You are on page 1of 45

Central Networks Earthing Manual

Section E4

Measurement of Earthing
Systems

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007


Author: Nigel Johnson Job Title: Earthing Specialist
Approver: Job Title: Asset Manager
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Revision Log
Version: 2.1 Prepared by: Nigel Johnson Date: July 2007
New earth tester added to approval list Seaward ERT-S (Sect E4.0.2)
Fire retardant clothing added to list of required PPE (Sect. 4.0.3.1)
Requirement to test HV steelwork with HV voltage indicator (sect E4.0.3.1)
Revised guidance on acceptable bonding resistance values for distribution
substation maintenance (Sect. E4.2.2.3)
LV sheath earth resistance value corrected to 2ohms for pole mounted substations
(Sect. E4.3.2)
Version: 2.0 Prepared by: Nigel Johnson Date: December 2006
Re-branded to E.ON Central Networks.
Version: 1.0 Prepared by: Nigel Johnson Date: April 2006
New document issued.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 2 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

CONTENTS
E4.0 GENERAL TESTING PROCEDURES 5
E4.0.1 INTRODUCTION 5
E4.0.2 TEST EQUIPMENT 6
E4.0.3 GENERAL EARTH RESISTANCE TEST PROCEDURES 8
E4.0.3.1 Common Test Safety Requirements 8
E4.0.3.2 Equipment Required 9
E4.0.3.3 Avoiding Buried Metalwork 9
E4.0.3.4 Fall of Potential - Slope Method (suitable for large earth grids) 9
E4.0.3.5 Fall of Potential - 61.8% Method 11
E4.0.3.6 Testing the Resistance of Specific Electrodes Using a CT Clamp Tester 12
E4.0.3.6.1 Test Using 3 Terminal Tester and CT Clamp 13
E4.0.3.6.2 Test Using Hand Held Clamp-on Tester (e.g. CA 6411) 13
E4.0.3.7 Fall of Potential - 90o/180o Method 14

E4.0.3.8 Resistance/Impedance Measurement by Current Injection 16


E4.0.3.8.1 High Current Injection Impedance Measurement 16
E4.0.3.8.2 Low Current Injection Impedance Measurement 16
E4.0.4 MEASUREMENT OF JOINT RESISTANCES 17
E4.0.5 CARRYING OUT A SEPARATION TEST 18
E4.0.6 PLOTTING OF THE HOT ZONE 19
E4.0.7 TEST PROBES IN PROBLEM AREAS 20
E4.0.7.1 Areas of Tarmac or Concrete 20
E4.0.7.2 Areas Where a Probe has a High Contact Resistance 20
E4.1 EARTH MEASUREMENTS AT PRIMARY/GRID SITES 21
E4.1.1 ADDITIONAL SAFETY REQUIREMENTS FOR PRIMARY/GRID SITES 21
E4.1.2 MEASURING THE EARTH RESISTANCE AT A PRIMARY/GRID SITE 21
E4.1.3 TESTING THE BONDING OF PLANT AND STRUCTURES AT PRIMARY/GRID SITES
24
E4.1.3.1 General 24
E4.1.3.2 Equipment Required 24
E4.1.3.3 Measurement Procedure for Checking Bonding Across the Site 24

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 3 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.1.3.4 Measurement Procedure for Checking Individual Joints 25


E4.1.4 MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE OF INDIVIDUAL EARTH COMPONENTS 26
E4.2 EARTH MEASUREMENT AT DISTRIBUTION GROUND MOUNTED SITES 27
E4.2.1 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS 27
E4.2.2 MEASURING THE EARTH RESISTANCE AT 11KV GROUND MOUNTED SITES 27
E4.2.2.1 Earth Resistance Readings 27
E4.2.2.2 Carrying Out Earthing Segregation Checks at Existing Sites 28
E4.2.2.3 Checking Integrity of the Bonding 28
E4.3 MEASUREMENTS AT WOOD POLE STRUCTURES 30
E4.3.1 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS 30
E4.3.2 EARTH RESISTANCE VALUES/READINGS AT POLE MOUNTED SITES 30
E4.3.2.1 Earth Resistance Readings 30
E4.3.2.2 Segregation Test 33
E4.4 CUSTOMERS S/STNS (FUTURE) 33
E4.5 MEASUREMENTS ON LV NETWORKS (FUTURE) 33
E4.6 MEASUREMENTS AT STEEL TOWER LOCATIONS (FUTURE) 33
E4.7 LOCATING EXISTING EARTH ELECTRODES 34
E4.7.1 RADIO DETECTION TECHNIQUES 34
E4.7.1.1 Active Detection 35
E4.7.1.1.1 Direct Signal Injection 35
E4.7.1.1.2 Inductive Signal Injection 37
E4.7.1.1.3 Current Clamp Injection 37
E4.7.1.2 Passive Detection (Radio detection) 38
E4.7.2 USE OF GROUND PENETRATING RADAR 39
APPENDIX AE4.1 TABLES FOR USE WITH SLOPE METHOD FOP TEST (SEE SECTION
E4.0.3.4) 40
APPENDIX AE4.2 EXPLANATION OF RESISTANCE AREAS OF AN ELECTRODE SYSTEM
43
APPENDIX AE4.3 EXPLANATORY NOTE WHY CHECK THE READINGS AT 50%, 61.8% &
70%? 45

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 4 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.0 General Testing Procedures


E4.0.1 Introduction
This document describes the different methods of measuring earth electrode resistances. The
main reason for measuring the electrode resistance is:-
1. New installations - to ensure that it is equal to or less than the design value
2. Existing installations - to ensure that it is equal to or less than the required value, but
mainly to ensure that it has not substantially changed from its original value unless by
design.
The correct resistance value is required to:-
1. Ensure that protection is operated to disconnect the power source under earth fault
conditions.
2. Ensure that the Earth Potential Rise (EPR) under earth fault conditions does not present
a danger to staff or public.
There are a number of different test methods used to measure a sites overall resistance which
are based on a Fall of Potential (FOP) technique. There are situations, typically in urban areas,
where it is not practicable to directly measure the earth electrode resistance. Alternative methods
of assessing the earth resistance may include computer simulations carried out by earthing
specialists. However, in general the following three test methods apply:-

Method A Standard Three Terminal FOP 61.8% Test


This test is suitable for live pole mounted structures that do not have HV cables attached or for
new electrodes at 11kV distribution sites before they are connected to the distribution network.
This test is not suitable for sites with cables attached as any measurement of the site would
include the unwanted contribution from the cables. Section E4.0.3.5 gives the general test
principals and more detailed information can be found in Sections E4.2 and E4.3

Method B - Three Terminal FOP 61.8% Test using a clamp on CT


There are two types of test associated with the use of a clamp-on CT which gives a resistance
reading of the electrode associated with the CT position. These tests are useful at pole mounted
sites for testing LV electrodes or where HV cables are attached or could be used at ground
mounted sites. One of the tests procedures uses a hand held clamp on test meter but this can
only be used in very specific situations and can not be used on isolated electrode systems as it
relies on an alternative earth path to produce a reading. Section E4.0.3.6 gives the general test
principals and more detailed information can be found in Sections E4.2 and E4.3.

Method C - Three Terminal FOP Slope test (Primary/Grid sites)


This test is useful at Grid and Primary sites but can be used elsewhere if required. Section
E4.0.3.4 gives the general test principals and more detailed information can be found in Section
E4.1. Often with large sites a confirmation of the resistance value is desirable in which case the
90o/180o test can be used - see Section E4.0.3.7

There are also specialist current injection tests available (see Section E4.0.3.8) which may be
used where none of the above are feasible.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 5 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.0.2 Test Equipment


Company approved instruments (see Table E4.1) must be used when carrying out the tests
detailed in this Manual. Any instrument proposed for use that is not in the list must be approved
by Asset Management beforehand. Section E3 of the Earthing manual deals with soil resistivity
testing.
Table E4.1 List of Approved Company Earth Testing Equipment
Instrument Applicable Sites / Locations
Megger Earth Resistance Tester. The only tester approved
Det 2/2 for measuring substation overall earth resistance
of Primary and Grid sites due to its increased
resolution.

Megger Earth Resistance Tester. Earth resistance and soil


Det 5/4 resistivity at :- O/H & GM Dist. S/Stns

Chauvin Arnoux Earth Resistance Tester. Earth resistance and soil


CA 6460-5 series resistivity at: - O/H & GM Dist. S/Stns.
(Note, three terminal models can not be used to
carry out the Wenner soil resistivity test)

LEM Geo X Earth Resistance Tester. Earth resistance and soil


resistivity at: - O/H & GM Dist. S/Stns. Also used to
measure individual electrode resistances when
connected to a larger system (via a CT).

Megger Earth Resistance Tester. Earth resistance testers


Det 3TC, suitable for O/H and GM Dist S/Stns.
3TD The 3TC model incorporates a CT which allows
or 4TD testing of individual electrodes. The 4TD is a four
terminal tester so it can be used to carry out
Wenner soil resistivity tests (see section E3.1).
Seaward ERT-S Earth Resistance Tester. Earth resistance testers
suitable for O/H and GM Dist S/Stns.
The ERT-S incorporates an additional CT which
allows testing of individual electrodes when part of
a larger system.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 6 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Table E4.1 List of Approved Company Earth Testing Equipment (cont.)


Instrument Applicable Sites / Locations
Avo/Megger Low resistance Ohm-meter (1 - 200). Suitable
DLRO 10 for measuring resistance of joints, bonding etc. at all
sites.

Chauvin Arnoux Low resistance Ohm-meter (1 - 200). Suitable


CA 10 for measuring resistance of joints, bonding etc. at all
sites

Avo/Megger Low resistance Ohm-meter (1 - 60). Suitable for


Ductor D201 measuring resistance of joints, bonding etc at all
(no longer sites.
manufactured)

Chavin Arnoux Clamp meters


Clamp Meters Suitable for measuring individual electrodes when
CA 6410-5 connected to a larger electrode system.
series Note this is not suitable for all applications
see Section E4.0.3.6.2 for more information
Megger Clamp Clamp meter
Tester Suitable for measuring individual electrodes when
DET 10C connected to a larger electrode system.
Note this is not suitable for all applications
see Section E4.0.3.6.2 for more information
Each of the three or four terminal earth tester manufacturers uses slightly different terminal
numbers. Table E4.2 below identifies what they are and where they are connected for earth grid
resistance measurements.
Table E4.2 Tester Terminal Connections
Terminal
C1- E (earth P1 - E (earth P2 - P C2 - C (remote
Tester grid) grid) (intermediate current probe)
voltage probe)
Megger Det 2/2 C1 (E) P1 (ES) P2 (S) C2 (H)
Chauvin Arnoux E (x) ES (xv) S (y) H (z)
LEM Geo X E ES S H
Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 7 of 45
The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.0.3 General Earth Resistance Test Procedures


E4.0.3.1 Common Test Safety Requirements
Safety precautions must be taken while carrying out earth tests and an appreciation of the
types of dangers is essential before carrying out any tests to Earthing systems connected to
the distribution system at any voltage level. Voltages can appear on an Earthing system under
fault conditions particularly at pole mounted locations. It must be appreciated that making
substations "Dead" may not necessarily make the Earthing system "Dead", as transfer of
voltages can occur from adjacent substation via connections from LV neutrals and cable
sheaths etc. Irrespective of the test or location the following safety precautions shall be
observed:-

1. Designated Person. All work must be carried out under the control and direction of a
suitably trained and designated person. All staff involved in the testing procedure shall be
supervised and instructed to ensure that they do not touch leads or terminations during
the test, except when instructed to do so. If there are other personnel on site not involved
in the test, they must also be advised not to approach or interfere with the test leads.
Particular attention needs to be given to supervision of the leads where they are laid
across land accessible to the public or livestock.
2. Lightning. Work must not proceed during any lightning activity in the area adjacent to the
substation or the power network connected to it (visible or audible activity or if a specific
lightning risk warning has been issued). Work shall not take place if fault switching is
taking place on associated networks. This requires the operator to contact Control to
agree testing can take place.
3. PPE. Often stray voltages exist on earth systems which is not usually an issue when you
are in the confines of a fully bonded substation. However, when testing substation
resistances you are bringing in a remote reference earth via the test leads. For this reason
the equipment operator and the person connecting/disconnecting the remote test
electrode must be wearing Company approved safety footwear, fire retardant clothing and
insulated gloves (7.5kV) during the period of the test. The instrument operator shall also
stand on the insulated mat during the period the test reading is being obtained.
4. Test Route. The test route must be selected to be as straight as possible, whilst
minimising any risks. Wherever possible, the route should not cross over busy roads or
footpaths in frequent use, unless suitable precautions and appropriate signs etc. are in
place. Where test leads are required to pass through fields containing livestock, they need
to be continually supervised to avoid risk to the animals or damage to the leads. Test
leads should preferably not be run parallel with, overhead power lines for any significant
length. Make a record of the test route and probe positions so that comparisons can be
made in the future.
5. Communication. The designated person must remain in constant communication with
staff that are placing, connecting or disconnecting test leads remote from the testing point.
6. Testing for voltages on earth system. Prior to any earth test, it is necessary to make
sure that no significant stray voltages are present on the earth under test. Some earth test
instruments incorporate a voltage test facility which can be used, otherwise a separate
tester is required. On overhead poles a HV indicator such as an Edgecomb or equivalent
tester should be used to confirm no voltages exist on the HV earth electrode. This test is
important on overhead systems because if the earth is severed at the base of the pole any
Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 8 of 45
The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

HV faults on the pole are unlikely to be cleared by the main protection and so could give
rise to a significant voltage on the earth to be tested.

E4.0.3.2 Equipment Required


A Company approved tester (see Table E4.1).
Where appropriate, drum mounted insulated test leads of sufficient strength to pull out
along the test route. The plug-in connectors on the leads shall have shrouded contacts
when unplugged to prevent inadvertent contact with a remote earth. The voltage and
current leads should be of different colour to prevent confusion when connecting to the
test set. The continuity of all leads shall be checked prior to use.
A rod (or cluster) for the remote current probe and a single rod for the voltage probe.
An insulated mat large enough for the test equipment and operator.
Two way radios or mobile telephones to maintain communication if necessary.
Company approved insulated gloves (7.5kV rated).
Company approved voltage measuring instrument.

E4.0.3.3 Avoiding Buried Metalwork


For the test to provide accurate results, the current flowing between the probe and the
substation should return through the soil, not through any extraneous metalwork. It is
important to establish that the route chosen avoids cables, metal water pipes, tower footings,
gas pipes or other earth conductors. A survey using cable location equipment helps establish
the presence of buried metal (see section E4.7). Where it is not possible to completely avoid
buried metalwork, the current probe shall be located so that current flowing back to the test
point shall be as near 900 as possible to any buried metal.

E4.0.3.4 Fall of Potential - Slope Method (suitable for large earth grids)
The Slope Method is the most reliable method of testing a large earth electrode system (other
than current injection from a remote location). The Slope Method can also be used if the
centre of the earth electrode system is not known or is inaccessible. The test equipment is set
up as shown in Fig. E4.1.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 9 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

% Distance from earth grid under test


20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 100%

Earth
Grid
P2 C2
C1 & P1

Voltage probe position (P2) is


varied from the 80% to 20%
positions with readings taken
at each of the 7 points

Fig E4.1 Test equipment set up for a slope test


The current probe C is placed as far as away as practicable from the earth electrode system
to be measured, ideally the distance from the earth electrode to the current probe should be at
least six to ten times the maximum dimension across the diagonal of the earth electrode
system. In practice this is sometimes not achievable so a compromise of three times may have
to be accepted.

The current probe is connected to the instrument's C2 (or H) terminal. The voltage probe P is
inserted at a number of positions consecutively, between the current probe and the earth
system, and connected to the P2 (or S) terminal. The test probes and the earth system should
all be in a straight line. The instruments C1 and P1 (or E and ES) terminals are connected to
some common point on the earth electrode system. The earth resistance is measured at each
separate position of the voltage probe and the resistance curve plotted from the results. See
Fig. E4.2 for a typical slope test graph.
The distance from the earth electrode system to the current probe C2 is EC. From the curve,
equivalent resistance readings at the voltage probe positions 0.2 EC, 0.4 EC and 0.6 EC can
be found. These are R1, R2 and R3 respectively. From this calculate the slope coefficient
value , where = (R3-R2)/ (R2-R1). This is a measure of the change of slope of the earth
resistance curve. This coefficient can be used to determine the true value of earth resistance
for the site. From the table in Appendix AE4.1 obtain the valve of P / EC.
P is the distance to the voltage electrode at the position where the true resistance would be
measured. To obtain P multiply the value of P / EC by distance EC. From the curve read off
the valve at distance P. The value obtained from the graph is the earth electrodes correct
resistance.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 10 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

R3
Resistance

R2
R1

E 0.2EC 0.4EC 0.6EC C

Position of P electrode measured from E


Fig E4.2 Typical Slope Test Results

Example slope method calculation


Test R R measured
1. = (R3-R2)/(R2-R1) Position ()
2. = (0.55-0.48)/(0.48-0.4) = 0.875
0.2 EC R1 0.40
3. In Appendix AE4.1 look up to obtain value of
P /EC from table :- P / EC = 0.5664 0.4 EC R2 0.48
4. Multiply this value by 100 to obtain percentage of 0.6 EC R3 0.55
distance to EC where the value on the graph
gives the true resistance measurement, i.e. take the value at 56.6% of distance from E to
C.
5. Spreadsheet Slope Table Test.xls can be used to help in this calculation.
If the value of obtained is not covered in the table of Appendix AE4.1 (i.e. lies outside the
range 0.4 to 1.6) then the current probe must be moved farther away from the earth system
and the tests repeated. An alternative cause is interference from buried services etc. in which
case a different direction of test route may help. If these alternative tests fail the 90/180 test
(Section E4.0.3.7) shall be tried to verify the results.

E4.0.3.5 Fall of Potential - 61.8% Method


This technique is the standard test for small earth electrode systems where the electrical
centre of the earth system is known, i.e. pole mounted earth systems and ground mounted
distribution substations. However, anything connected to the earth grid such as cables etc. will
contribute to the overall site resistance. Therefore in these situations this test would be
unsuitable to measure the resistance of only the electrode installed at this location. To
overcome this use the tests described in section E4.0.3.6.

If the standard 61.8% test is applicable then set up the test equipment as shown in Fig. E4.3.
To obtain reliable readings the current probe and the voltage probe resistance areas must be
sufficiently far apart to prevent the areas overlapping. The current and voltage probes must be
in a straight line with the earth system under test.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 11 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

% Distance from earth grid under test


Earth 50% 61.8% 70% 100%
Grid

P2 C2

Main test is at 61.8% position


with additional tests at the
50% and 70% positions to
confirm the result is OK

Fig E4.3 Test equipment set up for a 61.8% test


Usually a 50m separation between the earth grid and C2 probe is adequate for smaller earth
systems and the resistance measured is equal to the true value when the voltage probe is
positioned at 61.8% of the distance between the earth electrode and the current probe. If the
earth electrode system is of medium size containing several rods, then these distances must
be increased (see Table E4.3).
Table E4.3 61.8% Test probe spacing for various grid sizes
Maximum Dimension of Distance to Current 50% 61.8% Distance to 70%
Earth Grid under test Electrode (C2) from distance Voltage Electrode distance
(m) centre of earth (m) (P2) from centre of (m)
system (m) earth system (m)
Small or Single electrode 50 25 31 37
5 100 50 62 70
10 150 75 93 105
20 200 100 124 140

To confirm the accuracy of the first reading the voltage probe P2 shall be moved to the 50%
and 70% positions and additional readings taken. If these readings are within +/-5% of the
value from the 61.8% test then this first reading is to be taken as the correct value. An
explanation of why we test at the 50 and 70 % positions can be found in Appendix AE4.3.

E4.0.3.6 Testing the Resistance of Specific Electrodes Using a CT Clamp Tester


In some instances it is necessary to check the value of the resistance of specific electrodes or
rods which are connected to a larger system. Typically this may be at a pole mounted
structure where the LV electrode is present or where a HV cable is terminated on the pole.
Since the resistance of the local earth is supplemented by the contribution from other remote
electrodes, a standard test would give a lower reading than actually exists for the local
electrode. There are two approved methods which involve the use of CTs to measure the
resistance of the electrode in question. The advantage of these techniques is that the
measurements can be carried out on a live system since the local earth electrodes do not
need to be disconnected from the rest of the earth system. Individual electrodes such as surge
arrestor earths, bonded to a larger system, can also be tested using these techniques.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 12 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.0.3.6.1 Test Using 3 Terminal Tester and CT Clamp


Certain test instruments incorporate a CT which clamps around the electrode to be tested.
The CT detects the test current returning via that specific electrode and allows the resistance
of the electrode to be measured (using one of the standard FOP techniques described
above) without disconnecting it from the rest of the earth system. Fig. E4.4 shows an
example of a typical arrangement for the connections required. The tester is accurate to work
in this mode so long as the resistance of the electrode under test is above 1 (below this
value the reading may be suspect).

LEM GEO X
Tester
Direct
Connection

CT Clamp

HV P2 C2
steelwork Insulated Voltage Current
earth Probe Probe
or cable Mat
sheath
Instrument will
determine the
resistance of this
earth electrode only

Fig E4.4 Example of Connections for Resistance Tests on


Individual Electrodes forming part of a Larger System

E4.0.3.6.2 Test Using Hand Held Clamp-on Tester (e.g. CA 6411)


This test can be used where an electrode is connected to an Earthing system with a much
lower overall resistance than the electrode in question. In effect this test measures the loop
impedance of the electrode under test and the rest of the earth system it is connected to.
This gives an approximate resistance value for the electrode and when compared to previous
results, gives an indication of any deterioration of the electrode. This test is also suitable for
measuring the resistance of deep high frequency earth rods when connected to a larger
earth system.

In Fig E4.5 above example if the electrode in question was actually 10 and the rest of the
network was 0.5 then the reading given by the instrument would be 10.5 which would be
sufficiently accurate. However, if the electrode was 1 and the rest of the network also 1
then the reading would be 2 and hence the result is unreliable. In addition, this tester can
not be used on isolated electrodes as no alternative low resistance path exists to form
the loop.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 13 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Instrument Rest of earth network overall


reading resistance is 0.5
10.5

S/stn S/stn S/stn S/stn S/stn

10

FigE4.5 Example of Connections for Carrying Out Resistance Tests on Individual


Electrodes forming part of a Larger System

E4.0.3.7 Fall of Potential - 90o/180o Method


This technique is used in conjunction with the slope or 61.8% method to verify the results
obtained. The test equipment is set up as shown in Fig. E4.6.

The current probe C2 is positioned as far as away from the Earthing system under test as
practicable and the voltage probe P2 is positioned at an angle between 90 /180 to the
current electrode route. A number of tests are carried out in the same way as the slope
method (see Section E4.0.3.4). When the graph is drawn, it should level off, but never quite
reach the true resistance value. By extrapolating, the true value can be estimated (see Fig.
E4.7). Similar to the slope method, underground metallic objects or cables can produce a mis-
shaped graph which may lead to false results.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 14 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

80% P2
% distance for P2 probe from the earth grid under
70% test (based on the C2 distance)

60%
Voltage probe position (P2) is positioned at 90
50% to 180o from the C2 route. Resistance readings
40%
are taken between the 80% to 20% positions
at each of the 7 points.
30%

20%

Earth 90 to
C2
Grid 180o

P1 & C1

Fig E4.6 Test equipment set up for a 90/180o test

Expected curve
from slope test

true resistance
Resistance

Expected curve
Results affected by
from 90/180o test
buried structures

E % Position of P2 electrode measured from earth grid E 100%


C2
Fig E4.7 Typical 90/180o test results

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 15 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.0.3.8 Resistance/Impedance Measurement by Current Injection


In urban areas the use of earth resistance testing instruments may not provide reliable results
especially as test routes are difficult to find. In addition, earth measurements are usually taken
using equipment that provides a d.c. current. This measures the resistive component of the
earth grid, which is often sufficiently accurate. However, if the measurement accuracy is not
acceptable using the instruments in Table E4.1, then more complex testing is required.

If an earth impedance measurements is required (i.e. resistive and inductive components) then
an a.c. power source must be used. However a.c. measurements can be adversely influenced
by standing voltages on the Earthing system. This can be overcome either by injecting a
sufficiently large current such that the voltage being measured can be discriminated from the
standing voltage, or by injecting current at selected frequencies where the standing voltage is
low and then interpreting the results to find the 50Hz earth impedance. The latter is favourable
from a safety viewpoint as lower currents are used.

Current injection from a remote source may be the only satisfactory method of obtaining a
reliable valve of earth resistance or impedance. There are two methods, both of which would
be carried out by a specialist contractor:-

E4.0.3.8.1 High Current Injection Impedance Measurement


This method uses high current injection. For this method, the four terminal tester is replaced
by discrete components capable of passing significantly higher current (50 to 200A).
Normally the equipment would include a power source and the test current would be injected
into the grid via an isolated feeder. Measurements can be taken with reference to a remote
earth, via a metallic pilot.

This type of measurement is only suitable at substations which have an isolated lower
voltage network, i.e. where interconnection with other substations does not exist or is only
available via overhead, wood pole supported lines which do not have an earth wire.

Where more sophisticated measurements of this type are required, then specialist advice
shall be sought. Note that this type of measurement may be the only one possible in urban
areas, where there is no suitable measurement route near the substation.

E4.0.3.8.2 Low Current Injection Impedance Measurement


Additional equipment required:-

A variable frequency signal generator (20Hz 200Hz) and a power amplifier


suitable for use over this frequency range.
Two frequency selective volt-meters or one dual-channel device with a suitable
current transducer and differential voltage measurement capability.
Mains isolation transformer.
The test procedure outlined in Section E4.1.2 shall be followed, but in addition,
(i) The separation between the test leads shall be at least 5m, preferably 10m and
should be kept constant over the entire test route. Where this is not possible to do
this then the actual separation shall be measured and recorded wherever it varies
along the route. This information is used to correct for mutual coupling between the
current and voltage circuits using a suitable method. Alternatively, the 90/180
Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 16 of 45
The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

method (section E4.0.3.7) could be used. This method eliminates mutual coupling
between the current and voltage leads since they are laid in different directions.
(ii) Soil resistivity measurements shall be taken along the test route as they are
required to correct for mutual coupling between the leads.
(iii) Prior to the test the standing voltage on the earth grid shall be measured with
respect to the remote current probe over the range of frequencies to be used in the
earth impedance measurement (typically 20 - 200Hz). From these results, relatively
quiet frequencies can be identified.
(iv) A range of quiet frequencies shall be selected for the earth impedance
measurement ensuring sufficient points above and below 50Hz to enable
interpolation of the 50Hz earth impedance.
(v) A series of consecutive measurements (typically 1520) of impedance magnitude
and phase angle shall be taken at each frequency and at each measurement
position and an average value selected.
(vi) In addition to the earth impedance measurements, it is useful to take resistance
measurements with a standard earth tester at the same time. This helps corroborate
the results. If the impedance phase angle or the standing voltage is low, then results
using each method will often be similar. In this case, subsequent measurements at
the site could be carried out using only the earth tester.

E4.0.4 Measurement of Joint Resistances


The method described uses a micro-ohmmeter (see Table E4.1) and is suitable for bolted, brazed
and welded joints and is applicable for all sites. It does not check the integrity of welds or voids
inside the joint.
Before testing, the surfaces of each electrode shall be cleaned to ensure a good electrical
contact. Ideally, the test connectors shall not be more than 25mm either side of the joint (see Fig
E4.8). If the test polarity can be reversed then two readings shall be made and the average of the
two recorded.
The micro-ohmmeter test is not suitable
on its own for exothermic weld type
joints (Cadweld, Furseweld etc.).
Ultrasonic testing may be required to
confirm the absence of voids in the
joint. The measured resistance shall
not significantly exceed that of an C1 P1
P2 C2
equivalent length of un-jointed
conductor. Where different sized tapes
are involved, the value used shall be
that of the smaller tape.
Table E4.4 shows acceptable joint
resistance values. Max 25mm Max 25mm

Fig E4.8 Joint resistance test probe connections

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 17 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Table E4.4 - Max. Acceptable Joint Resistance Values


Max.
Type of Joint acceptable
values
Bolted or brazed copper/copper joint 5
Bolted joint aluminium/aluminium or copper/aluminium 40
Welded joint aluminium 5
Hepworth clamp 20
Tinned copper tape to aluminium or steel structure leg 10

E4.0.5 Carrying out a Separation Test


This test is to check that the separation between two separate earth electrode systems. These
would usually include:-
substations where the fence is separately earthed from the main earth grid
on pole mounted substations, separation of HV and LV electrodes
in ground mounted distribution substations, where the HV & LV electrodes are
required to be separate (e.g. first substation out from a primary or EPR is greater than
430 volts)

The procedure is as follows:-


1) Measure the two electrode systems individually using an appropriate test (see Section
E4.0.3)
2) Confirm no voltage exists between the two earth systems (using an approved tester)
3) The earth tester is now connected as shown in Fig. E4.9 and a reading taken, producing
a resistance value (Rs) between the two earth systems.
Earth System Earth System
No.1 No. 2

Make sure links are


inserted between Three/Four
P1 C1 and Terminal Earth
between Tester
P2 - C2

Fig E4.9 Connections for Carrying Out Separation Tests

Measured value of electrode system 1 = R1


Measured value of electrode system 2 = R2
Measured value between electrode systems 1 and 2 = Rs
Separation is satisfactory if Rs is greater than 0.9 x (R1 +R2)

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 18 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Example Calculation
If R1 = 5 and R2 = 10 then Rs must be greater than 13.5 to be classified as satisfactorily
separated [Derived from 0.9 x (R1 +R2) = 0.9 (5 + 10) = 13.5].
If the system is not satisfactorily separated, this will normally be due to one or more of the
following:-
The two electrode systems not having sufficient separation/insulation in the
ground.
Faulty or damaged installation where insulation between the two systems has
been compromised
Hessian served LV and HV cables running in close proximity
Hessian served cables not being insulated 2m either side of the fence.
Fence earth rods being installed too far inside, i.e. close to the HV electrode
system.
Unintentional connection between the fence and earthed equipment inside the
substation.
Main HV earth grid electrode being within 2m of the separately earthed fence.

The reason for the unsatisfactory value must be identified and the cause corrected.

E4.0.6 Plotting of the Hot Zone


Following an earth resistance measurement, calculations may show that the earth potential rise
exceeds the limits specified in national standards (EA TS 41-24). At primary/grid substations it is
then necessary to plot the extent of the area where the limit is exceeded. Sometimes this
procedure is also necessary at distribution substations when they are classified as hot to help
determine segregation distances to LV earths or third party apparatus.

The hot zone plot can be achieved by computer studies (i.e. CDEGS package) or if necessary
can be determined by on-site measurements. Depending on the site the standard measurement
procedures detailed in this manual shall be used in this process. The following data and
calculations are required:-

i) Measure earth electrode resistance ( R )


ii) Calculate maximum ground return earth fault current (Ig)
iii) Decide the required voltage limit (V limit) e.g. 650 or 430 volts
iv) Calculate EPR of substation i.e. Vepr = Ig x R
v) Calculate the resistance of the earth grid on the V limit contour ( R limit ) by using,
Vepr - Vlimit
R limit =
Ig
This is the resistance (or impedance) value which will be measured when the voltage probe lies
on the Vlimit contour.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 19 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Example calculation
Vepr = Ig x R = 400 x 10 = 4000 volts Data Value
R 10
Vepr - Vlimit Ig 400 Amps
R limit = = (4000 430)/400
Ig V limit 430 volts
R limit = 8.93 for the 430 volt hot zone contour.
During the slope method fall-of-potential tests, the measurements are typically taken down to
20% of the distance to the current probe. It may be necessary to go closer than 20% to reach the
calculated Rlimit value. When the measured value is equal to Rlimit the distance to the voltage
probe corresponds to the extent of the hot zone along that route. This position shall be recorded
on a suitably scaled plan. Leaving the current probe in place the voltage probe is then
repositioned around the site and the locations recorded where the resistance matches the
calculated Rlimit value. Once a sufficient number of points are plotted on a plan they can be joined
up to produce the hot zone contour.

E4.0.7 Test Probes in Problem Areas


E4.0.7.1 Areas of Tarmac or Concrete
In some cases, the required position for one of the inner voltage probes may coincide with an
area covered with tarmac or concrete where it is difficult to insert a probe. Measurements can
usually still be obtained by using a small flat metal plate or test probe wrapped with a cloth
soaked with water or ideally a saline solution. A weight can be placed on top of the electrode
to help decrease the contact resistance further. The usual precautions concerning buried
metal structures apply and the area where the electrode is used should not contain reinforced
steel which runs in the same direction as the measurement route, or the reading will be
suspect.

E4.0.7.2 Areas Where a Probe has a High Contact Resistance


Usually its the C2 probe that causes the problem as it is this that allows current to be driven into
the test circuit. The first solution would be to install a small cluster of rods at the C2 position, being
careful not to decrease the distance to the earth grid under test.

If this fails then the following procedure can help to reduce the resistance further,

1. Compact the area where the probe is to be inserted to remove any air pockets
2. Insert the test probe to a reasonable depth
3. Remove probe
4. Fill the hole with water or a saline solution
5. Re-insert probe and re-test as normal

As a last resort it may be necessary to re-position the C2 probe further away or choose a new
test route completely.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 20 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.1 Earth Measurements at Primary/Grid Sites


E4.1.1 Additional Safety Requirements for Primary/Grid Sites
In addition to the safety requirements of section E4.0.3.1 the following precautions are also to be
taken:-

1) Site Checks. Before entering the substation, the designated person shall ensure that
there are no operational reasons to prevent testing, for example a temporary high fault
level, known depleted Earthing or a switchgear limitation. The designated person shall
also check for hazards within the substation, such as broken duct covers, air blast
switchgear or live equipment with temporary low ground clearance or debris thrown onto
live busbars. If any hazards are identified, appropriate precautions must be taken and/or
further advice sought. The designated person must then check that there is nothing visible
within the substation which increases the risk of a fault during the test. For example,
damaged busbar insulation or surge arresters, combined with adverse weather conditions.
2) Position of Test Set. The test equipment shall ideally be set up within the influence of the
substation earth grid, as this will reduce possible touch voltages. The best location would
be on a tarmac or concreted area and away from live overhead conductors. The test
equipment must be situated on an insulated mat large enough to accommodate the test
equipment and operator. It shall also be located at least 2 metre from any exposed
earthed metalwork or conductors to prevent inadvertent contact by the operator during the
tests.
3) Connection of Test Set. The test connection point must be a relatively benign part of
the Earthing system, e.g. a switchgear handle earth connection or earth plate connection.
Terminal towers, fault throwers, surge diverters and CVT connections are not suitable
points as these could be subject to high fault current. The connection point must be a
piece of electrode which connects directly to a buried part of the substation earth grid.
Special care shall be taken when frame leakage protection is present as incorrectly
applying test current via the switchgear earth bar could result in operation of the frame
leakage protection.
4) Voltage Tester. Because it is not possible to visually check earth continuity in large
substations, an approved voltage tester must be used to ensure that any exposed
metalwork which is to be tested or subjected to a bonding check, is at or about earth
potential. Sometimes stray voltages can interfere with site resistance measurements.
Once the test equipment is set up, with remote test leads connected a voltage
measurement can be made between the C1 and C2 terminals on the tester. Both a.c. and
d.c. measurements can be made and should be below the threshold limit specified by the
tester manufacturer.

E4.1.2 Measuring the Earth Resistance at a Primary/Grid Site


The slope test shall be used to measure primary and grid site resistances. If there is any doubt
about the result then a 90/180o test shall also be carried out to confirm the values of the first
test. The following procedure applies irrespective of whether the substation is energised or not:-
i) A detailed record must be kept of the test. This includes the point of connection, location
of test probes etc. This enables comparative measurements to be taken in future.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 21 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

ii) The equipment shall be connected as in Figs. E4.1 and E4.10. The test equipment shall
be located within the influence of the earth grid and positioned on the insulated mat. At
this point the remote test leads are left unplugged from the tester.
iii) A set of two test leads are routed from the test equipment (P2 and C2 terminals), across
the inside of the substation, using a safe route, to the section of the perimeter fence
nearest the test route.

Can be up to 1000m

Voltage
Earth Grid Current
Probe
Test Point Probe

Substation
Fence

Four Terminal
Earth Tester C1 P1 P2 C2

Insulated Mat

Fig E4.10 Typical layout of Test Equipment for Earth Measurement


iv) The current and voltage leads are then unwound from their drums and taken out away
from the substation along the proposed test route. The leads must be a minimum of 1m
apart. The current lead must be completely uncoiled from its reel and must not cross the
voltage lead.
v) Once a suitable distance has been achieved, i.e. a minimum of six times the diagonal of
the earth grid, the current probe is installed at the end of the lead, in a moist area of soil if
possible.
vi) The actual distance between the test point and the current probe must be accurately
measured.
vii) The voltage probe is inserted in the ground at a point 80% of the distance from the
substation perimeter fence to the current rod. The remote end of the voltage lead is then
connected to the probe.
viii) Finally, a connection (two leads) is made between the P1 and C1 terminals and the earth
test point within the substation, again ensuring that the leads follow a safe route. Prior to
connection to the Earthing system, the electrode at the point of connection shall be
cleaned of dirt/oxidation so that a low resistance connection is obtained.
ix) The designated person must inform other staff to stand clear of the test leads and rods.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 22 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

x) The remote test leads are plugged into the tester and the earth value reading taken. If the
reading fluctuates then ten measurements are to be taken and an average calculated. On
completion of the reading both remote test leads shall be unplugged.
xi) Having informed those remote from the test point that the leads have been disconnected,
the voltage probe are now moved to a new position 10% closer to the substation. The test
is to be repeated such that measurements are obtained at 10% intervals, between the
80% and 20% distance, i.e. seven readings, together with two additional readings at the
55% and 65% distances.
xii) The results obtained are plotted on a graph with the x-axis expressed as a percentage of
the route length to the current rod and the y-axis representing the ohmic value. The curve
should follow the pattern indicated on Fig. E4.2. Any obviously erroneous readings are to
be repeated.
xiii) The slope method analysis described in Section E4.0.3.4 is to be used to help interpret
the results. If the slope method does not yield a satisfactory result, the series of tests must
be repeated, using a different position for the current rod, further away than in the first test
or in a different direction. The same applies if the shape of the curve of the results differs
significantly from the pattern shown in Fig. E4.2.
xiv) Once an acceptable set of results has been obtained the current probe position is noted
for future reference.
xv) Where practicable and if necessary due to perceived problems with the previous data
from the slope test, a second type of test is to be carried out. This is the 90o/180o test (see
section E4.0.4.7). The current lead is left in position, but the voltage lead is run out at an
angle of 90 to 180 to that of the current lead for approximately 20% of the fence/current
probe position. It is connected to a voltage probe at this point and a measurement taken.
The test is repeated at distances of 30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80% and the measured values
plotted against distance. If the results are of a similar shape to those of Fig. E4.7 then the
plot is used to help derive the lowest value that the site earth resistance / impedance can
be. It is used in conjunction with the slope method to increase the confidence in the result.
xvi) If the substation has a separately earthed fence and a separation test is to be carried out,
the resistance of the fence must also be measured (which can be done using the quicker
61.8% test).
xvii) On completion of the tests, the following procedure shall be followed for disconnecting the
test equipment. Again insulated gloves must be worn at all times.
Test connection removed from earth grid
Test leads removed from test set.
The remote earth test rods must be disconnected and pulled out of the ground.
The test leads are recovered, whilst also being checked for damage.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 23 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.1.3 Testing the Bonding of Plant and Structures at Primary/Grid


Sites
E4.1.3.1 General
i) The tests must consider the probable path of the injected current. Where the
substation uses a bus-zone protection scheme, care must be taken to ensure that
any test current does not produce current in the secondary of protection or other
CTs.
ii) The operator shall be wearing Company approved safety footwear and whilst
making any connections shall be wearing insulated gloves. Testing shall not
proceed during lightning activity in the region.
iii) The following procedures require that, during the connection and testing
procedure, the equipment and the operator are located within the confines of the
earth grid.
iv) To establish that a satisfactory connection exists between the grid and any
exposed metalwork it is necessary to measure in the micro-ohms range. An
injection current of at least 1 Amp is recommended.

E4.1.3.2 Equipment Required


A micro-ohmmeter (see Table E4.1) shall be used that is capable of measuring down
to 1, and passing up to 10 Amps with a built-in filter to reject a.c. signals. These
types of instrument are the only one that can accurately measure individual joint
resistances and since they pass a higher test current than a standard tester they may
reveal defects an ordinary tester would not detect.
Two sets of test leads.
Clip on ammeter.
Voltage indicating device.

E4.1.3.3 Measurement Procedure for Checking Bonding Across the Site


This test confirms all structures are bonded together within the site by measuring the
resistance between a specific point on the earth grid and individual parts of earthed metalwork
around it. Tests can be made from one central point (such as the switchgear earth bar or NER
earth connection)
i) The test commences, by selecting as the starting point an above ground point
which is known to be connected to the main earth grid, such as the main
substation earth bar or a central reference point. The equipment arrangement is
shown in Fig. E4.11. Test leads are connected between the P1 and C1 terminals
and the switchgear earth bar or reference point. (Note - if only one test lead is
used between P1/C1 and the reference point, then the test will include the
resistance of the lead which will give false readings). If the P1 and C1 leads are
made long enough then the test set and test probes connected to P2 and C2 can
be carried around from item to item to make taking the results easier.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 24 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Earth Grid
Reference Test Point

To Item under Test

Four Terminal
Earth Tester C1 P1 P2 C2

Insulated Mat

Fig E4.1.4 Connections for Carrying Out Bonding Tests

ii) The test is to be repeated for all other items requiring testing within the radius of
the test leads and the values recorded. The values can be expected to increase
slightly with increasing distance from the central reference point.
iii) Once the integrity of the connection to the grid of any item of plant has been
verified, the connection point of that item can then be used as a reference point for
testing the next batch of plant, up to the length of the test leads, if necessary.
iv) The test is then to be repeated, throughout the substation, ensuring that the
exposed, earthed metalwork on all items of plant and structures are checked.

v) Should a connection prove to have an unacceptably high value (i.e. >10m ) then
action must be taken to investigate further and rectify any defects.

As a general guide to what values of resistance are expected, 100m of 40x4mm


copper tape will measure about 10m. In general, values between 1 and 5mshould
be expected between items of equipment. Anything higher than 10m shall be
investigated further.

E4.1.3.4 Measurement Procedure for Checking Individual Joints


This test is to be carried out to confirm the integrity of specific joints, especially plant
connections and other critical earth grid connections (see section E4.0.4 for details of the
test). Values are to be compared to Table E4.4 with anything greater than the limit
investigated further and rectified if necessary.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 25 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.1.4 Measurement of Resistance of Individual Earth Components


At many sites the earth grid contains a number of discreet elements that play a major part in
achieving the desired substation resistance. It is important that these components are monitored
to ensure that have not deteriorated or have become detached from the main grid. This is
achieved by measuring their individual resistances by using the procedures in section E4.0.3.6.

Some part of the electrode cross-section must be sufficiently small to accommodate the jaws of
the CT. It is also useful to measure and record any a.c. leakage current as this helps to confirm
the integrity of the Earthing system and if measurements are taken at regular intervals, may help
identify corrosion, for example, if the resistance of an electrode increases over time.

Where the single connection is tape, which is too wide to fit into the CTs jaws, it may be possible
to bend a small section back on itself to reduce its diameter. Alternatively, a section of earth tape
can be replaced with one having a circular cross section with an equivalent rating. It is important
to note that before removing an earth tape forming part of an Earthing system, the circular cross
section must first be securely bolted in position. Only then can a short length (initially in parallel
with the new circular piece) be cut away. This procedure ensures that there is no possibility of a
voltage difference occurring between sections of the tape (this is extremely important if the
connection goes to a tower with an over-running earthwire).

The following items, where they exist, shall be checked using this procedure:-
External earth wires installed to lower the substations overall resistance
Any abandoned cables that are bonded to the earth grid to supplement the Earthing
Earth bonds to overhead lines with over-running earthwires
Surge arrestor earths
Capacitive VT earths
Any other accessible deep drive or high frequency electrodes

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 26 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.2 Earth Measurement at Distribution Ground Mounted


Sites
E4.2.1 Safety Requirements
The safety requirements of Sections E4.0.3.1 shall apply.

E4.2.2 Measuring the Earth Resistance at 11kV Ground Mounted Sites


In addition to the equipment listed in Section E4.0.3.2 the following two items are required to test
the bonding within the site:-
A milli-ohmmeter
Milli-ohmmeter test leads/probes.

E4.2.2.1 Earth Resistance Readings


The majority of the Companys ground mounted substations will have the HV and LV earths
combined unless the site has been declared hot (see Section E5 with regards to standard
distribution substation Earthing arrangements).
For new sites the earth can be tested before it is connected to the incoming HV and LV cables
using Method A (61.8% test see section E4.0.3.5). At existing sites the connected incoming
cables would reduce the substations apparent resistance. In which case Method B shall be
used which uses a clamp-on CT to test specific parts of the earth system (see section
E4.0.3.6). For a standard package substation the CT is clamped around the earth conductors
connected to the perimeter electrode as well as any externally laid earth conductors.
In some cases the hand held clamp-on meter (e.g. Chauvin Arnoux CA 6411) shown in Fig
E4.12 and described in section E4.0.3.6.2 will give good results. If this test is not applicable
(because the alternative earth paths are not sufficiently low) then the method shown in section
E4.0.3.6.1 could be used as this does not rely on having an alternative low resistance path as
required by the hand held meter. However it does require a 3 or 4 terminal earth tester with the
facility for an external CT attachment (e.g. LEM GEO X or Det 3TC) as well as having a
suitable route for the FOP test.

Fig E4.12 Arrangement for measuring HV Earth system at existing ground mounted S/S

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 27 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

In some cases it may be necessary to check the resistance of individual components of the
earth electrode system. These components can include HV electrodes, LV electrodes, HV and
LV lead sheathed cables and distributed LV neutral earth rods. The same procedure described
above can be useful to test these items.

E4.2.2.2 Carrying Out Earthing Segregation Checks at Existing Sites


In most situations the HV and LV electrodes of ground mounted substations are combined.
However, at Hot sites they will be segregated. These segregation requirements must be
confirmed by a person who has carried out a Hot Site assessment in accordance with
Section E5 of this manual. Once the segregation is confirmed as being necessary, a check
shall be carried out to make sure they are in fact adequately separated. The procedure in
Section E4.0.5 shall be carried out wherever possible after first confirming the HV to LV earth
link in the LV pillar is open.

At many ground-mounted distribution substations it is difficult to obtain satisfactory routes for


test leads to allow earth measurements to be carried out. If it is not possible to measure the
individual HV and LV earth resistances then as a minimum the resistance between the two
electrodes shall be measured (i.e. the value Rs in the procedure). A reading of one or two
ohms would suggest that the electrodes are not connected at the substation in question
(though they may be connected via interconnections to other substations). A reading below
this value shall be investigated to determine that the two electrodes are actually separate.

Particular attention shall be given to where LV cables enter the LV pillar to ensure no
inadvertent contact exists between the cable sheaths and the LV pillar steelwork. It may also
be possible that HV and LV lead sheathed cables (or HV and LV electrodes) have been laid in
close proximity to one another. If this were the case the problem could be resolved by
increasing the separation or applying suitable insulation between the items in question.

It is desirable that any steel fences at distribution sites are segregated from the earth system
wherever possible. This is to prevent voltages that appear on the earth system during faults
from being transferred to locations outside the substation (especially so if the substation is
hot). Where the fence is further than 2m from any earthed equipment then the fence should be
segregated from the main earth system. A segregation test as described above shall be
carried out to confirm the separation exists. Again if suitable test routes are difficult to obtain
then the resistance between the HV earth and fence shall be measured. Anything less than 1
or 2 ohms would suggest the two are not adequately separated and shall be investigated
further and actions taken to remedy the situation.

E4.2.2.3 Checking Integrity of the Bonding


Besides measuring the substation resistance it is important to ensure that earth system in a
distribution substation is correctly bonded. The following procedure is to be used:-
(i) The leads used are 3m long, screened twin cored with a spring, clamp or two prong
fitting which connects both cores to the earth test point.
(ii) The milli-ohmmeter is to be positioned on an insulated mat. One test lead is connected
between the P1-C1 terminal and the main switchgear earth bar. The P2-C2 test leads
shall be left unplugged until testing is required. The remote end of this lead is used to
check the integrity of the bonding connection.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 28 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

(iv) Having first checked with the voltage indicator that there is no voltage on the earthed
metalwork to be tested, any surface paint or corroded surface material is removed at
the selected test point. The remote end of the P2-C2 lead is then connected to the test
point.
(v) The P2 and C2 leads are plugged in, the instrument reading taken, (the range changed
if necessary), the reading recorded and then the leads are unplugged.
(vi) At the next test position the voltage indicator is used to verify that the metalwork is at
earth potential, the test leads connected and the measurement procedure repeated.
(vii) Connections where the bonding has been found to be unsatisfactory shall be identified
for further investigation and remedial action if required.
(viii) For slightly larger sites, once the initial group of connections have been checked, the
P1 & C1 connections can be repositioned to a section of the Earthing system where the
bonding has already been confirmed as satisfactory. The instrument and mat is then
repositioned and bonding tests carried out in the second area, using the same
procedure as above.
(ix) The procedure is continued until all items of exposed metalwork have been tested.
(x) All main items of plant shall be tested, this shall include all switchgear, transformers,
LV frames, all HV cable plumbs or sheaths where accessible. If the site is hot the LV
neutrals and LV earths shall be independently tested as these will be segregated from
the HV earth.
(xi) If the measured value is above the acceptable limit (see Table 4.5), then the first action
is to check visually that the metalwork at the test point is actually bonded to the
switchgear earth bar. If not, a suitable bond shall be installed and the test repeated. It
is more likely that if a bond exists then the reason for the poor reading is usually a
badly made or corroded joint.
Table E4.5 Acceptable Bonding Readings within Distribution Substations
Equipment Typical values Max. Acceptable
expected Values
Individual Joints (e.g. Bolted
connection to plant )
5-50 100
Between any two items of plant or
2500
equipment within 2m of each other 200-500
( i.e. touching distance apart) (2.5m)
Maximum resistance between any 10,000
items within the whole substation -
(10m)
Example resistance of 1m length of
25x3mm copper tape or 70mm2 200 -
copper conductor

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 29 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.3 Measurements at Wood Pole Structures


E4.3.1 Safety Requirements
None of the tests described below requires an electrode to be disconnected from the structure.
Since the system is likely to be live at the time of the tests the safety requirements of Sections
E4.0.3.1 shall apply.

E4.3.2 Earth Resistance Values/Readings at Pole Mounted Sites


The following values associated with the earth system shall be maintained:-

1. HV pole mounted earth electrode systems shall have a maximum resistance of 10.
2. Separate LV earth electrodes systems shall have a maximum resistance of 20 (PME
system).
3. Where cable sheath earth terminals are provided, the LV earth electrode system shall
be no greater than 2.

Applicable tests:-

Method A (standard 61.8% test)


This test is suitable for any new sites where the electrode(s) can be tested before they are
connected to the pole. This test is also suitable for existing HV earths where no HV cable exists
at the pole. See section E4.0.3.5 for general details of the test.

Method B (test using CT together with 61.8% test)


At live sites this test allows electrodes to be tested without the need for a shutdown to enable an
electrode to be disconnected. This test is suitable for HV earths at existing sites where a HV
cable is connected. It is also suitable for testing LV earths where the contribution from remote
earths and customers installations must be discounted. See section E4.0.3.6.1 for more details
of the test procedure. The standalone hand held clamp tester is not suitable for measuring earth
values at pole-mounted sites.

E4.3.2.1 Earth Resistance Readings


Testing of HV and LV earths at pole mounted sites will use the 61.8% test procedure. The
procedure also measures the resistance at the 50 and 70% voltage probe positions to confirm
the readings are within +/- 5% of the 61.8% result.

If method B is being used the tester is connected in the usual way with the addition of a plug in
CT that is then clamped around the electrode to be tested. It is important to position the CT so
that only the electrode in question is tested otherwise a misleading reading will be obtained.

Occasionally when testing LV electrodes, interference can be experienced due to neutral


currents returning via the electrodes. In this case it may be necessary to make the substation
dead, disconnect the electrode and test using the standard 61.8% test procedure in section
E4.0.3.5. It is also advisable to check neutral connections along the LV line as a high
resistance joint could be the reason some neutral current is being forced to flow back via the
earth electrodes.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 30 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

The procedure for the 61.8% test is:-


i) Make a visual inspection, from ground level, of the substation and its equipment to
establish that there is no obvious insulator damage. Check that the earth conductors
appear to be undamaged through to ground level. Use an approved HV indicator to
confirm that no voltage exists on steelwork.

Pole S/S earth Poor position for current


Metal fence or
buried pipe or cable probe as current may
flow back to earth
electrode via fence and
not the soil

Good position for current


probe as current flows back
to earth electrode via the
soil

Fig E4.13 Position of Current Probe when Testing an Earth Electrode

ii) Identify a suitable test route. For the test to provide accurate results, the current flowing
between the current probe and the poles earth electrode should return through the soil,
not through any extraneous metalwork. It is important that the route chosen avoids
cables, metallic fences, buried metal pipes and not the electrode itself. Section E4.7
details methods available to locate the earth electrode and any other buried metalwork
(usually a Cat & Genny will be adequate). Where it is not possible to completely avoid
other metalwork, the current probe shall be positioned at 900 to the route of any buried
metalwork or cables (see Fig E4.13). Make a record of the test route and probe
positions so that comparisons can be made in the future.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 31 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

iii) Place the test instrument on the insulated mat with the remote test leads left unplugged
and arrange as in Fig. E4.14. (or Fig. E4.4 for method B test using CT clamp). The
equipment shall be located a few metres from the pole (to reduce the risk of injury due
from falling material).

If a 4 terminal tester is % Distance from pole under test


being used make sure the
link is inserted between C1 50% 61.8% 70% 100%
and P1 terminals

P2 C2

Main test is at 61.8% position


with additional tests at the 50%
and 70% positions to confirm
the result is OK

Fig E4.14 Test equipment set up for a 61.8% test

iv) The P1 and C1 terminals of the instrument are connected to the electrode under test.
Wearing HV rubber gloves the operator shall apply the test leads to the electrode under
test at a point just above the ACD and no higher than 3m. This may necessitate
removing a small section of insulation from the earth wire, which shall be made good
on completion of the test. Under no circumstances shall the insulation be removed
below the height of the ACD nor below ground level. Alternatively, the test leads could
be connected to a live line tap to allow the test leads to be applied to the earth wire or
earthed steelwork where safe and practical to do so. Using an approved voltage
instrument, check that the earth electrode is at or about earth potential (the remote
earth P2 or C2 spike could be used required to provide a voltage reference). If
everything is satisfactory then connect the lead to the P1 and C1 lead(s) to the
instrument. If method B is being used then the CT is also clamped around the electrode
below the C1/P1 connection point.
v) The two remote test leads are run out towards the proposed current and voltage probe
positions. The leads must be set out such that they are 1m apart and in a manner to
minimise any trip hazards or interference by third parties or farm animals. The current
lead (C2) shall be completely uncoiled from its reel.
vi) Once the current lead is uncoiled, the current probe is installed at the end in a
preferably moist area of ground. The lead is then connected to the probe. The voltage
probe (P2) is installed 61.8% of the current probe distance away from the substation
and 1m away from the current lead (see table E4.3).

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 32 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

vii) `The actual straight-line distance between the test point and the current probe must be
accurately measured. The standard leads can be marked to assist with this, but a more
accurate measurement is necessary if the route is not completely straight.
viii) The operator shall stand on the insulated mat. He must be wearing insulating gloves
during the test operation and must inform other staff to stand clear of the test leads and
probes and earth electrode.
ix) The P2 and C2 leads are now connected to the instrument and the earth resistance
reading taken. If the reading fluctuates, then ten sequential values are to be taken and
an average calculated. Once the reading is obtained then the test leads shall be
disconnected from the tester and two new resistance readings taken using the above
procedure with the voltage probe positioned at 50% and then 70% of the current probe
distance. If the results obtained are within +/-5% of the 61.8% figure, then the 61.8%
figure is used as the resistance value. If the variation is greater than 5%, then position
the current probe further away or choose a different FOP route and repeat the tests.
x) If a satisfactory result can still not be obtained with the 61.8% test then the slope
method shall be used instead (see Section E4.0.3.4). The measured values are to be
plotted with the ohmic value on the y-axis, and voltage probe distance (expressed as a
percentage of the current probe distance) on the x-axis. The curve should follow the
pattern indicated on Fig. E4.2. Any obviously erroneous readings shall be repeated
whilst at site.
xi) If interpretation using the slope method does not yield a satisfactory result, the series of
tests must be repeated, using a different position for the current probe, further away
than before or in a different direction.
xii) The test shall then be repeated on any other separate earth electrode system on the
pole.
xiii) On completion of the tests, the reverse procedure must be adopted for disconnecting
the test equipment, again insulation gloves must be worn:-
Removal of the connection to the electrode system test point.
The remote leads unplugged from the instrument
The remote earth test probes must be disconnected and pulled out of the
ground.
The test leads are recovered, whilst also being checked for damage.

E4.3.2.2 Segregation Test

At transformer poles the HV and LV earths will be segregated. A separation test shall be
carried out in accordance with section E4.0.5.

E4.4 Customers S/Stns (Future)

E4.5 Measurements on LV Networks (Future)

E4.6 Measurements at Steel Tower Locations (Future)


Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 33 of 45
The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.7 Locating Existing Earth Electrodes


At older substation sites, whilst an Earthing system is in place, a record of its design may not
exist or may be out of date. A formal Earthing record is a requirement of the CDM regulations.
The record shall include the position of the electrode, its burial depth, material, size and
installation method (e.g. above ground, in ducts, or buried directly). Where existing electrode
needs to be located within live substations, surface detection methods are usually the lowest cost
option.
E4.7.1 Radio Detection Techniques
A low to medium frequency system comprises a transmitter and receiver, working at frequencies
from 50Hz (detection of live mains cables) to nearly 100 kHz. The transmitter injects a signal into
the Earthing system which is to be traced. As this signal passes through the earth electrodes, it
radiates an electric and magnetic field, one or both of which can be detected and interpreted by
coils in the receiver. Basic receivers simply emit an audio tone as they are passed over the target
line. More advanced receivers give information, such as burial depth and test current magnitude.
This feature helps to distinguish between the electrode under test and others which have
erroneously picked up the transmitters signal through coupling.

The following table summarises the recommended trace methods for detection of the various
components in an Earthing system. Each method is described in more detail in the following
sections. The pipeline tracing option is useful if an Earthing system is bonded to a pipe so that
soil resistivity and Fall of Potential measurements are routed to avoid it.

Table E4.6 Suitable Location Techniques


Location Method
Earthing (A) (B) (C) (D)
component to be Radio Current clamp Direct Mains
traced Frequency (8kHz) connection frequency
(8kHz) (50Hz)
Mesh grid 1
R
sections 9 9 9
Radial grid
R
sections 9
Cables / 2 3
R
extended 9 9 9 9
electrodes
leaving s/stn
Pipelines
R
9 9
Notes:-
1 Especially for tracing the perimeter electrodes, but does not give depth.
2 For tracing long extended electrodes
3 For tracing mains cables leaving substation
R Recommended

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 34 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.7.1.1 Active Detection

E4.7.1.1.1 Direct Signal Injection


Direct injection involves connecting the transmitter directly onto the electrode to be traced,
using either the two pole method or the earth return method. Radial parts of the Earthing
system, can be traced using either two pole direct connection or by the earth return method.
Earth return is generally the best, as the other method creates an airborne signal which can
interfere with the detector.

(a) Two pole direct connection


Two pole connection involves connecting the transmitter terminals across the electrode to
be traced. Ideally, a location near the centre of the main grid should be chosen to connect
one pole of the transmitter via a short lead connecting the transmitter to point A (Fig E4.15).
A longer lead is used to connect the other transmitter pole to the radial electrode (e.g. point
B). By using a central transmitter location, only the long lead has to be moved in order to
trace other radials.
Perimeter Electrode

Transmitter

Fig E4.15 Two Pole Direct Connection onto Substation Radial Electrode Systems
The leads shall be kept far enough from the expected route of the electrode being traced
such that they do not cause interference via in-air coupling.

As two pole connection does not use earth return, the signal strength in the electrode being
traced should be high and reasonably constant. The signal strength will be known from the
output display on the transmitter and from initial locates near the point of injection, so it
should be relatively easy to recognise when the receiver is detecting a smaller signal from
another cable / electrode via coupling. Note that if the radial electrode is short, this method
may not work due to in-air coupling from the long test lead.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 35 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Substation Fence
Perimeter Electrode

E
Transmitter

Fig E4.16 Direct Connection via Earth Return

(b) Direct Connection Earth return


Earth return requires one pole of the transmitter to be connected to a central point on the
earth grid, e.g. point A (Fig. E4.16), and the other to an earth return spike (E). The earth
spike is usually installed outside the substation compound, and connected via another long
lead. This signal is applied to the whole Earthing system, which may allow smaller Earthing
systems to be completely traced from a single transmitter connection.

The signal strength falls off rapidly with distance from the transmitter connection point and
is strongest on the sides nearest the earth rod. Signal strength in radials can be intensified
by positioning the transmitter at one end and the earth spike near the other, but this only
works for long radials where the transmitter and earth spike are still far enough from the
receiver to prevent interference through in-air coupling.

On larger Earthing systems, sections of electrode are likely to be far enough away from the
transmitter connection point for the signal strength to have fallen below traceable levels. In
these cases, several transmitter positions are necessary to trace the entire grid. Transmitter
positions at node points in the grid (i.e. branches and tee-offs) should allow more
conductors to be traced from a single point.

The signal will pass into multicores, telecom, cable sheaths etc. Normally, the trace current
in these will be small but if they are earthed at frequent intervals, they could produce a
greater signal than the earth electrodes. Multicore and telecom cables are usually installed
at shallower depths than the earth electrodes, so the signal emitted from them can swamp
the receiver, making electrode tracing in their vicinity very difficult. Often it is possible to
identify that an insulated cable is being traced, because the current and signal will be fairly
constant along its length. For a buried electrode, the current and signal falls off due to the
current leaking into the soil or being diverted into other conductors at mesh connection
points.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 36 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

It is recommended that the earth return method is used for rapid tracing of radial sections in
earth grids, where lack of multicores and grid size permits, using suitable transmitter and
earth rod positions.

The earth return method is particularly useful when cable records do not exist and direct
connection points for the two pole method are not known, or for tracing long extended
electrodes and cable sheaths, where two pole direct connection is impractical. Two pole
direct connections may be used to trace remote ends of important radials, such as bonds to
terminal towers, and any other radials which cannot be easily identified with the earth return
method.

If no cable records exist for the site, it may be difficult to determine a suitable connection
point and injection method for the transmitter. In these cases, earth return serves as a good
initial search method. It is best to connect one pole of the transmitter to an earth wire on a
terminal pole or tower outside the substation. The second pole is then connected to the
earth rod, driven into the ground outside the substation. A good signal current of 20mA to
50mA is usually possible with this set-up. The route of the earth wire into the substation
compound can then be traced, followed by some major components near to the point where
the earth wire is bonded to the main earth grid. Once some of the electrode inside the
substation has been traced, the methods described above are to be used to locate the rest.

E4.7.1.1.2 Inductive Signal Injection


This method involves injection of the trace signal via electromagnetic induction. The
transmitter is placed directly above the line to be traced, lying parallel to it. Some transmitters
can also be laid on their side, causing the signal to be induced into buried lines over a wider
area, but less signal is induced into the line directly beneath the transmitter. These methods
can be fast and do not require a direct, clean electrical connection. However, the receiver
cannot be used within 25m of the transmitter and the injection signal is likely to be induced
into nearby multicores, telecom cables etc.

E4.7.1.1.3 Current Clamp Injection


The current clamp combines the advantages of the inductive and direct injection methods. A
split CT is clamped around the line to be traced, and induces a trace signal into it. No direct
electrical connections are necessary and the signal should only be induced into the clamped
line.

Most modern substations will have a mesh type earthing system which consists of a number
of closed rings of electrode. A typical arrangement is shown in Fig. E4.17. Radial conductors
may also be present which connect individual pieces of equipment to the grid. Mesh sections
of a grid may be more easily traced using a current clamp to apply the tracing signal. This
may require either exposing a short length of mesh conductor or use of one of the earth
tapes to equipment which is double bonded to the grid.

The current clamp (a split core CT) is fitted around the earth conductor and forces the test
signal to circulate in the mesh loops. Typically, less of the signal leaks out through the soil
via earth return method. The amount of leakage will depend upon the soil resistivity and the
injection frequency being used. This method ensures that a high signal current circulates
through the loop conductors, increasing the accuracy, ease and distance of tracing. As earth
return is not used, the transmitter earth spike is not needed and signal transfer into cable

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 37 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

sheaths, telecom and multicore cables and unbonded fences may be reduced. Leakage into
other cables, will normally produce a lower signal (or current magnitude), often allowing them
to be distinguished from the earth grid mesh conductors. The signal injection method will
usually enable all mesh and perimeter conductors to be traced with accuracy. Where current
is leaking into cable sheaths, the detection accuracy may be reduced, particularly if these
cables are at a shallower depth than the electrode.

Perimeter Electrode

Transmitter

Fig E4.17 Signal Injection into a Substation Mesh Electrode System


The position of the current clamp is important. Centrally located positions, such as A will
inject reasonable signal strength into all mesh conductors (unless any of these are
damaged). However, in large grids or designs with many parallel mesh loops, the lower
signal strength makes tracing the outer loops difficult. The clamp position may need to be
changed to progressively trace more of the grid.

The signal strength attainable in individual conductors / meshes, for a particular current
clamp position, will depend upon the grid design, size, soil resistivity and type of electrode
used. The signal level which can be detected will depend on the above, together with burial
depth and user experience. It is recommended that central clamp positions are used initially,
followed by outer positions to increase signal strength in particular meshes, where necessary
to confirm electrode position. Where signal current is leaking into cable sheaths, tracing
needs to be carried out using the earth return method.

E4.7.1.2 Passive Detection (Radio detection)


Passive techniques involve the detection of signals which have been induced into lines by
other radio sources. Mains frequencies can also be detected, allowing live cables to be
traced. Passive detection does not require use of the transmitter, so is quick and simple to
implement but not normally as accurate as active detection. For this reason, the technique
should not be relied upon, but is a useful for finding pipes etc. which may be in the vicinity of
the earth to be tested. It is a useful first search method for finding the approximate position of
buried electrode, especially the perimeter electrode.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 38 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

E4.7.2 Use of Ground Penetrating Radar


This is a specialist area, with the following information provided for reference only.

A ground penetrating radar system, used in conjunction with appropriate analysis software, can
be used to produce a reasonable graphical image of structures below the surface. Radar systems
detect the dielectric contrast between a target and its surroundings and so are well suited for
detecting conductive, metallic electrodes against soil which is relatively resistive. They are well
suited to drained, high soil resistivity locations. The radar system is usually guided over the trace
area in a grid pattern, with detection results being stored for later analysis by computer.

A series of radar systems are available, operating at different frequencies, from around 80 MHz
to around 900 MHz. The higher frequency systems provide improved image resolution but with
reduced signal penetration. Earthing systems are usually buried at shallow depths (e.g. 0.6
metres) and can be detected with the higher frequency antennas. Antennas at operating
frequencies of 500 MHz, give good resolution and a penetration of up to 4.5 metres. A 900 MHz
system will give increased resolution but with penetration of only up to 1.5 metres. The resolution
and penetration obtained will depend on soil / rock properties and moisture content. A highly
conductive, moist surface soil may reduce the systems detection depth and resolution
considerably.

Radar reflections will be received from soil-rock interfaces, water tables and other buried metallic
objects as well as the earth electrodes, so the results must be interpreted by a trained expert.

Experience has shown that the method is slow and expensive compared to the use of a
low/medium frequency tracing system.

As a test current is not used or measured, the radar system cannot help in determining which
earth electrode is providing the lower impedance path, i.e. an indication that it is connected and is
in reasonable condition.

For routine electrode location, the low/medium frequency method combined with some limited
excavation, is likely to be the most effective.

Radar surveys are particularly useful at a site where extensive construction activities are planned.
The advantage of radar is that it traces all buried material, not just the electrode. For this reason,
it will help in locating cables for jointing purposes and in selecting routes for mechanical
excavation. In such circumstances, the radar method may be the more economic one to use.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 39 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Appendix AE4.1 Tables for use with Slope method FOP test (see section E4.0.3.4)
Chart for use with Slope Method (values of P/EC for values of ) (1 of 3)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.40 0.6432 6431 6429 6428 6426 6425 6423 6422 6420 6419
0.41 0.6418 6416 6415 6413 6412 6410 6409 6408 6406 6405
0.42 0.6403 6402 6400 6399 6397 6396 6395 6393 6392 6390
0.43 0.6389 6387 6386 6384 6383 6382 6380 6379 6377 6376
0.44 0.6374 6373 6372 6370 6369 6367 6366 6364 6363 6361
0.45 0.6360 6359 6357 6356 6354 6353 6351 6350 6348 6347
0.46 0.6346 6344 6343 6341 6340 6338 6337 6336 6334 6333
0.47 0.6331 6330 6328 6327 6325 6324 6323 6321 6320 6318
0.48 0.6317 6315 6314 6312 6311 6310 6308 6307 6305 6304
0.49 0.6302 6301 6300 6298 6297 6295 6294 6292 6291 6289
0.50 0.6288 6286 6285 6283 6282 6280 6279 6277 6276 6274
0.51 0.6273 6271 6270 6268 6267 6265 6264 6262 6261 6259
0.52 0.6258 6256 6255 6253 6252 6250 6248 6247 6245 6244
0.53 0.6242 6241 6239 6238 6236 6235 6233 6232 6230 6229
0.54 0.6227 6226 6224 6223 6221 6220 6218 6217 6215 6214
0.55 0.6212 6210 6209 6207 6206 6204 6203 6201 6200 6198
0.56 0.6197 6195 6194 6192 6191 6189 6188 6186 6185 6183
0.57 0.6182 6180 6179 6177 6176 6174 6172 6171 6169 6168
0.58 0.6166 6165 6163 6162 6160 6159 6157 6156 6154 6153
0.59 0.6151 6150 6148 6147 6145 6144 6142 6141 6139 6138
0.60 0.6136 6134 6133 6131 6130 6128 6126 6125 6123 6121
0.61 0.6120 6118 6117 6115 1663 6112 6110 6108 6107 6105
0.62 0.6104 6102 6100 6099 6097 6096 6094 6092 6091 6089
0.63 0.6087 6086 6084 6083 6081 6079 6077 6076 6074 6073
0.64 0.6071 6070 6068 6066 6065 6063 6061 6060 6058 6057
0.65 0.6055 6053 6052 6050 6049 6047 6045 6044 6042 6040
0.66 0.6039 6037 6036 6034 6032 6031 6029 6027 6026 6024
0.67 0.6023 6021 6019 6018 6016 6015 6013 6011 6010 6008
0.68 0.6006 6005 6003 6002 6000 5998 5997 5995 5993 5992
0.69 0.5990 5989 5987 5985 5984 5982 5980 5979 5977 5975
0.70 0.5974 5973 5971 5969 5967 5965 5964 5962 5960 5959
0.71 0.5957 5955 5953 5952 5950 5948 5947 5945 5943 5942
0.72 0.5940 5938 5936 5935 5933 5931 5930 5928 5926 5924
0.73 0.5923 5921 5920 5918 5916 5914 5912 5911 5909 5907
0.74 0.5906 5904 5902 5900 5899 5897 5895 5894 5892 5890
0.75 0.5889 5887 5885 5883 5882 5880 5878 5877 5875 5873
0.76 0.5871 5870 5868 5866 5865 5863 5861 5859 5858 5856
0.77 0.5854 5853 5851 5849 5847 5846 5844 5842 5841 5839
0.78 0.5837 5835 5834 5832 5830 5829 5827 5825 5824 5822
0.79 0.5820 5818 5817 5815 5813 5812 5810 5808 5806 5085

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 40 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Chart for use with Slope Method (values of P/EC for values of ) (2 of 3)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.80 0.5803 5801 5799 5797 5796 5794 5792 5790 5788 5786
0.81 0.5785 5783 5781 5779 5777 5775 5773 5772 5770 5768
0.82 0.5766 5764 5762 5760 5759 5757 5755 5753 5751 5749
0.83 0.5748 5746 5744 5742 5740 5738 5736 5735 5733 5731
0.84 0.5729 5727 5725 5723 5722 5720 5718 5716 5714 5712
0.85 0.5711 5709 5707 5705 5703 5701 5699 5698 5696 5694
0.86 0.5692 5690 5688 5686 5685 5683 5681 5679 5677 5675
0.87 0.5674 5672 5670 5668 5666 5664 5662 5661 5659 5657
0.88 0.5655 5653 5651 5650 5648 5646 5644 5642 5640 5638
0.89 0.5637 5635 5633 5631 5629 5627 5625 5624 5622 5620
0.90 0.5618 5616 5614 5612 5610 5608 5606 5604 5602 5600
0.91 0.5598 5596 5594 5592 5590 5588 5586 5584 5582 5580
0.92 0.5578 5576 5574 5572 5570 5568 5565 5563 5561 5559
0.93 0.5557 5555 5553 5551 5549 5547 5545 5543 5541 5539
0.94 0.5537 5535 5533 5531 5529 5527 5525 5523 5521 5519
0.95 0.5517 5515 5513 5511 5509 5507 5505 5503 5501 5499
0.96 0.5497 5495 5493 5491 5489 5487 5485 5483 5481 5479
0.97 0.5477 5475 5473 5471 5469 5467 5464 5462 5460 5458
0.98 0.5456 5454 5452 5450 5448 5446 5444 5442 5440 5438
0.99 0.5436 5434 5432 5430 5428 5426 5424 5422 5420 5418
1.00 0.5416 5414 5412 5409 5407 5405 5403 5400 5398 5396
1.01 0.5394 5391 5389 5387 5385 5383 5380 5378 5376 5374
1.02 0.5371 5369 5367 5365 5362 5360 5358 5356 5354 5351
1.03 0.5349 5347 5345 5342 5340 5338 5336 5333 5331 5329
1.04 0.5327 5325 5322 5320 5318 5316 5131 5311 5309 5307
1.05 0.5305 5302 5300 5298 5296 5293 5291 5289 5287 5284
1.06 0.5282 5280 5278 5276 5273 5271 5269 5267 5264 5262
1.07 0.5260 5258 5255 5253 5251 5249 5247 5244 5242 5240
1.08 0.5238 5235 5233 5231 5229 5226 5224 5222 5219 5217
1.09 0.5215 5213 5211 5209 5206 5204 5202 5200 5197 5195
1.10 0.5193 5190 5188 5185 5183 5180 5178 5175 5173 5170
1.11 0.5168 5165 5163 5160 5158 5155 5153 5150 5148 5145
1.12 0.5143 5140 5137 5135 5132 5130 5127 5125 5122 5120
1.13 0.5118 5115 5113 5110 5108 5105 5103 5100 5098 5095
1.14 0.5093 5090 5088 5085 5083 5080 5078 5075 5073 5070
1.15 0.5068 5065 5062 5060 5057 5055 5052 5050 5047 5045
1.16 0.5042 5040 5037 5035 5032 5030 5027 5025 5022 5020
1.17 0.5017 5015 5012 5010 5007 5005 5002 5000 4997 4995
1.18 0.4992 4990 4987 4985 4982 4980 4977 4975 4972 4970
1.19 0.4967 4965 4962 4960 4957 4955 4952 4950 4947 4945

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 41 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Chart for use with Slope Method (values of P/EC for values of ) (3 of 3)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1.20 0.4942 4939 4936 4933 4930 4928 4925 4922 4919 4915
1.21 0.4913 4910 4907 4904 4901 4899 4896 4893 4890 4887
1.22 0.4884 4881 4878 4875 4872 4870 4867 4854 4861 4858
1.23 0.4855 4852 4849 4846 4843 4841 4838 4835 4832 4829
1.24 0.4825 4823 4820 4817 4814 4812 4809 4806 4803 4800
1.25 0.4797 4794 4791 4788 4785 4783 4780 4777 4774 4771
1.26 0.4768 4765 4762 4759 4756 4754 4751 4748 4745 4742
1.27 0.4739 4736 4733 4730 4727 4725 4722 4719 4716 4713
1.28 0.4710 4707 4704 4701 4698 4696 4693 4690 4687 4684
1.29 0.4681 4678 4675 4672 4669 4667 4664 4661 4658 4655
1.30 0.4652 4649 4645 4642 4638 4635 4631 4628 4625 4621
1.31 0.4618 4614 4611 4607 4604 4601 4597 4594 4590 4586
1.32 0.4583 4580 4577 4573 4570 4566 4563 4559 4556 4553
1.33 0.4549 4546 4542 4539 4535 4532 4529 4525 4522 4518
1.34 0.4515 4511 4508 4505 4501 4498 4494 4491 4487 4484
1.35 0.4481 4477 4474 4470 4467 4463 4460 4457 4453 4450
1.36 0.4446 4443 4439 4436 4432 4429 4426 4422 4419 4415
1.37 0.4412 4408 4405 4402 4398 4395 4391 4388 4384 4381
1.38 0.4378 4374 4371 4367 4364 4360 4357 4354 4350 4347
1.39 0.4343 4340 4336 4333 4330 4326 4323 4319 4316 4312
1.40 0.4309 4305 4301 4296 4292 4288 4284 4280 4275 4271
1.41 0.4267 4263 4258 4254 4250 4246 4242 4237 4233 4229
1.42 0.4225 4221 4216 4212 4208 4204 4200 4195 4191 4187
1.43 0.4183 4178 4174 4170 4166 4162 4157 4153 4149 4145
1.44 0.4141 4136 4132 4128 4124 4210 4115 4111 4107 4103
1.45 0.4099 4094 4090 4086 4082 4077 4073 4069 4065 4061
1.46 0.4056 4052 4048 4044 4040 4035 4031 4027 4023 4018
1.47 0.4014 4010 4005 4001 3997 3993 3989 3985 3980 3976
1.48 0.3972 3968 3964 3959 3955 3951 3947 3943 3938 3934
1.49 0.3930 3926 3921 3917 3913 3909 3905 3900 3896 3892
1.50 0.3888 3883 3878 3874 3869 3864 3859 3854 3850 3845
1.51 0.3840 3835 3830 3825 3820 3816 3811 3806 3801 3796
1.52 0.3791 3786 3781 3776 3771 3766 3760 3755 3750 3745
1.53 0.3740 3735 3730 3724 3719 3714 3709 3704 3698 3693
1.54 0.3688 3683 3677 3672 3667 3662 3656 3651 3646 3640
1.55 0.3635 3630 3624 3619 3613 3608 3602 3597 3591 3586
1.56 0.3580 3574 3569 3563 3557 3552 3546 3540 3534 3528
1.57 0.3523 3517 3511 3506 3500 3494 3488 3482 3477 3471
1.58 0.3465 3459 3453 3447 3441 3435 3429 3423 3417 3411
1.59 0.3405 3399 3393 3386 3380 3374 3368 3362 3355 3349
Notes:- in most cases it is sufficiently accurate to use just the first column. For example if = 1.57 then the
value of P/EC is 0.3253. If an extra degree of accuracy was required then use the rest of the chart. For
example if = 1.593 then the value of P/EC is 0.3386.
Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 42 of 45
The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Appendix AE4.2 Explanation of Resistance Areas of an Electrode System


If a rod is driven into the ground (see Fig. AE4.1 ) with a voltage applied between this rod 'E' and
rod C driven in the ground at a large distance away, the current flowing between them being
measured by ammeter 'A'.

Fig.AE4.1 Resistance Area of a Single Rod Electrode

If a third rod P is now driven into the ground at various locations between rod E and C then the
voltmeter V will measure the voltage difference between E and P. By Ohms Law this voltage
difference will be directly proportional to the resistance of the earth up to the point measured, and
hence the relationship between resistance and distance from the rod E under test can be
plotted.

It will be found that the resistance measured, increases the further rod P is placed from rod E
under test and that the rate of increase quickly levels out. An electrode consisting of a single rod
driven into the soil will have a comparatively small resistance area, whereas an earth grid
consisting of a number of rods and horizontal electrodes connected in parallel will have a
correspondingly larger area. This area is known as the resistance area of the earth electrode
under test and its shape and size will depend solely on the dimensions of the grid and the soil
structure.

The dimensions of the resistance area are important to determine the minimum distance from the
electrode that is required for rod C so that an accurate measurement is made of the electrode
under test.

If a series of tests are made by varying the position of rod P then a graph similar to Fig AE4.2
will be produced. The resistance curve at first rises rapidly then becomes nearly horizontal, and
eventually rises again as rod P comes into close proximity to rod C. If rod P is placed
anywhere within the nearly horizontal portion of the curve a close approximation to the resistance
to earth of the electrode under test will be obtained.

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 43 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Fig AE4.2 Graph showing measured resistance along FOP route

If rod C is placed too near the electrode under test


then distortion of the curve will make it difficult to
determine an accurate resistance value. In effect the
resistance areas have overlapped. Therefore rod C
must be positioned sufficiently far away from the
electrode under test that it does not produce a
OHMS

serious distortion of the curve, i.e. the resistance


curve must have a portion which is nearly horizontal.
Where practicable the distance from the test point on Note, curve is NOT
the earth grid under test to the remote current probe horizontal about the
should be at least six times the diagonal mid point of the graph
measurement across the earth grid.
DISTANCE
Fig AE4.3 Effect on Measurement when
Current rod C is to close to
Electrode under test

Fig AE4.4 Ideal separation of earth grid and test probes

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 44 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc
CN Earthing Manual
Section E4 Measurement of Earthing Systems

Appendix AE4.3 Explanatory Note Why check the readings at 50%, 61.8% & 70%?
The reading on the earth tester will vary according to the distance of P2 from the electrode under
test. If you plot a graph of P2 readings against distance you should get a curve as shown below.
As you can see, the curve flattens out at around 50% to 70% and according to Dr G.F. Tagg the
theoretically correct resistance is measured at a point 61.8% of the distance between the test
electrode and the C2 spike.

100.0
Measured Resistance (Ohms)

90.0
80.0 61.8%
70.0
60.0 TRUE RESISTANCE
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Distance
C2 Spike
Electrode Position of P2 from
under test Electrode under test

Therefore you could take only one reading at 61.8% and use that as the electrode resistance.
However, if the C2 probe is not far enough away from the electrode under test (remember it
should be 6 to 10 the size of the electrode under test) then the curve will not flatten out properly.
Further more if there is a metal object in the ground on the route then the curve will be distorted.
Either way the readings will not be within 5% of each other and the resistance reading will not
indicate the true resistance of the electrode under test. Therefore 5% check on the three reading
helps to confirm that you have made a valid test.

Current Spike Too Near Electrode Cable or Pipe Crossing Test Area

100.0 100.0
61.8% 61.8%
80.0 80.0
TRUE RESISTANCE TRUE RESISTANCE
60.0 60.0
Ohms
Ohms

40.0 40.0

20.0 20.0

0.0 0.0
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

Position of P2 from C2 Spike Position of P2 from C2 Spike


Electrode Electrode
Electrode under test under test Electrode under test
under test

Version: 2.1 Date of Issue: July 2007 Page 45 of 45


The master version of the this document resides in the E.ON UK Documentum database
CAUTION any other copy may be out of date
Central Networks plc

You might also like