Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 1

Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour

Elizabeth Joa
Professor Ghatak
Department of Family, Nutrition and Exercise Science, Queens College, CUNY,
Flushing, NY 11367
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 2

Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-

Purpose Flour

Author: Elizabeth Joa

Professor Ghatak, Department of Family, Nutrition and Exercise Science- Queens
College, CUNY, 65-30 Kissena Boulevard, Flushing, NY 11367-1597

Abstract
Due to the prevalence of people following a gluten-free diet in our society,
brownies made of black beans and brownies made of tapioca flour were produced
and evaluated to see if they are good alternatives to all-purpose flour brownies.
People with Celiac Disease and gluten sensitivity follow a gluten-free diet.
However, some people without Celiac Disease or gluten insensitivity have also
adopted a gluten-free diet. Gluten-free diets have been popular recently because
many believe that this is one way to be healthier. Brownies are a popular dessert
choice that usually contains gluten in it. However, recently, there has been an
increase of all-purpose flour replacements used in recipes to transform into a
gluten-free recipe. In this study, we tested to see if these alternatives are ideal
replacements to produce brownies that are similar to regular brownies made
with all-purpose flour. These two brownies variations did not incorporate gluten
it. Sensory evaluations were completed by 72 panelists, who rated the three
brownies in four different categories, based on the 9-point hedonic scale. All
research was done at CUNY Queens College. All participants were either students
or faculty of CUNY Queens College. Based on this research and the analysis,
there were no significant differences in the color, flavor or texture of the three
brownies. However, the black bean brownies (6.03 2.19) were significantly
different (p<0.05) from the all-purpose flour brownies (7.18 1.39) in overall
acceptability. Meanwhile, the tapioca flour brownies (6.53 2.03) were not
significantly different from the all-purpose flour brownies (7.18 1.39) in overall
acceptability. However, based on this study, brownies made from black beans and
brownies made from tapioca flour are similar to regular all-purpose flour
brownies. Therefore, pureed black beans and tapioca flour are sufficient
replacements for all-purpose flour in brownie recipes. This research can be used
to further other research and experiments on whether pureed black beans and
tapioca flour can be used in other recipes.

Introduction
Is all-purpose flour the only purposeful ingredient? In a day and age where many people
are looking for healthier food options, new alternative ingredients have been replacing
the unhealthy ingredients in recipes. Not only are people looking for healthier
alternatives, some people are seeking gluten-free food options. Not only do people with
celiac disease eat a gluten-free diet, but also some people just prefer going gluten-free
due to GI upsets (Bonder, et al., 2016).

Gluten has gotten a bad reputation lately because of the reporting of Celiac Disease and
gluten insensitivity (Pellegrini & Agostoni, 2015). Celiac Disease prevents one from
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 3

absorbing necessary nutrients because of damage in the small intestine. As a result of

glutens bad reputation, people have adopted a gluten-free diet in an effort to improve
their health and wellness.

Brownies are a popular dessert choice that usually contains gluten from the all-purpose
flour that is in the recipe. However, with new emerging findings of alternative ingredients
to replace all-purpose flour, people who follow a gluten-free diet can enjoy brownies
without worrying about GI upsets, or disrupting their diet restrictions. Wheat flour
alternatives in brownies include black beans and tapioca flour (Simitchiev, et al., 2016).
These two ingredients do not contain gluten. Even though black beans and tapioca flour
can be used as alternatives, doesnt mean that they are acceptable replacements for all-
purpose flour that can result in no significant change of brownie taste.

Through sensory evaluation, this research and testing was completed to determine
whether pureed black beans and tapioca flour can be acceptable wheat flour replacements
in brownies. The flavor of the brownie was not to be compromised by the alternative
flour replacements.

Methods & Materials

Ingredients
Before the consumer testing of the sensory evaluations, the potential control recipe and
two modified brownie recipes were made to determine if they were the most ideal recipes
for this research. After the three recipes were finalized, they were then used for the
multiple sensory evaluations. The two modified recipes were determined by how similar
they were to the control recipe. Each recipe called for 2 eggs, cup of sugar, cup of
brown sugar, 1 stick of butter, cup + 2 tsp of cocoa powder, 1 tsp of vanilla extract, and
tsp of salt. The control recipe had cup all-purpose flour. The modified recipe #1 had
cup of pureed black beans, and the modified recipe #2 had cup of tapioca flour. The
ratio of all-purpose flour, black bean pureed and tapioca flour is 1:1:1 ("Substitutions for
Healthier Baked Goods", 2015) ("Why You Should Choose Tapioca Flour", 2016). Table
1 shows the list of ingredients for each of the recipes used in this research. To keep the
research controlled, only one ingredient in each recipe was changed, which was the flour
replacements of black beans and tapioca flour.
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 4

Ingredients Control Modified #1 Modified #2

Large Eggs 2 2 2
Sugar cup cup cup
Brown Sugar cup cup cup
Melted Butter 8 Tbsp 8 Tbsp 8 Tbsp
Cocoa Powder cup + 2 tsp cup + 2 tsp cup + 2 tsp
Vanilla Extract 1 tsp 1 tsp 1 tsp

Kosher Salt tsp tsp tsp

All-purpose flour cup N/A N/A
Black Beans N/A cup N/A
Tapioca flour N/A N/A cup
Table 1. Displays the ingredients used in the control recipe and the two modified recipes.

Preparations and Steps

The recipe was taken from FoodNetwork.com from Alton Browns Cocoa Brownies
recipe. First, the oven was preheated to 300 degrees Fahrenheit. The pan for the brownies
were greased with cooking spray. In all the recipes, the eggs were beat and whisked by a
mixer until light and yellow. Both sugars were then added along with all the other dry and
wet ingredients. For the control recipe, all-purpose flour was added. For the first modified
recipe, pureed black beans were added in replace of the all-purpose flour. For the second
modified recipe, tapioca flour was used in replace of the all-purpose flour. After all the
ingredients were added, the batter was mixed and then poured into the pan. The control
recipe baked for 56 minutes. The first modified recipe (black beans) baked for 52
minutes. The second modified recipe (tapioca flour) baked for 45 minutes. The reason the
baking time varied was to allow for the batter to cook fully and thoroughly. The baked
brownies were checked for thorough cooking by inserting a toothpick to assure its
doneness if the toothpick came out clean.

Nutritional Analysis
A nutritional analysis was done through NutritionData.com. Each brownie recipe was
analyzed for its nutrient content and calories. The website creates a nutrition facts label
when you add in the ingredients and the amount of each ingredient into the generator. The
outcome of the nutrition facts label informs us about the amount of calories, fat, protein,
carbohydrates, sugars, etc. that are in the brownies. The nutrition facts label of the all-
purpose flour brownies, pureed black bean brownies and tapioca flour brownies were
compared with one another for similarities and differences.

Sensory Evaluation
Seventy-Two individuals (n=72) from CUNY Queens College were asked to complete a
sensory evaluation on the three brownie recipes. The individuals were randomly selected
to be a part the research and completed the evaluation in Remsen Hall room 301. The age
range of the individuals that participated went from 17 to 61 years old. All panelists
arrived between the times of 4pm-5pm. The individuals that participated in the research
experiment were untrained individuals that were not told what ingredients were in the
brownies. The individuals were given three white-colored plates that contained the
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 5

brownies. Each plate had one type of brownie, and each labeled with a unique three-digit
code number to indicate the different brownies they had to evaluate. The panelists were
also given a paper and something to write with. The paper given was the evaluation sheet
that asked the individual to rate the brownies by its appearance acceptability for its color
(dark/light brown), flavor acceptability (chocolate), texture (moistness), and overall
acceptability of the three brownies. The ratings ranged from 1-9; 1 being the most light in
color, least strong chocolate taste, least moist, and dislike extremely; 9 being the most
dark in color, strong in chocolate taste, most moist, and like extremely. Figure 1 shows
the sheet that the panelists completed for the sensory evaluation.

Group 3

Female Male Age______ Date: ___________

Please taste the browniesand circle the number that you feel best describesyour acceptabilityof each
distributeslisted below.

AppearanceAcceptability- Color(dark/light)
Light Dark
Code: __144____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code: __714_____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code: __178____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

FlavorAcceptability:Chocolate
Not Strong Strong
Code: ___144____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code:____ 714___
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code:___ 178____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Texture: Moistness
Not Moist Moist
Code: ___144____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code:___ 714____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code:_______
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Overall Acceptability
Dislike Extremely Like Extremely
Code:___ 144____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code:__ 714_____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Code:__ 178_____
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Thank you!

Figure 1. Evaluation sheet that panelists completed for the sensory evaluation.

Data Analysis
The data was analyzed through One-Way ANOVA that was done through the use of the
software, IBM SPSS Statistics 22. The statistical analysis was done to see if there were
significant differences between the three recipes. The information to determine this was
from the data that was retrieved from the sensory evaluations from the panelists. The
Tukey testing in Post Hoc was done to conduct a multiple comparison. This was to figure
out which groups were significantly different from each other. A p value less than 0.05
are considered significantly different.
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 6

Results
Table 2 shows the results from the ANOVA testing. The sensory characteristics such as
color (dark or light brown), flavor (chocolate flavor) and texture (moistness) between the
three sensory characteristics are not significantly different from one another. However,
the ANOVA analysis shows that there is a significant difference (p<0.05) between the
groups when it comes to the overall acceptability of the brownies, F(2, 213) = 6.634 , p
= .002. In the Post Hoc Test (Tukey Test), we see specifically that it is the overall
acceptability of the control group and the pureed black bean group that was significantly
different from one another. Other studies have observed and supported that the more
black beans that are in the brownie recipe, the lower the sensory testing values are for the
overall liking of the black bean brownies (Rudolph, Gegg, & Campbell, 2012).

Table 2. ANOVA Analysis

Table 3 shows the results from the Post Hoc Test and indicates which groups are
significantly different. The 72 panelists completed a nine-point scale sensory evaluation
with the standard deviation. The results show that there are no significant differences in
color (dark or light brown) of the brownies between the control and the two modified
recipes. The results also show that the chocolate flavor of the three brownies were not
significantly different from each other. The moistness (texture) also was not significantly
different between the control and two modified groups.
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 7

Table 3. Sensory Characteristics for Brownie Modifications (Mean SD)

Sensory Treatment
Characteristics

Control: Modified #1: Modified #2:

All-Purpose Flour Black Bean (Pureed) Tapioca Flour

Color (9 Being the 6.88a 1.61 7.24a 1.57 7.02a 1.49

Most Dark Brown & 1
Being the Most Light
Brown)
Flavor (Chocolate) 7.29a 1.17 7.06a 1.81 6.93a 1.53

Texture (Moistness) 7.04a 1.18 7.35a 1.65 6.83a 1.56

Acceptability 7.18a 1.39 6.03b 2.19 6.53ab 2.03

Mean Standard Deviation of 72 panelists

Means with the same superscript in the rows denote no significant differences (Tukey Test, p<0.05)
Means with different superscripts in the rows denote significant differences (Tukey Test, p<0.05)

In the overall acceptability of the three brownie recipes, the control and tapioca flour
were not significantly different from one another. One study that underwent sensory
evaluation of bread made of tapioca flour and corn flour found that the overall panelist
acceptability of the bread was good (Milde, Ramallo, & Puppo, 2010).In our study, it
was the control group and the black bean brownies that were significantly different from
each other in terms of overall acceptability (p<0.05). In terms of overall acceptability, the
control recipe, with the all-purpose flour, was most favored according to the mean value
from the 72 panelists who completed a 9-point scale sensory evaluation. Also, the tapioca
flour brownies were also favored and the mean value is not significantly different than
the control brownies.

The nutrition labels display how similar in nutrition the control and the two modified
recipes are to one another. This shows that people who are on a gluten-free diet who can
consume the black bean brownies or tapioca flour can still obtain the same nutrition as
someone who is having the all-purpose flour brownies. Generally speaking, the
similarities of the three nutrition facts label reflect the similarity in the sensory testing of
the three recipes.
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 8

Figure 2. All- Figure 3. Pureed Black Figure 4. Tapioca

Purpose Flour Beans Brownies Flour Brownies
Brownies

Figure 2, 3, and 4 display the nutrition facts of the All-Purpose Flour Brownies, Black
Bean Brownies, and Tapioca Flour Brownies; respectively.

Discussion
The analysis of the study show that there are no significant differences (p < 0.05) with the
color, flavor and texture of the brownie variations. The only significant difference found
in this study is the overall acceptability between the control and black bean brownies. The
tapioca flour brownies were found to be similar to the control brownies in overall
acceptability. This study has shown that black beans and tapioca flour are good replacers
for all-purpose flour in brownies. This allows people who follow a gluten-free diet to be
able to enjoy brownies without the use of all-purpose flour.

Color
Based on the sensory evaluation, the color of the three brownies was not significantly
distinct from one another. Meaning the darkness or lightness of all three brownie
variations was similar to one another. Therefore, the replacement of all-purpose with
either black beans or tapioca flour did not make a significant color change. The black
bean brownies were rated the darkest color overall at 7.24. The black bean brownies were
most dark due to its addition of black beans in the recipe. The other variations, such as
all-purpose flour and tapioca flour, are naturally white in color and may have contributed
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 9

to the fact that the brownies made with these two ingredients are less dark in color than
the black bean brownies.

Flavor
The panelists were asked about the chocolate flavor of the brownies and rated based on
the 9-point hedonic scale. The highest scoring chocolate flavor of the three brownie
variations was the control brownies, 7.29. However, the analysis found that there were no
significant differences in terms of chocolate flavor. Black bean brownies mean is 7.06
and the tapioca flour is 6.93. The three brownie recipes included the same amount of
cocoa powder. This goes to show that the flavor of the black beans and tapioca flour did
not over take the chocolate flavor of the brownies.

Texture
The texture of the brownies was evaluated for its moistness. The analysis shows that the
black bean brownies were rated to be the moistest (7.35) compared to the all-purpose
brownies (7.04) and tapioca flour brownies (6.83). However, there were no significant
differences between all the variations in terms of moistness. In a previous study
researching the moistness content of varying black bean amounts in brownies recorded
that the variation with 100% black beans had the highest moistness content (Rudolph,
Gegg, & Campbell, 2012). This shows that the more black beans used in the recipe, the
moister it is. Due to the lack of all-purpose flour in the black bean recipe, the brownies
were unable to develop the gluten that provides structure, tenderness and its textural
properties (McWilliams, 2016, p. 327). A study done on replacing wheat flour with
tapioca flour in bread stated that the water absorption in the tapioca flour bread was less
than the water absorption in the bread made with 100% wheat flour (Miyazaki, Maeda, &
Morita, 2007). This explains why the sensory evaluation of the moistness of the tapioca
flour brownies was lower than the all-purpose flour brownies.

Overall Acceptability
The analysis shows that there is a significant difference in overall acceptability between
the control and black bean brownies; 7.18 and 6.03, respectively. However, there are no
significant differences between the tapioca flour (6.53) with the control and tapioca flour
with black bean brownies. This shows that panelists overall liked the control and tapioca
flour brownies similarly. Therefore, people with a gluten-free diet can enjoy gluten-free
brownies that are similar to all-purpose flour brownies, with the replacement of tapioca
flour. The high moistness of the black bean brownies may have been the factor that
affected the over all acceptability. The moistness of the black bean brownie can make the
brownie too soft and wet. These may have been the factors that made panelists like the
black bean brownies the least out of all three variations. Another study showed that the
100% black bean recipe was the least liked out of the other smaller amounts of black
bean content in the other brownie variations in the study (Rudolph, Gegg, & Campbell,
2012).

Nutrition Facts Label

Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 10

The Nutrition Facts labels display that all three brownie variations are similar to each
other nutritionally. There is a slight increase of calories, fat, dietary fiber, sodium, total
carbohydrate and sugar in the black beans and tapioca flour than compared to the control
with all-purpose flour. Even though the two modified recipes may differ a little
nutritionally than the all-purpose flour, people who are on a gluten-free diet can still
enjoy brownies without the presence of gluten. Even though flour is not present in the
black bean and tapioca flour brownies, these two variations actually showed that they
contain more carbohydrates than the all-purpose flour brownies.

Conclusion
Many people nowadays are living out a gluten-free diet in their life. Therefore, many
food products are being transformed and a gluten-free version is made (Pellegrini &
Agostoni, 2015). Brownies are a popular dessert option and there are a couple of ways to
make brownies that dont contain gluten in it. Based on this study, it can be concluded
that the pureed black bean and tapioca flour brownies are sufficient alternatives to replace
all-purpose flour brownies. This will benefit people who follow a gluten-free diet, so that
they can still enjoy brownies without gluten but also without compromising the taste of
the brownies or much of the nutrient content. The lack of significant differences in the
flavor (chocolate), color (dark/light brown), and texture (moistness) of all three brownie
groups show that all the brownies are similar to one another, which concludes that the
variations are similar to the control group based on these criteria.

Based on the overall acceptability, it seems that out of the two brownie variations (pureed
black bean and tapioca flour), panelists liked the tapioca flour brownies more. This is
seen in the fact that in the overall acceptability, the control group and black bean
brownies were significantly different (p<0.05) from one another. The all-purpose flour
and tapioca flour brownies were not significantly different from one another. So the
panelists thought that the tapioca flour brownies were the most similar to regular all-
purpose flour brownies, based on the analysis. Since black beans and tapioca flour are
good alternatives in brownie recipes, there is now the possibility that they also can be
great alternatives to all-purpose flour in other recipes. Pureed black beans and tapioca
flour in recipes to replace the gluten product doesnt have to end at brownies. This is just
the beginning.
Gluten-Free Brownies: Flour-Power Ingredients That Replace All-Purpose Flour 11

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