestyle and family, i.e. their
supporting of same-sex marriage by a vote in Commons of 366 161 making it
a law.
o They accept the reality of a multicultural society and promote equal
opportunities for minorities.
There are some neo-liberal principles that still exist:
o They still firmly believe that free markets are the best way to increase wealth.
o They argue that Britain is still over-governed and there should be less regulation
of industry and commerce.
o They see taxation as a major disincentive to enterprise and so wish to see much
lower corporate taxation.
The major criticisms of The New Right appeared after 2007, which included the
following:
o Laissez-faire policies resulted in excessive levels of borrowing and conspicuous
spending that couldnt be sustained.
o Lack of regulation had created a bubble of wealth that was bound to burst.
o Irresponsible behaviour by unregulated financial institutions led to an inevitable
economic recession as the system of credit creation collapsed in 2007-2008.
o There remained a persistent underclass that was characterized by poor
educational attainment, persistent poverty and high crime levels that the neo-
liberal state had paid little attention to.
o Many argued that the highly individualistic society lacked a sense of morality
and community.
A consistent theme of conservatism, born in the Disraeli era, is that of those who
enjoy prosperity have an obligation to help the less fortunate noblesse oblige.
o Traditional conservatives also see society as organic and so lamented the loss of
community from the 1980s onwards.
o They also stress the need for good order and security.
o The highly individualistic policies of the New Right had clearly threatened such
order.
o The lack of morality in economic life seemed to have leaked into social life
generally.
In response to this was the emergence of Camerons more social and liberal form of
conservatism.
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