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THE
well as improve their spatial memory and learning.
MATERNAL
BRAINPregnancy and motherhood change the structure
of the female mammals brain, making mothers
attentive to their young and better at caring for them
M
others are made, not born. Virtually all female mam- abilities, giving her pups a better chance of survival. What is
mals, from rats to monkeys to humans, undergo fun- more, the cognitive benets appear to be long-lasting, persist-
damental behavioral changes during pregnancy and ing until the mother rats enter old age.
motherhood. What was once a largely self-directed organism Although studies of this phenomenon have so far focused
devoted to its own needs and survival becomes one focused on on rodents, it is likely that human females also gain long-last-
the care and well-being of its offspring. Although scientists ing mental benets from motherhood. Most mammals share
have long observed and marveled at this transition, only now similar maternal behaviors, which are probably controlled by
are they beginning to understand what causes it. New research the same brain regions in both humans and rats. In fact, some
indicates that the dramatic hormonal uctuations that occur researchers have suggested that the development of maternal
during pregnancy, birth and lactation may remodel the female behavior was one of the main drivers for the evolution of the
brain, increasing the size of neurons in some regions and pro- mammalian brain. As mammals arose from their reptile fore-
ducing structural changes in others. bears, their reproductive strategy shifted from drop-the-eggs-
Some of these sites are involved in regulating maternal be- and-ee to defend-the-nest, and the selective advantages of the
haviors such as building nests, grooming young and protecting latter approach may have favored the emergence of hormonal
them from predators. Other affected regions, though, control brain changes and the resulting benecial behaviors. The
memory, learning, and responses to fear and stress. Recent hand or paw that rocks the cradle indeed rules the world.
JUS TINE COOPER
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its offspring. Starting in the 1940s, Frank A. Beach of Yale also involved [see box on opposite page], and each of these sites
University showed that estrogen and progesterone, the female is rife with receptors for hormones and other neurochemicals.
reproductive hormones, regulate responses such as aggression Noted neuroscientist Paul MacLean of the National Institute
and sexuality in rats, hamsters, cats and dogs. Further pio- of Mental Health has proposed that the neural pathways from
neering work by Daniel S. Lehrman and Jay S. Rosenblatt, the thalamus, the brains relay station, to the cingulate cortex,
then at the Institute of Animal Behavior at Rutgers University, which regulates emotions, are an important part of the mater-
demonstrated that the same hormones were required for the nal behavior system. Damaging the cingulate cortex in mother
display of maternal behavior in rats. In 1984 Robert S. Bridg- rats eliminates their maternal behavior. In his 1990 book The
es, now at the Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Triune Brain in Evolution, MacLean hypothesized that the
reported that the production of estrogen and progesterone development of these pathways helped to shape the mamma-
increased at certain points during pregnancy and that the ap- lian brain as it evolved from the simpler reptilian brain.
pearance of maternal behavior depended on the interplay of Interestingly, once the reproductive hormones initiate the
the hormones and their eventual decrease. Bridges and his col- maternal response, the brains dependency on them seems to
leagues went on to show that prolactin, the lactation-inducing diminish, and the offspring alone can stimulate maternal be-
hormone, stimulated maternal behavior in female rats already havior. Although a newly born mammal is a demanding little
primed with progesterone and estrogen. creature, unappealing on many levels it is smelly, helpless
Besides hormones, other chemicals affecting the nervous and sleeps only intermittently the mothers devotion to it is
system appear to play a role in triggering motherly impulses. the most motivated of all animal displays, exceeding even sex-
In 1980 Alan R. Gintzler of the State University of New York ual behavior and feeding. Joan I. Morrell of Rutgers has sug-
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Estrogens and
Progesterone
Oxytocin, Prolactin
Nucleus accumbens and Endorphins
Medial preoptic area
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Amygdala
Hippocampus Ovary
Periaqueductal gray Placenta
of the hypothalamus and the prefrontal and orbitofrontal cor- evidence while investigating the cortices of pregnant rats. The
tices all lighting up. Furthermore, Andreas Bartels and Semir outermost layer of the brain, the cortex receives and processes
Zeki of University College London found that the brain areas sensory information and also controls voluntary movements.
that regulate reward became activated when human moms Rats raised in enriched sensory environments, surrounded by
merely gazed at their children. The similarity between the hu- wheels, toys and tunnels, typically develop more intricately
man and rodent responses suggests the existence of a general folded cortices than rats housed in bare cages. Diamond, how-
maternal circuit in the mammalian brain. ever, found that the cortices of pregnant rats from impover-
ished environments were just as complex as those of the female
Brain Changes rats from enriched settings. She concluded that some combina-
to u n de r sta n d t h e wor k i ngs of this circuit, research- tion of hormones and fetus-related factors were most likely
ers have studied how the female brain changes at different re- stimulating the pregnant rats brains.
TA MI TOLPA
productive stages. In the 1970s Marian C. Diamond of the Two decades later, after studies demonstrated the impor-
University of California, Berkeley, provided some of the earliest tance of the mPOA to maternal behavior, investigators began
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looking for changes to that brain region. In the mid-1990s Lori Are other features of the mothers hunting skills also en-
Keyser, a researcher in one of our laboratories (Kinsleys) at the hanced? Recent work by undergraduates Naomi Hester, Nat-
University of Richmond, showed that the cell bodies of the neu- alie Karp and Angela Orthmeyer in Kinsleys lab has shown
rons in the mPOA of pregnant rats increase in volume. What is that mother rats are faster than virgins at capturing prey.
more, the length and number of dendrites (the signal-receiving Slightly food-deprived mother and virgin rats were each placed
branches extending from the cell body) in mPOA neurons in- in a ve-foot-square enclosure bedded with wood chips, in
crease as the pregnancy progresses. The same changes were also which a cricket was hidden. The virgins took an average of
observed in female rats treated with a pregnancy-mimicking nearly 270 seconds to nd the cricket and eat it, compared
regimen of progesterone and estradiol, the most powerful of with just more than 50 seconds for the lactating females. Even
the natural estrogens. These neuronal alterations typically ac- when the virgin females were made hungrier or when the
company a rise in protein synthesis and activity. In essence, the sounds of the crickets were masked, the mother rats were still
hormones of pregnancy rev up the mPOA neurons in antici- able to get to the prey more quickly.
pation of birth and the demands of motherhood. The nerve Regarding the second prediction, Inga Neumann of the
cells are like thoroughbreds straining at the starting gate, await- University of Regensburg in Germany has repeatedly docu-
ing their release for the race. After birth, the mPOA neurons mented that pregnant and lactating rats suffer less fear and
direct the mothers attention and motivation to her offspring, anxiety (as measured by levels of stress hormones in their
enabling her to care for, protect and nurture her progeny with blood) than virgin rats when confronted with challenges such
the panoply of behaviors known collectively as maternal. as forced swimming. Jennifer Wartella, while in Kinsleys lab,
Maternal behavior encompasses many facets beyond the conrmed and extended these results by examining rat behav-
direct care of offspring, however, so it occurred to us that ior in the ve-foot-square enclosure; she found that mother
other brain regions might also undergo changes. For instance, rats were more likely to investigate the space and less likely to
that improve memory and learning. Kazuhito Tomizawa and tion in box on next page]. At most of the ages through 22
his colleagues at Okayama University in Japan have reported months that were tested, the mother rats spent more time in
that oxytocin promotes the establishment of long-lasting con- the fear-evoking open arms of the maze than the virgin rats
nections between neurons in the hippocampus. Injections of did. When the brains of the mother rats were examined, re-
oxytocin into the brains of virgin female mice improved their searchers found fewer degenerating cells in the cingulate, fron-
long-term memory, presumably by increasing enzyme activity tal and parietal cortices, regions that receive considerable sen-
that strengthened the neuronal connections. Conversely, inject- sory input. These results suggest that the repeated inundation
BY L . K E Y S ER-M A RC U S E T A L ., IN BRAIN RESEARCH BULLETIN, V OL . 55; 2001, W I T H P ERMIS S ION F ROM EL S E V IER
ing oxytocin inhibitors into the brains of mother rats impaired of the female brain with the hormones of pregnancy, coupled
their performance on memory-related tasks. with the enriching sensory environment of the nest, may miti-
Other researchers have focused on motherhoods effects on gate some of the effects of aging on cognition.
glial cells, the connective tissue of the central nervous system.
Gordon W. Gifford and student collaborators in Kinsleys lab The Human Connection
have examined astrocytes, star-shaped glial cells that provide do h u m a n f e m a l e s r e c e i v e any similar cognitive ben-
nutrients and structural support for neurons. They found that ets from pregnancy and motherhood? Recent studies indicate
the astrocytes in the mPOA and hippocampus of late-pregnant, that the human brain may undergo changes in sensory regula-
lactating and hormone-treated female rats were signicantly tory systems that parallel the alterations in other animals. Ali-
more complex and numerous than those in virgin rats. Again, son Fleming of the University of Toronto at Mississauga has
it appears that hormonal uctuations ramp up neural activity shown that human mothers are capable of recognizing many
during pregnancy, modifying neurons and glial cells in critical of their infants odors and sounds, possibly because of en-
brain regions to enhance learning and spatial memory. hanced sensory abilities. She and her colleagues found that
Do any of these cognitive benets extend beyond the lac- mothers with high postbirth levels of the hormone cortisol
tational period? Jessica D. Gatewood, working with other stu- were more attracted to and motivated by their babies scents
dents in Kinsleys lab, has reported that mother rats up to two and were better able to recognize their infants cries. The re-
years old equivalent to human females older than 60 learn sults indicate that cortisol, which typically rises with stress and
spatial tasks signicantly faster than age-matched virgin rats
and exhibit less steep memory declines. At every age tested CRAIG HOWARD KINSLEY and KELLY G. LAMBERT have spent
THE AUTHORS
(six, 12, 18 and 24 months), the mothers were better than the more than a decade investigating the effects of pregnancy and
virgins at remembering the locations of food rewards in maz- motherhood on the female brain. Kinsley is MacEldin Trawick
es. And when we examined the brains of the mother rats at the Professor of Neuroscience in the department of psychology and
conclusion of testing, we found fewer deposits of amyloid pre- Center for Neuroscience at the University of Richmond. Lam-
cursor proteins which seem to play a role in the degeneration bert is professor of behavioral neuroscience and psychology,
of the aging nervous system in two parts of the hippocampus, chair of the department of psychology and co-director of the
the CA1 region and the dentate gyrus. Ofce of Undergraduate Research at Randolph-Macon College.
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MOTHER KNOWS BEST
Recent experiments indicate that reproductive experience enhances spatial learning and memory in rats while alleviating fear
and stress. These behavioral changes can improve a mother rats foraging abilities, giving her pups a better chance of survival.
8-
Mother rats
Rats Completed Maze
(out of eight tries)
Number of Times
6-
4-
Virgin female rats
2-
0-
-
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15
Trial Day
ELEVATED PLUS MA ZE
In this maze, which was shaped like a plus Virgin rat
sign and raised four feet above the oor,
researchers measured how much time the
rats spent in the two open arms, which Mother rat
rodents tend to avoid because they are
elevated and exposed (unlike the mazes two
closed arms). At nearly every age, the mother
rats were bolder than the virgins, spending
more time in the fear-evoking open arms.
50-
Percent of Time in Open Arms
0-
SLIM FILMS
-
6 10 14 18 22
Age in Months
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