MODULE I

PART 2

Physical Layer: - Transmission Media ISDN system Architecture Communication

Satellites geostationary satellites - Medium Earth Orbit Satellites- Low earth orbit
satellites Satellite v/s Fiber

Transmission Media

A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry

information from a source to a destination. In data communication, the information is
usually a signal that is the result of a conversion of data from another form. The
transmission medium is usually free space, metallic cable, or fiber-optic cable. In tele-
communications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided and
unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Unguided medium is free space.

Fig1: Classes of transmission media

Guided media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along
any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.

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Twisted pair cable

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own
plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the
receiver, and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference
between the two.

Fig 2: Twisted-pair cable

In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise)
and crosstalk may affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are
parallel, the effect of these unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they
are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources (e.g., one is closer and
the other is farther). This results in a difference at the receiver. By twisting the pairs, a
balance is maintained. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are equally affected by
external influences (noise or crosstalk). This means that the receiver, which calculates the
difference between the two, receives no unwanted signals. So the number of twists per
unit of length (e.g., inch) has some effect on the quality of the cable.

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as

unshielded twisted-pair (UTP). IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for
its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves
the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and
more expensive.

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 Fig 3: UTP and STP cables

Categories

The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to classify

unshielded twisted-pair cable into seven categories. Categories are determined by cable
quality, with 1 as the lowest and 7 as the highest. Each EIA category is suitable for
specific uses. For example, category 1 is sued in telephone line, which has a data rate
below 0.1 Mbps, and category 5 is used in LANs having a data rate of 100 Mbps.

Table: Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

Connector
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 The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack). The RJ45
is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be inserted in only one way.

Fig 4: UTP connector

Performance

One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare

attenuation versus frequency and distance. A twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range of
frequencies. But with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100 kHz. Gauge shows the
thickness of the metal part. Thicker wires are represented by lower gauge values.

Fig 5: UTP performance

Applications

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 The local loop (the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office)
commonly consists of unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are used by the
telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth
capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables. Local-area networks, such as lOBase-T and
lOOBase-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable also known as Coax, has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an
outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic
wrapping serves as a shield against noise and as the second conductor. This outer
conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a
plastic cover. Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair Cable.

Fig 6: Coaxial cable

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG
number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the
inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the
shield, and the size and type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is
adapted for a specialized function. RG-59 is used in cable TV; RG-11 is used in thick
Ethernet etc.
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Table: Categories of coaxial cables

Coaxial Cable Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common
type of connector used today is the BNC connector. There are 3 popular types of BNC
connectors. The simple BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to a device,
such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a
connection to a computer or other device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the
cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

Fig 7: BNC connectors

Performance

The attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in twisted-pair cable. In other
words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal weakens rapidly
and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

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 Fig 8: Coaxial cable performance

Applications

Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks
where a single coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. Cable TV networks
also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network used
coaxial cable. But later coaxial cable is used only at the network boundaries, near the
consumer premises. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.

Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs.

Because of its high bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen
for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable
with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 m. Thick Ethernet,
uses RG-11 (thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps with a range of 5000 m. Thick
Ethernet has specialized connectors.

Fiber-optic cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light. The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon. Inside the jacket are Kevlar
strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of
bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The
fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.
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 Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform
substance. If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters another
substance (of a different density), the ray will change direction.

Fig 9: Bending of light ray

Here a ray of light changes direction when going from a denser to a less dense
substance. If the angle of incidence i (the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular
to the interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts
and moves closer to the surface. If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the
light bends along the interface. If the angle is greater than the critical angle, the ray
reflects (makes a turn) and travels again in the denser substance.

Fig 10: Optical fiber

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core
is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the
two materials must be such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off
the cladding instead of being refracted into it.

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Propagation Mode

Current technology supports two modes : multimode and single mode, for
propagating light along optical channels.

In Multimode, multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths. Multimode can be implemented in two forms: step-index or graded-index
with change in the structure of the core.

In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the
center to the edges.

Fig 11: Propagation modes

A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches
the interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to
a lower density; this alters the angle of the beam's motion. The sudden change in the
angle, results in distortion of the signal as it passes thru the fiber.

A multimode graded-index fiber decreases this distortion of the signal through the
cable. Here the density of the core is not constant as in step index. A graded-index fiber,
therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the center of the core and
decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. It avoids the sudden change in the angle, due
to sudden change in density. So the distortion of signal can be reduced.

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 In single mode, step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits
beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single mode fiber is
manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with
substantially lower density (index of refraction). The decrease in density results in a
critical angle that is close enough to 90 to make the propagation of beams almost
horizontal. In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical, and delays are
negligible. All the beams arrive at the destination together and can be recombined with
little distortion to the signal.

Fig 12: Modes

Fiber Sizes

Optical fibers are categorized by the ratio of the diameter of their core to the
diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.

Table: Fiber types

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Cable Composition

The outer jacket is made of either PVC or Teflon.Inside the jacket are Kevlar
strands to strengthen the cable. Kevlar is a strong material used in the fabrication of
bulletproof vests. Below the Kevlar is another plastic coating to cushion the fiber. The
fiber is at the center of the cable, and it consists of cladding and core.

Fig 13: Fiber construction

Fiber-optic cable connectors

There are three types of connectors for fiber optic cables : Subscriber channel (SC),
is used for cable TV. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to
networking devices. MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.

Fig 14: Fiber-optic cable connectors

Fiber optic cables can handle high values of frequencies. The attenuation is flatter
than in twisted pair and coaxial cables. So it needs fewer repeaters than other kinds.
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Performance

Fiber optic cables can handle high values of frequencies. The attenuation is flatter
than in twisted pair and coaxial cables. So it needs fewer repeaters than other kinds.

Fig 15: Optical fiber performance

Application

Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth
is cost-effective. When the bandwidth requirement is low it is not commonly used as it is
very costly. Some cable TV companies uses a combination of OFC and coaxial cable.
Fiber optic cable is used here as backbone structure. Local area network such as fast
Ethernet uses OFC. Now a days telephone network also makes use of OFC.

Advantages

Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data rates)
than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable.

Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other guided

media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration. We need repeaters
every 5 km for coaxial or twisted-pair cable.

Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables as massage is transmitted in

the form of light.
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 OFC is made of glass or fiber which is more resistant to corrosive materials than
copper. Also fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.

Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables. Copper cables
create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.

Disadvantages

Fiber-optic cable is a relatively new technology. Its installation and maintenance

require expertise that is not yet available everywhere. Propagation of light is
unidirectional. If we need bidirectional communication, two fibers are needed. The cable
and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media. If the
demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

Wireless Transmission

Unguided transmission is used when running a physical cable (either fiber or copper)
between two end points is not possible. For example, running wires between buildings is
probably not legal if the building is separated by a public street.

There are three media that can be used for transmission over wireless LANs. Infrared,
radio frequency and microwave. In 1985 the United States released the industrial,
scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands. These bands are 902 - 928MHz, 2.4 -
2.4853 GHz, and 5.725 - 5.85 GHz and do not require licensing by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC). This prompted most of the wireless LAN products
to operate within ISM bands. The FCC did put restrictions on the ISM bands however. In
the U.S. radio frequency (RF) systems must implement spread spectrum technology. RF
systems must confine the emitted spectrum to a band. RF is also limited to one watt of
power. Microwave systems are considered very low power systems and must operate at
500 milli watts or less.

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Infrared
Infrared systems (IR systems) are simple in design and therefore inexpensive. They use
the same signal frequencies used on fiber optic links. IR systems detect only the amplitude
of the signal and so interference is greatly reduced. These systems are not bandwidth
limited and thus can achieve transmission speeds greater than the other systems. Infrared
transmission operates in the light spectrum and does not require a license from the FCC to
operate. There are two conventional ways to set up an IR LAN.

The infrared transmissions can be aimed. This gives a good range of a couple of kilometer
and can be used outdoors. It also offers the highest bandwidth and throughput.

The other way is to transmit omni-directionally and bounce the signals off of
everything in every direction. This reduces coverage to 30 - 60 feet, but it is area
coverage. IR technology was initially very popular because it delivered high data rates and
relatively cheap price.

The drawbacks to IR systems are that the transmission spectrum is shared with the sun and
other things such as fluorescent lights. If there is enough interference from other sources it
can render the LAN useless. IR systems require an unobstructed line of sight (LOS). IR
signals cannot penetrate opaque objects. This means that walls, dividers, curtains, or even
fog can obstruct the signal. InfraLAN is an example of wireless LANs using infrared
technology.

Microwave
Microwave (MW) systems operate at less than 500 milliwatts of power in compliance
with FCC regulations. MW systems are by far the fewest on the market. They use narrow-
band transmission with single frequency modulation and are set up mostly in the 5.8GHz
band. The big advantage to MW systems is higher throughput achieved because they do
not have the overhead involved with spread spectrum systems. RadioLAN is an example
of systems with microwave technology.

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Radio

Radio frequency systems must use spread spectrum technology in the United States. This
spread spectrum technology currently comes in two types: direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS) and frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS). There is a lot of
overhead involved with spread spectrum and so most of the DSSS and FHSS systems
have historically had lower data rates than IR or MW.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Scheme

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) represents each bit in the frame by multiple bits
in the transmitted frame. DSSS represents each data 0 and 1 by the symbol 1 and +1 and
then multiplies each symbol by a binary pattern of +1s and 1s to obtain a digital signal
that varies more rapidly occupying larger band. The IEEE 802.11 uses a simple 11-chip
Barker sequence B11 [-1, +1, -1, -1, +1, -1, -1, -1, +1, +1, +1] with QPSK or BPSK
modulation as shown in Figure 5.7.2. The DSSS transmission system takes 1 Mbps data,
converts it into 11 Mbps signal using differential binary phase shift keying (DBPSK)
modulation.
The Barker sequence provides good immunity against interference and noise as well as
some protection against multi-path propagation. In both cases of spread spectrum
transmission, the signal look like noise to any receiver that does not know the
pseudorandom sequence. The third transmission media is based on infrared signal in the
near visible range of 850 to 950 nanometers. Diffused transmission is used so that the
transmitter and receivers do not have to point to each other and do not require a clear line
of sight communication. The transmission distance is limited to 10 to 20 meters and is
limited to inside the buildings only.

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The idea behind spread spectrum is to spread the signal over a wider frequency band, so
as to make jamming and interception more difficult and to minimize the effect of
interference from other devices In FH it is done by transmitting the signal over a random
sequence of frequencies; that is, first transmitting at one frequency, then second, then a
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third and so on. The random sequence of frequencies is generated with the help of a
pseudorandom number generator. As both the receiver and sender use the same algorithm
to generate random sequence, both the devices hop frequencies in a synchronous manner
and frames transmitted by the sender are received correctly by the receiver. This is
somewhat similar to sending different parts of one song over several FM channels.
Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips and any attempt to jam the signal results in
damaging a few bits only.

Multipath Interference

Interference caused by signals bouncing off of walls and other barriers and arriving at the
receiver at different times is called multipath interference. Multipath interference affects
IR, RF, and MW systems. FHSS inherently solves the multipath problem by simply
hopping to other frequencies. Other systems use anti-multipath algorithms to avoid this
interference. A subset of multipath is Rayleigh fading. This occurs when the difference in
path length is arriving from different directions and is a multiple of half the wavelength.
Rayleigh fading has the effect of completely cancelling out the signal. IR systems are not
affected by Rayleigh fading, because the wavelengths used in IR are very small.

ISDN system Architecture

ISDN components include terminals, terminal adapters (TA), network-termination

devices, line-termination equipment and exchange-termination equipment.

ISDN terminals come in two types:

Specialized ISDN terminals are referred to as terminal equipment type 1
(TE1).
Non - ISDN terminals such as DTE that predate the ISDN standards are referred
to as terminal equipment type 2 (TE2).

TE1 are connected to the ISDN network through a four-wired twisted-pair digital link.

TE2 are connected to the ISDN network through a terminal adapter.

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The ISDN TA can either be a stand-alone device or a board inside TE2. If implemented as
a stand-alone device, the TE2 is connected to the TA via a standard physical layer
interface.

Fig . Sample ISDN Configuration

Communication Satellites
A communication satellite can be thought of as a big microwave repeater in the sky.
It contains several transponders, each of which listens to some portion of the spectrum,
amplifies the incoming signal, and then rebroadcasts it at another frequency to avoid
interference with the incoming signal. The downward beams
can be broad, covering a substantial fraction of the earth's surface, or narrow, covering an
area only hundreds of kilometers in diameter. This mode of operation is known as a bent
pipe.
Two frequencies are necessary for communication between a ground station and a
satellite; one for communication from the ground station on the earth to the satellite called
uplink frequency and another frequency for communication from the satellite to a station
on the earth, called downlink frequency.
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 The higher the satellite, the longer the period. Near the surface of the earth, the
period is about 90 minutes. At an altitude of about 35,800 km, the period is 24 hours. At
an altitude of 384,000 km, the period is about one month. presence of the Van Allen belts,
layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earth's magnetic field. Any satellite flying
within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles
trapped there by the earth's magnetic field. These factors lead to three regions in which
satellites can be placed safely. These regions and some of their properties are illustrated in
Figure 16.

Figure 16. Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth,
round-trip delay time, and number of satellites needed for global coverage.

Geostationary Satellites
A satellite at an altitude of 35,800 km in a circular equatorial orbit would appear to
remain motionless in the sky, so it would not need to be tracked. Geostationary satellites
spaced much closer than 2 degrees in the 360-degree equatorial plane, to avoid
interference. With a spacing of 2 degrees, there can only be 360/2 = 180 of these satellites
in the sky at once. However, each transponder can use multiple frequencies and
polarizations to increase the available bandwidth. To prevent total chaos in the sky, orbit
slot allocation is done by ITU.
Commercial telecommunication is not the only application. Television broadcasters,
governments, and the military also want a piece of the orbiting pie. Modern satellites can
be quite large, weighing up to 4000 kg and consuming several kilowatts of electric power
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produced by the solar panels. The effects of solar, lunar, and planetary gravity tend to
move them away from their assigned orbit slots and orientations, an effect countered by
on-board rocket motors. This fine-tuning activity is called station keeping. However, when
the fuel for the motors has been exhausted, typically in about 10 years, the satellite drifts
and tumbles helplessly, so it has to be turned off. Eventually, the orbit decays and the
satellite reenters the atmosphere and burns up or occasionally crashes to earth.
ITU has allocated certain frequency bands to satellite users. The main ones are
listed in Fig. 17. The C band was the first to be designated for commercial satellite traffic.
Two frequency ranges are assigned in it, the lower one for downlink traffic (from the
satellite) and the upper one for uplink traffic (to the satellite). These bands are already
overcrowded because they are also used by the common carriers for terrestrial microwave
links. The L and S bands were added by international agreement in 2000. However, they
are narrow and crowded.

Figure 17:. The principal satellite bands.

The next highest band available to commercial telecommunication carriers is the Ku

(K under) band. This band is not (yet) congested, and at these frequencies, satellites can be
spaced as close as 1 degree. However, another problem exists: rain. Water is an excellent
absorber of these short microwaves. Fortunately, heavy storms are usually localized, so
using several widely separated ground stations instead of just one circumvents the
problem but at the price of extra antennas, extra cables, and extra electronics to enable
rapid switching between stations. Bandwidth has also been allocated in the Ka (K above)
band for commercial satellite traffic, but the equipment needed to use it is still expensive.
In addition to these commercial bands, many government and military bands also exist.
A modern satellite has around 40 transponders, each with an 80-MHz bandwidth.
Usually, each transponder operates as a bent pipe, but recent satellites have some on-board
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processing capacity, allowing more sophisticated operation. In the earliest satellites, the
division of the transponders into channels was static: the bandwidth was simply split up
into fixed frequency bands. Nowadays, each transponder beam is divided into time slots,
with various users taking turns.
The first geostationary satellites had a single spatial beam that illuminated about 1/3
of the earth's surface, called its footprint. With the enormous decline in the price, size, and
power requirements of microelectronics, a much more sophisticated broadcasting strategy
has become possible. Each satellite is equipped with multiple antennas and multiple
transponders. Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area, so
multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously. Typically,
these so-called spot beams are elliptically shaped, and can be as small as a few hundred
km in diameter.
Long round-trip propagation delay is about 270 msec between two ground stations.
Key features of the GEO satellites are mentioned below:
Inherently broadcast media: It does not cost much to send to a large number of
stations
Lower privacy and security: Encryption is essential to ensure privacy and security
Cost of communication is independent of distance

VSAT Systems:

A new development in the communication satellite world is the development of

low-cost microstations, sometimes called VSATs (Very Small Aperture Terminals)
(Abramson, 2000). These tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m
for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power. The uplink is
generally good for 19.2 kbps, but the downlink is more often 512 kbps or more. Direct
broadcast satellite television uses this technology for one-way transmission.
In many VSAT systems, the microstations do not have enough power to
communicate directly with one another (via the satellite, of course). Instead, a special
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ground station, the hub, with a large, high-gain antenna is needed to relay traffic between
VSATs, as shown in Fig. 18. In this mode of operation, either the sender or the receiver
has a large antenna and a powerful amplifier. VSATs have great potential in rural areas.

Figure 18. VSATs using a hub.

Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites

At much lower altitudes, between the two Van Allen belts, we find the MEO
(Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites. As viewed from the earth, these drift slowly in longitude,
taking something like 6 hours to circle the earth. Accordingly, they must be tracked as
they move through the sky. Because they are lower than the GEOs, they have a smaller
footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them. One
important example of the MEO satellites is the Global Positioning System (GPS).
GPS

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system. It

comprises a network of 24 satellites at an altitude of 20,000 Km (Period 12 Hrs) and an
inclination of 55 as shown in Fig. 19. Although it was originally intended for military
applications and deployed by the Department of Defence, the system is available for
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civilian use since 1980. It allows land, sea and airborne users to measure their position,
velocity and time. It works in any weather conditions, 24 hrs a day. Positioning is accurate
to within 15 meters. It is used for land and sea navigation using the principle of
triangulation as shown in Fig. 20. It requires that at any time at least 4 satellites to be
visible from any point of earth. A GPS receiver can find out the location on a map.

Figure 19: Global positioning system Figure 20: Triangulation approach used to
find the position of an object

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Moving down in altitude, we come to the LEO (Low-Earth Orbit) satellites. Due to
their rapid motion, large numbers of them are needed for a complete system. On the other
hand, because the satellites are so close to the earth, the ground stations do not need much
power, and the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds.
The altitude of LEO satellites is in the range of 500 to 1500 Km with a rotation
period of 90 to 120 min and round trip delay of less than 20 ms. The satellites rotate in
polar orbits with a rotational speed of 20,000 to 25,000 Km. As the footprint of LEO
satellites is a small area of about 8000 Km diameter, it is necessary to have a constellation
of satellites, as shown in Fig. 21, which work together as a network to facilitate
communication between two earth stations anywhere on earths surface. The satellite
system is shown in Fig. 22. Each satellite is provided with three links; the User Mobile
Link (UML) for communication with a mobile station, the Gateway Link (GWL) for
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communication with a earth station and the Inter-satellite Link (ISL) for communication
between two satellites, which are close to each other. Depending on the frequency bands
used by different satellites, these can be broadly categorized into three types; the little
LEOs operating under 1 GHz and used for low data rate communication, the big LEOs
operating in the range 1 to 3 GHz and the Broadband and the broadband LEOs provide
communication capabilities similar to optical networks.

Figure 21: LEO satellite network Figure 22: LEO satellite system

Iridium System
The Iridium system was a project started by Motorola in 1990 with the objective of
providing worldwide voice and data communication service using handheld devices. It
took 8 years to materialize using 66 satellites. The 66 satellites are divided in 6 polar
orbits at an altitude of 750 Km. Each satellite has 48 spot beams (total 3168 beams). The
number of active spot beams is about 2000.
Iridium's business was (and is) providing worldwide telecommunication service
using hand-held devices that communicate directly with the Iridium satellites. It provides
voice, data, paging, fax, and navigation service everywhere on land, sea, and air. With six
satellite necklaces, the entire earth is covered, as suggested by Fig. 23(a). People not
knowing much about chemistry can think of this arrangement as a very, very big
dysprosium atom, with the earth as the nucleus and the satellites as the electrons.

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 Figure 2-18. (a) The Iridium satellites form six necklaces around the earth. (b) 1628 moving cells cover
the earth.
Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams), with a total of 1628 cells over the
surface of the earth, as shown in Fig. 23(b). Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels,
or 253,440 in all. Some of these are used for paging and navigation, while others are used
for data and voice. An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between
distant customers takes place in space, with one satellite relaying data to the next one, as
illustrated in Fig. 24(a). Here we see a caller at the North Pole contacting a satellite
directly overhead. The call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the callee
at the South Pole.

Figure 24. (a) Relaying in space. (b) Relaying on the ground.

Globalstar
An alternative design to Iridium is Globalstar. Globalstar uses a traditional bent-
pipe design. The call originating at the North Pole in Fig. 24 (b) is sent back to earth and

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picked up by the large ground station at Santa's Workshop. The call is then routed via a
terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bentpipe
connection as shown. The advantage of this scheme is that it puts much of the complexity
on the ground, where it is easier to manage. Also, the use of large ground station antennas
that can put out a powerful signal and receive a weak one means that lower-powered
telephones can be used. After all, the telephone puts out only a few milliwatts of power, so
the signal that gets back to the ground station is fairly weak, even after having been
amplified by the satellite.

The Teledesic System

The Teledesic project started in 1990 by Craig McCaw and Bill Gates in 1990 with
the objective of providing fiber-optic like communication (Internet-in-the-sky). It has 288
satellites in 12 polar orbits, each orbit having 24 satellites at an altitude of 1350 Km.
The goal of the Teledesic system is to provide millions of concurrent Internet users with
an uplink of as much as 100 Mbps and a downlink of up to 720 Mbps using a small, fixed,
VSAT-type antenna, completely bypassing the telephone system. To telephone companies,
this is pie-in-the-sky. Three types of communications that are allowed in Teledasic are as
follows;
ISL: Intersatellite communication allows eight neighboring satellites to
communicate with each other
GWL: Communication between a satellite and a gateway
UML: Between an user and a satellite
1 The surface of the earth is divided into thousands of cells and each satellite focuses
it beams to a cell during dwell time. It uses Ka band communication with data rates
of 155Mbps uplink and 1.2Gbps downlink.
2
Satellites versus Fiber
First, while a single fiber has, in principle, more potential bandwidth than all the
satellites ever launched, this bandwidth is not available to most users. The fibers that are
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now being installed are used within the telephone system to handle many long distance
calls at once, not to provide individual users with high bandwidth. With satellites, it is
practical for a user to erect an antenna on the roof of the building and completely bypass
the telephone system to get high bandwidth. Teledesic is based on this idea.
A second niche is for mobile communication. Many people nowadays want to
communicate while jogging, driving, sailing, and flying. Terrestrial fiber optic links are of
no use to them, but satellite links potentially are.
A third niche is for situations in which broadcasting is essential. A message sent by
satellite can be received by thousands of ground stations at once.
A fourth niche is for communication in places with hostile terrain or a poorly
developed terrestrial infrastructure.
A fifth niche market for satellites is to cover areas where obtaining the right of way
for laying fiber is difficult or unduly expensive.
Sixth, when rapid deployment is critical, as in military communication systems in
time of war, satellites win easily.

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