The Identity Development of Biracial Children 1

Natasha Roberts

The Identity Development of Biracial Children

The Identity Development of Biracial Children 2

The Identity Development of Biracial Children

In 1970, only 1% of babies were multiracial; however, the number has increased to 10%

in 2015 (Multiracial in America, 2015). Currently there are about 4.2 million multiracial children

in the United States and there has been a 32% increase in the number of people who identify as

multiracial since 2000 (Little, 2016). Based on the current culture of the United States and the

increase in diversity, it is predicted that 1 in every 5 Americans will be multiracial/biracial by

2050 (Csizmadia & Ispa, 2014). But growing up multiracial/biracial comes with its own unique

struggles that can affect the childs development. Although there is no quantitative evidence on

the unique problems biracial children face, there are some qualitative differences. Similar to

children of color, multiracial children face microaggressions and discrimination.

Microaggresions are verbal or nonverbal insults, both unintentional and intentional, that may

come off as derogatory or hostile towards a group or person (Sue, 2010). But multiracial children

experience isolation, more so than monoracial children of color, since they are of a mixed race

and cannot be easily classified or are wrongly classified. This type of behavior can be present

during family gatherings and through peer interactions, which can hinder the strength of the

childs connection towards the family. Multiracial/Biracial children also lack representation in

the media, therefore it is more difficult to identify with others, have a role model and feel apart

of a larger community (Greig, 2013). In contrast, according to the American Academy of Child

and Adolescent Psychiatry, there is no difference in self-esteem and biracial children tend to be

happier then monoracial children (Multiracial Children, 2011). Therefore, due to the lack of

substantial evidence and complete understanding of the developmental trajectory of

multiracial/biracial children, further research is needed. It is time to acknowledge and understand

the development of those individuals that do not fit into the pre-determined racial groups of
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 3

Black/African American, White, Asian, Native American, and Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islander

since they are in a position where their identities are unrecognized by society.

Identity development is a multifaceted concept. Development is multidimensional and

identity formation is an essential aspect of humanity that begins during childhood and continues

throughout adulthood. It defines how an individual identifies him/her self and how he/she is

perceived; what makes the individual unique and what aspects make him/her apart of a group.

The different aspects of identity including religion, ethnicity, occupation, etc. and can be

influenced by various factors throughout the lifespan. Ethnic identity, a multidimensional

concept, is when an individual identifies him/herself with a certain ethnic or racial group

(Clarke-Stewart & Parke, 2014). In order to achieve ethnic identity, one must understand the

characteristics that differentiate between racial groups; one must identify with a racial group,

acknowledge that ones membership with that racial group is stable, not fluid, and embrace the

chosen ethnic group (Clarke-Stewart & Parke, 2014). During the early years of life, children start

to associate specific behaviors that are unique to their own ethnic group and prefer the activities

associated with their group since it resembles how they interact with their family. Elementary

school is when children start to learn about ethnic labels and recognize the differences between

themselves and others. At around 7-8 years of age, children understand all of the ethnic labels

and have determined which group they belong to, but biracial children make this realization

earlier since they notice the difference in physical racial characteristics at an earlier age, and

others frequently question their racial status. In relation to biracial individuals, it is important to

look at their identity formation during childhood since their experiences are far more complex

than those of mono-racial individuals. Biracial/multiracial individuals must find their place

within more than one and struggle with defining their identity (Brunsma, 2001). Thus, the
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 4

following paper will examine how biracial children, mainly those of the Black and White racial

mix, define themselves in terms of their ethnic identity and the struggles that many face in

defining themselves.

Developmental psychologist, Erik Erikson, developed a psychosocial theory of

development, which states that development occurs in eight stages beginning during infancy and

continuing throughout adulthood. Each stage is associated with certain tasks that one must

complete in order to progress with their development, as well as the consequences he/she may

face if failed to complete the personal and social tasks for that stage. His theory places a large

emphasis on how the environment influences development at each stage in ones life (Clarke-

Stewart & Parke, 2014). The stages leading up to adolescence focuses on trust, autonomy,

initiative, industry and the negative aspects of each stage. During adolescence, ages 12-18, is

when self-identification becomes an essential part of development. This stage is referred to as

Identity vs. Role Confusion. Adolescents gain some independence during this stage; they are

highly influenced by their peers and spend this time trying to figure out whom they are. This

stage in adolescence is focused on self-definition, deciding ones own future and deciphering

ones strengths and weaknesses (Witt, 2010). According to Erikson, there are several dimensions

of identity achievement. The dimensions are the following: the accumulation of events and

experiences from the previous four stages of development, the societal adaptations of the

individuals strengths, capacities and skill sets, identity development is dependent on the

environment which influences the individuals decision making, it is a time of moratorium and

lastly the sense of belongingness when identity achievement is reached (Witt, 2010) In

comparison to monoracial children, biracial children have more difficulty during this stage of

development since they must navigate between the various racial groups as well as gain
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 5

acceptance by their peers. The research that will be discussed throughout the paper will focus on

how biracial adolescents identify themselves and the fluidity of their self-identification, as they

become adults.

Research:

Kerwin and colleagues (1993) studied White/Black biracial children between the ages 5

to 16 and their parents that reside near New York City. They chose a small sample size in order to

be able to examine all of the aspects of the biracial childrens identity development. There were

nine participants, each of the participants and one of their parents were interviewed at their

homes and the interview questions were focused around Erik Eriksons theory of development.

The interview consisted of 50 questions and the questions were directed towards identity

development in biracial children and also allowed the participants to share their own

stories/experiences as a biracial individual. Most of the participants stated that their peers

questioned the participants ethnicities and were put in a situation where he/she felt forced to

describe and justify his/her ethnicity. Two children, five and eight years old, described their

identities as being Catholic and half Jewish rather than by the color of their skin like some of the

other participants. The sixteen-year-old participant described himself in terms of his ethnicity

that is associated with his skin tone as well as the societal consequences with being in certain

minority groups. The researchers found that the younger children described themselves in terms

of what their parents are and by their actual skin tone while the older children described

themselves based on more complex societal terms like Black or mixed and the consequences

associated.

Based off the small sample size the authors suggest that younger children do not define

themselves based on the color of their skin since their racial awareness is not fully developed yet.
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 6

They also suggest that after eight years old was when children started to refer to their ethnicity

and skin color in their description of who they are. By the time children reach the age of 16 their

racial awareness is fully developed and they understand their ethnic identity and the implications

of their ethnic identity within society. This data helps to further the understanding of identity

development and support the concept that children go through five main faces of ethnic identity

development. The first is ethnic knowledge and that is when children acknowledge that their

ethnic group has distinctive characteristics in relation to behaviors, traits, styles and language.

Ethnic self-identification is when the child categorizes themselves as a part of that ethnic group.

Ethnic constancy refers to the understanding that the features of their ethnic group and their

membership are stable. The last two faces are ethnic behaviors, when children carryout the

behaviors of their ethnic group, and ethnic preferences, when children feel positive about their

membership and belongingness to their ethnic group (Clarke-Stewart & Parke, 2014). It is

unknown if the two children, five and eight years old, in the study have ethnic knowledge but it

is shown that they lack ethnic self-identification when it comes to main racial groups, Black,

White, Asian, Native American and Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islander. While the sixteen-year-

old showed to have an understanding of the five faces of ethnic development.

In order to expand on identity development within adolescents, Herman (2014) conducted

a study that focused on how multiracial adolescents compared themselves to their monoracial

peers and examined some of the dilemmas these multiracial adolescents may face. In this study,

all students in nine high schools within the California and Wisconsin regions were given surveys

during class; they were asked to select the racial group they most identified with, the ethnicities

of their parents and their feelings towards the importance of ethnicity. The racial categories were

the following; Black, White, Native American, Asian, Hispanic and Pacific Islander and the
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 7

researchers determined the students who were biracial through their responses about the

ethnicities of their parents. Between 10 biracial categories, there were 1,989 cases of biracial

individuals and multiracial individuals are included in that number but in a different sub

category. The results revealed that out of the 160 individuals that were of the Black-White racial

mix, 68% identified as Black, 7% identified as White, 7% picked a different racial category and

9% choose not to respond. Having one parent that is Black increased the chances of the

individual identifying as Black. While the majority of White-Asian and White-Hispanic

individual also choose to identify with their minority group rather than White.

The results of the study indicate that biracial adolescents of a part-White racial mix are

more inclined to identify with their minority racial group rather than with the majority, White.

The information is important because it shows the effect that culture, ethnicity, plays on how an

individual identifies him/herself. Although that knowledge gained from this study is important,

the study failed to display the results of those individuals who are of a minority-minority racial

mix and which of the two they are more inclined to identify with. As a result of the researchers

simplifying the results of multiracial individuals, the data is not applicable in social since the

data broke down the multiracial identities into pairs and examined the data from a biracial

perspective. Many of the participants felt conflicted in their responses and confused as to why

they were forced to only pick one racial group. In addition, many biracial participants did not

stress the importance of their ethnic identity on their survey. This may be due to the fact that

biracial individuals do not neatly fit into the existing racial categories and are in an uneasy

predicament.

Similar to Hermans study, this particular study used a qualitative method to collect data.

Instead of requiring the participants to pick the racial group they most identify with, this study
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 8

focused on how individuals used their appearance to define their racial identity. Some of the

biracial/multiracial individuals have ambiguous appearances; it is difficult to tell their nationality

based on their physical appearance. Therefore the researchers examined how biracial individuals

identify themselves rather than how others identify them based on appearance. The four types of

biracial identities are singular identity (Black), biracial identity (in between), protean identity

(sometimes Black, sometimes biracial, etc), and transcendent identity (choose not to define

themselves). Researchers, Brunsman and Rockquemore (2001) intended to examine how biracial

individuals identify themselves based on their appearance by studying 177 biracial, Black-White,

college students through a series of surveys. The surveys consisted of responses that align with

the four types of biracial identities stated above and the participants were required to answer

question like I am Black but people assume that I look like a mixture of races then their

responses where coded. Sixty four percent of the participants considered themselves to have

borderline identities, they are neither Black nor White but are both. Within that 64%, 40% felt

that their identities were invalidated by society and were seen as being of only one race. A

majority of these individuals also concluded that their physical appearance is ambiguous, their

perceived skin color is not correlated with how they identify themselves. Based on the study, the

only time skin color had an effect was within social contexts. Biracial people may have multiple

identities depending on how they identify themselves and their social environment.

Brunsman and Rockquemores study is parallel to Hermans study since it suggests that

most biracial individuals do not determine their identity based on their skin tone due to the fact

that they may not directly look like their respective racial groups. Similar to biracial children,

biracial college students prefer to base their ethnic identity on which racial group the feel most

connected to and have a strong sense of identification with. In order to expand on this
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 9

information, it would have been beneficial to collect data on how these participants would have

identified themselves during early childhood and then again during late adulthood. By

conducting a longitudinal study it would provide research on the fluidity of ethnic identity

development and how different stages of life can influence it.

Furthering the research on biracial adolescents, Spencer and colleagues (2000) examined

2,184 middle school students; ages 11 to 15, from Seattle, Washington. Of those 2,184 students,

17% reported to be biracial. These students resided in high minority residential areas. Similar to

some of the other studies these students were asked to self identify their ethnicity through a

survey that used the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) to determine their identities.

The MEIM looks at three subgroups; the individuals sense of belonging, ethnic identity

achievement and their behaviors and activities within their ethnic groups. The overall ethnic

identity of the students were recorded and it was shown that monoracial minority students had

the highest score on identity achievement, then it was the multiracial students and the white

students scored the lowest. Although this study does not directly show how the middle school

students identify themselves and their thought processes, it shows that young children are

racially aware and have an understanding of their ethnic identity. When asked to check the box in

which the students identified most with, 17% of those students reported to be multiracial which

is important to note when looking at identity development in children. This study shows the

advancement and fluidity of biracial childrens identity development since at this age they have a

deeper understanding of the five faces of identity development. They have also shifted from

identifying themselves based on religion or how their parents identify them, to their own

understanding of their ethnicity and self-identification. Additionally, this study counteracts the

notion that multiracial people do not have a strong sense of ethnic identity since the multiracial
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 10

students in the study ranked higher in their survey results than the monoracial White students. In

order to better understand this subject, an extension of this study would be to investigate why the

sense of ethnic identity is stronger within minority groups, especially within biracial individuals,

rather than in White people who are the majority in the U.S and have prospered for centuries.

Diverting the attention from people with the White/Black racial mix, this study focuses

on Polynesian/White College aged adults. Allen and researchers (2013) formulated a sample size

of 84 individuals who either had a Polynesian mother or father. The researchers used a variation

of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Scale (MEIS) in order to examine which of the participants

identify themselves as biracial and were asked to describe their phenotypes. The data suggest that

the participants were more likely to identify with their Polynesian heritage. Based on the MEIS

score women scored higher than men and are more likely than men to identify with their

Polynesian heritage rather than the heritage of their White parent. The relevance of this data is

that it suggests that biracial individuals of a White and minority mix tend to identify with their

minority heritage rather than white, similar to Hermans study In order to expand on the data

collected, Allen may have taken a larger sample size from various regions through the U.S and

focus in the intergroup biracial individuals who identify as Polynesian. Although this study and

the data collected did not go into depth in examining identity development, it is significant in the

sense that when mixed with White and a minority group, it is shown that people are more

inclined to ethnically identify with their non-white racial group.

In contrast to the previous studies, researchers Hitlin and company (2006) took a

longitudinal approach in examining ethnic identity development. Hitlin put an emphasis on

examining the fluidity of ethnic identity and looked at a group of adolescents between a five-year

period. The total sample size was 20, 745 school aged students, 14-18, and they were interviewed
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 11

in three waves in spring of 1996 and then again between the summer of 2001 and spring of 2002.

During the first wave of interviews the interviewees were allowed to pick whichever racial group

they pleased. But during the second wave they could pick either the same monoracial or

multiracial category, a primary racial group and add a different racial identity, or completely

different monoracial or multiracial group. The researchers noted that about half of the

interviewees have fluid multiracial identities and switch from identifying with multiples races in

the first wave to only one race in the second wave. This group of individuals was labeled as

Consolidators, the two largest groups were the 13% White/Native Americans who reported to be

Native American in the second wave and the 12% With/Blacks who changed their self-

identification to Black.

Hitlins findings are important because it shows a halt in the adolescents multiracial

identity development since in young adulthood they began to identify themselves as monoracial.

This study suggests that ethnic identity is fluid and changes throughout different stages of life.

But one fault of this study is that Hispanics were excluded from the sample size therefore the

data published may not be generalized to the entire population. Hispanics/Latinos were excluded

from this study because the respondents who identified as such also defined themselves as

other rather than choosing from the predetermined categories. The data also portrays the

complexity of the identity development of biracial individuals since the fluidity of their identity

development is not congruent with the other data presented. As a future study, it would be

important to expand on this research and examine what caused the change in the interviewees

ethnic identification.

Future Direction:
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 12

The next step in dissecting the identity development of biracial/multiracial children

would be to look at the impact of social influences with peers on biracial children. A longitudinal

study would be conducted on biracial children starting from middle school, the start of

adolescence and focus on identity development, and ending during their fourth year of college

since they have a wider array of people to identify with. Black-White children will be excluded

from the study since they are the most researched racial group amongst biracial children. Black-

Asian, Asian-Pacific Islander and Black-Hispanic would be the three main areas of focus. Even

though Hispcanic/Latino is an ethnicity, not a race, their development is not identical to those of

a monoracial child and their self identification may be more difficult since as a Latino one must

either define themself as a racial group they dont identify with, for example white. The purpose

of this study is to see if peers influence the childrens ethnic identity development and self-

esteem. The data would be collected through a series of questionnaires and in school

examinations. During middle school and high school, the biracial children will be examined in

school twice a year by the researcher and then the participants would be required to complete the

questionnaire. Once in college the participants will be examined and fill out the questionnaire

once a year. The questions observe the dynamics of the participants friend group, the

race/ethnicity of their friend group, and if the participants friends acknowledge his/her

race/ethnicity. The study is meant to examine if the participants peers influence their self-

identification and self-esteem by looking at the dynamic of the friend group and validation of the

individuals biracial identity over time. It is predicted that during middle school the participants

would be more subject to peer influence and their self-esteem and sense of belonging may

fluctuate. Then in college the individuals have a wide array of resources and racial groups to help
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 13

them solidify their identities and social groups. The differences in the biracial participants will be

studied to see if the racial mix of the participant plays an influence as well.
The Identity Development of Biracial Children 14

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