FP_D.

7_BorougePte Ltd _Extruded Cables for Underground and Subsea Power Transmission

Extruded Cables for Underground and Subsea Power Transmission and Distribution

Hakan Lennartsson, Borouge Pte. Ltd, hakan.lennartsson@borouge.com

Abstract

The electricity industry is undergoing major transformative changes which will significantly impact the entire
supply chain from generation via transmission and distribution to the customer. Decentralised generation enables
power feeds from different sources, and future electricity supply systems will facilitate more power generation by
renewable resources such as solar and wind. Renewable power generation centres are often located at remote
distances from the load areas, resulting in the need for transportation networks and reliable grid systems.
Interconnectivity between national and regional grids enables energy trading and the best utilisation of generation
sources and peak load time differences.
The case for renewable power generation is a reduction in the carbon footprint through reduced use of fossil fuels
and reduced emission of greenhouse gases. Although power transmission is traditionally facilitated through
overhead lines, underground cables are becoming increasingly important in the transmission network due to land
availability and public safety concerns in line with rapid urbanisation and the growth of densely populated cities.
The stringent nature of government regulations for the installation of new transmission links in most countries can
severely impact projects in the form of delays and increased investment costs.
Among the different types of cables, the growth in demand is the largest for extruded cables. While the insulation
layer of such cables can be produced using different technologies, cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) has become the
material of choice for power cables due to its outstanding track record in line with the industrys best practices for
areas such as design, manufacturing, installation and operation. Extra High Voltage (EHV) cables have been
available in the market for more than 20 years, and are designed for voltages of up to 550 kV operating on
alternating current (AC). Cables which are installed in underwater environments are commonly referred to as
submarine cables. The components of these cables are similar to those found in underground cables, but have been
adapted to meet the challenges of subsea deployment.
High voltage direct current (HVDC) technology is typically used in point to point connections and the
transportation of large amounts of power because of its capacity to minimise losses over long distance
transmissions. The use of extruded HVDC cables was first established 15 years ago, and the number of projects is
steadily increasing. One of the main drivers of this growth is the strong increase in energy generation from
renewable sources such as offshore wind power. HVDC extruded cables with XLPE based insulation currently come
in voltages of 320kV,and there is a market demand for cable systems with an increased power transmission
capability and ability to operate at higher voltages.

Key Word: XLPE Cable, Transmission, Subsea, Distribution,

Background
Electricity consumption is growing everywhere in the world and the growth will continue into the future. The
growth rate is different depending on each country, but in general with high economic growth there is a high
increase in electricity demand. Secure and powerful electrical grids are essential for infrastructure in all countries
and the importance of reliable performance will increase. The electrical grid brings energy suppliers and consumers
together and contributes to reliable and secure energy supply. The public acceptability and environmental impact of
electrical infrastructure is a concern with overhead power lines and transformer stations, particularly in densely
populated areas, where request for undergrounding is becoming more common [1], [2].
Electric power transmission systems are designed for bulk transfer of electricity from generation sources to
substations located near to demand centres. The majority of all transmission lines in the world have been constructed
as overhead lines operating at different voltages in the range 110 kV to 1000 kV. CIGRE TB 338-2007 indicates that
less than 3% of the total circuit is underground cable system in 110 to 220 kV segment and at higher voltages the
underground systems share is even lower. The major reasons to use overhead lines are lower initial investment cost
and the vast technical experience available to build and manage overhead systems. The difference in investment cost
has to be calculated in each case but the trend is that underground systems have become more competitive if total
life cycle cost is considered.

Voltage Service Installation Total life

(kV) life cost cycle cost
132 40 2.5 1.48
132 60 1.67 1.04
220 40 3.03 1.70
220 60 2.03 1.20
Table 1. Estimated cost ratio of underground cable vs overhead line in Iceland [3].

There is a significant interest in long length extruded cable systems and demand is expected to continue to grow.
These cables can be installed on land as underground cables or across large water bodies as subsea cables
(underwater) and are highly suited for the following purposes:
Undergrounding in densely populated areas or scenic nature spots
Interconnection links between grids
Connection of offshore renewable energy sources

Cables
Fluid filled lapped cables were the first generation of high voltage and extra high voltage cables, using paper
insulation combined with a dielectric fluid (oil). There are different designs, but the most common types are:
Self-contained Fluid Filled (SCFF)
Mass impregnated (MI)
PPLP Polypropylene laminated paper
The production volume of fluid filled cable is on the decline due to limited manufacturing capacity and lack of new
investments in production assets. Because of their low power loss, low environmental impact and low failure rates,
the manufacturing output and number of extruded XLPE cable installation have been on the rise in most countries.

XLPE for extruded cable

Polyethylene (PE) materials have very good electrical properties, with the base polymer used for XLPE cables being
Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE). This type of PE is produced in a high pressure reactor via a free radical
mechanism using high pressure and elevated temperature. The reactor used is a tubular reactor, which eliminates
risk of any metallic contamination from the reactor phase. The produced polymer is branched and contains both long
chain and short chain branches. Optimal reactor conditions enable a favourable molecular weight distribution which
is critical for trouble free processing of the material.
LDPE has very good electrical characteristics. In order to further optimize the LDPE base resin for enhanced cable
production, a modified polymer was developed. The high productivity polymer is a copolymer of ethylene combined
with a low content of diene. This diene modified polymer is a polyethylene with slightly increased content of
pendant vinyl groups, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic illustration of diene modified low density polyethylene

With this modification the crosslinking capability of LDPE is significantly improved. Detailed crosslinking
experiments have shown that the vinyl groups are rapidly consumed after very short crosslinking times resulting in
higher gel contents, compared to a reference LDPE material crosslinked using the same conditions. It has been
suggested that the vinyl groups are consumed in a so-called chain reaction and actually one single radical can give
rise to several crosslinking points [4]. It has been found that a crosslink originating from a reacted vinyl group
contributes to the creation of the network structure in the same way as a network point formed by combination
crosslinking [5]. Therefore in the diene modified LDPE, two concurrent crosslinking reactions are taking place;
combination crosslinking and the chain reaction involving the vinyl groups.

Fig 2. Crosslinking mechanism of high productivity polyethylene.

XLPE Material manufacturing

The manufacturing technology platform for advanced HV and EHV materials are built on state of the art
manufacturing plants and quality control methods to assure cleanliness throughout the manufacturing process from
monomer to final packing [6]. Defined quality assessment techniques supports the delivery of very clean base resin
with no catalyst residue and a minimum of polar components in the polymer. The insulation material is subjected to
online and offline inspection of cleanliness during the whole manufacturing process, from ethylene to complete
XLPE compound. All handling is done in a closed loop system and under controlled conditions to minimize any
risk of cross contamination or introduction of foreign contaminants. The test procedures are a part of ISO 9001
Quality management system and environmental aspects are covered by certification according to ISO 14001
Environmental Management System.
There are no internationally agreed cleanliness requirements for high voltage and extra high voltage cable insulation.
One comprehensive study including cleanliness level of XLPE materials coupled with manufacturing of high
voltage cables rated up to 550 kV has been presented by R. Vogelsang et al [7]. The study suggests that relevant
cleanliness level required for reliable cable performance is as in table 2.

Size m 50-70 70-100 100-200

HV - 15 0
EHV 15 5 0
Table 2. Estimate on acceptable contaminants in XLPE insulation

The test method for cleanliness test is based on extrusion of tape and then inspection of the transparent tape with a
CCD camera for identification of foreign contaminants. The inspection is made on a statistical sample of the XLPE
material. Cleanliness assessment methods differs between different XLPE materials manufacturers. The differences
in equipment, methodology and testing practice makes it impossible to make conclusion on actual cleanliness levels,
between different manufacturers only by comparing cleanliness numbers. Other major factors to consider at
selection of XLPE material supplier are track records, plant design standards and investment in new production
capacity.

The most critical parameters of semi-conductive screen materials are surface smoothness, volume resistivity and
chemical cleanliness. For the most demanding application typically acetylene carbon black is used as it has
inherently low contamination content and gives the smoothest interfaces with XLPE insulation. For high voltage
designs also selected furnace carbon black has been applied showing good performance in cable testing and cable
service. These selected carbon blacks have been developed by European carbon black manufacturers and is based on
low sulphur content carbon black. The testing methods for screen compounds for high voltage and extra high
voltage cables focus on surface smoothness as any pip or surface defect can enhance electrical stress concentration.
Typically tape is extruded and then inspected for surface smoothness. In a similar way as for XLPE insulation it is
not feasible to select suppliers only based only on data sheet and technical information.

Cable manufacturing
Peroxide crosslinking is a process for cable manufacturing where the XLPE material is extruded and then cross-
linked under pressure in a special continuous vulcanization (CV) line. Triple extrusion heads are used to achieve the
best interfaces between conductor screen, XLPE insulation and insulation screen. The curing is performed in
nitrogen atmosphere at high pressure and the cooling is done by nitrogen or water.
Modern CV lines normally include online monitoring of dimensions and thickness of extruded layers, which helps to
monitor that the cable is within specified dimensions. Due to the high stress levels in HV and EHV cables, the
critical parameters to control are defects at the semicon/insulation interface and to minimize the risk of introducing
foreign contaminants during material handling and extrusion. Material is supplied under clean conditions, where the
inner liner in the package is assuring the cleanliness level. The challenge is to convey the material from the package
into the extruder hopper without adding any foreign contaminants. To eliminate the risk of introducing foreign
contaminants into the material, it is important to establish best practices for material handling and extrusion. This
includes design of clean room and transportation system, but also clearly defined instructions for the operators
working with the equipment.
Material handling at cable manufacturing commonly includes closed system with controlled atmosphere and defined
cleanliness level. Bottom unloading and gravimetric feeding of material are solutions which have become the
preferred design of material handling systems in new manufacturing plants for HV and EHV cable. Short transfer
distance of material minimizes the risk of deposits or build up in the material handling system and makes inspection
and cleaning easier. The solution to long extrusion runs is to choose material that has good extrusion tolerance and
to optimize extrusion parameters to accomplish long production run. Peroxide containing materials need to be
extruded in a very controlled way as molecular enlargements or pre-crosslinking (scorch) may occur at high
temperature or at long residence time. The high productivity formulation is designed to minimize risk of scorch.
Laboratory testing of scorch build up during extrusion with a long die is shown in figure 3. The interpretation is that
the high productivity XLPE has a larger processing window and can tolerate higher temperature or longer
production run, compared to a standard XLPE. The results have been confirmed by full scale cable manufacturing.
Low tendency to scorch is particularly a benefit at manufacturing of long cable length and in manufacturing of
subsea cables.

145 C
Standard High Productivity

140 C

135 C

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

[min]
Figure 3. Tendency to scorch build up at extrusion

During curing of the cable the peroxide is activated and start the chemical reaction to form a three dimensional
network of the polymer chains. However the crosslinking reaction leaves residue products in the cross-linked
insulation. In HV and EHV cables it is of the greatest importance that these residue products are sufficiently
removed before the cable core is put forward in the cable manufacturing process [8]. The removal of residue
products is referred to as degassing and this process is typically performed at elevated temperature from 60 to 70 C.
The time needed for removal of residue products depends on the cable design, such as insulation thickness,
conductor type, etc. [9]. There is no agreed specification at present on degassing, but the question is studied by a
CIGRE working group and recommendation is likely to come when test methods and acceptable levels have been
agreed. Different analytical methods have been evaluated for determination of by products in XLPE cable insulation
[10]. Methane is of particular concern with respect to safety and its effect on integrity of pre-moulded joints
respectively. Maximum allowed concentration of methane, remaining in the insulation at installation, is suggested to
be in the range 30-50 ppm [10]. Most transmission cable design have a metallic sheath as moisture barrier and if the
cable core is not sufficiently degassed prior to application of the metallic sheath it is not feasible to do further
degassing. To address degassing and scorch resistance issues, base polymer design combined with formulations of
the compound can give significant benefits, as shown with the high productivity technology.

High Productivity

Fig 4. Degassing of 245 kV cable.

The benefits of improved scorch resistance with longer production run and reduced degassing burden will enable a
faster completion of the cable, thus significantly improving the overall productivity of the manufacturing facility.

Compact cable
It is recognised that XLPE cables produced with suitable materials and according to good electrical stress has
developed an excellent track record. Examples on electrical stress in different cable designs are shown if figure 5.
STRESS AT INSULATION (kV/mm)

8
7

6
5
4

3
EHV
2
HV
1 MV
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

STRESS AT CONDUCTOR (kV/mm)

Fig 5. Electrical stress in different cable designs.

Development in cable materials over the years has been engineered to significantly improve important
characteristics to handle high electrical stress in cable designs. The extra high voltage cables installed have very
comprehensive track record at working under high electrical stress. Improved materials have given options for
review of cable dimensions to make use of the enhanced material performance and to develop more cost efficient
cable design:
The work started in UK with development of lean 132 kV design [11]
In early 2000 there was a study in Belgium to develop a 150 kV XLPE cable design with reduced insulation
thickness and redesigned accessories. Cable and system was thoroughly tested to verify performance [12].
Work done in Japan with reduced insulation thickness and learnings were shared at CIGRE Sessions 2004.
The benefit of reduced insulation thickness is not only material savings but also benefits in reduced weight
of cable and options to produced longer delivery length [13]
 Germany. Developed new high stress designs referred as pipe cable or city cables. The challenge was to
replace old gas pressurized paper insulated cables in steel pipe. The intention was to use the steel pipe and
to retrofit new XLPE insulated cable inside existing steel pipe structure. [14], {15].
State Grid China is looking to reduce wall thickness on 110kV and 220 kV XLPE cable systems.
Prequalification (PQ0 testing is ongoing for new cable system and a field installation is planned for
verification of performance. Cable design parameters are shown in table 3.

Insulation thickness, mm Maximum Electrical stress, kV/mm

110 kV existing design 16 to 19 5.3 to 5.9
110 kV new design 13.5 5.8 to 7.4
220 kV existing design 21 to 27 7.1 to 8.6
110 kV new design 21 7.8 to 10.0
Table 3. Summary of cable design parameters in evaluation of reduced insulation thickness of HV cable.

If any changes to the cable system design is made it is important to make proper qualification testing. The CIGRE
recommendations for HV and EHV cable qualifications include a test of all components, in the transmission link,
referred to as pre-qualification test. The pre-qualification test has become the standard test to show performance and
long term reliability of complete cable system. The test has to be performed on a complete cable system that should
comprise of the electrical test on a loop formed by approximately 100 m of full sized cable, including joints and
terminations. The test arrangement shall be representative of the typical installation design conditions both
underground and above ground e.g. directly buried, in ducts in tunnel, and should include joint bay or manhole. The
test voltage is 1.7 Uo (rated voltage phase to ground of the system for one year and with heating cycles. The cycles
of heating and cooling should be carried out at least 180 times and attention should be paid to thermo mechanical
aspects of accessories. At the end of the testing period the cable system shall be subjected to lightning impulse test,
as well as visual inspection. No failures should be observed during the testing period. The pre-qualification test
demonstrates the performance of the complete cable system. The pre-qualification test is made before supplying
commercial projects of type of cable systems covered by IEC62067 in order to demonstrate satisfactory long term
performance of the system.

Submarine cables
For crossing of large water the only option for power transmission is to use cable and these cables are referred
subsea or submarine cables. The early use of subsea cables was to connect islands, connection of onshore grids over
rivers, bays or straits or interconnection of national grids.
Two early subsea connections were installed in the Baltic Sea, connecting Sweden mainland with Gotland (a
Swedish island) and Finland respectively:
1954 HVDC 98 km link by MI cable connection to Gotland. The link was rated at 100 kV and 20 MW
1973 Extruded high voltage XLPE cable 55 km connection to Sweden to Finland (Aland Island). Three
core AC cable with rating of 84 kV and 35 MW respectively.

Another early subsea XLPE cable installation in Asia was a 132 kV cable link installed in 1989 in Hong Kong [16].
XLPE technology has several distinct advantages over traditional paper-insulated, fluid-filled cables, including the
lack of need for an auxiliary fluid-pressure system, low maintenance and pre-made accessories. The use of XLPE
cables is well established in land-based, underground applications for extra high voltage application. However,
despite the technical advantages, adoption of XLPE technology for undersea applications have been gradually,
mainly because of the less track record and concern with higher cost of intervention and eventual repair, should a
problem develop with a subsea cable. Recently because of environmental friendliness, less costs and maintenance,
the demand for XLPE insulated cables has been significantly increased in subsea applications. Long EHV XLPE
submarine cables are today entering the market at 420 kV levels.
Subsea transmission cable projects normally includes very comprehensive feasibility studies to determining the best
route for the cable link as well as identifying potential challenges and make necessary preparations
The cable designs used in subsea applications were dry designs using lead barrier to stop radial diffusion of water
into the insulation.
Renewable energy and Wind farm
Renewable energy generation is becoming more important and the development of technologies for utilization of
wind power has had very significant growth rate over the last decade. In Europe and particularly in the North Sea
area the design and construction of large off shore wind power plants has been developed. North Sea area has
favourable conditions for power generation, with good and fairly consistent wind condition and relatively shallow
water. The development is expected to continue and by 2030 it is expected that wind power generation can
contribute by 10 to 15 % of the total EU power demand. Submarine cables are fundamental components of the wind
farm and facilitate connection to wind turbines and as well as connection to land based transmission networks and
load centres. The wind turbines are connected in series with cable commonly referred as inter array cable. The inter
array cable design is very similar to a standard medium voltage cable design.
The most common design is wet design and which refers to designs without metallic barrier for radial moisture
protection as lead sheath. Semi wet design refers to cable design using metallic tape helically applied around the
cable core. The reason to use wet design and semi wet is based on cost considerations.
As the insulation is likely to experience presence of water and increased risk of water treeing it is of major
importance to evaluate the water ageing behaviour of the cable insulation system (conductor screen, insulation and
insulation screen). The water tree degradation for land based cables is tested by accelerated water treeing protocols
such as CENELEC or AWTT according to ICEA. However these standards do not address accelerated ageing at
elevated pressure and presence of salt water.
Work to understand water treeing in subsea conditions has involved two different cable insulation systems [17]:
High Productivity insulation
Copolymer modified XLPE insulation typically used in WTR design in central Europe
Both cable designs had bonded insulation screen and good quality conductor screen and insulation screen based on
acrylate copolymer and selected furnace carbon black
The cables were tested according to standard Cenelec protocol at 50Hz and 500 Hz respectively and at 500 Hz at
elevated pressure and salt water. The used test parameters are summarized in table 4.

Test Electrical Temperature Pressure bar Testing time Water

stress C
Standard 50 Hz 3 U0 40 C 1 bar 1 and 2 years Tap water
respectively
Standard 500 Hz 3 U0 40 C 1 bar 3000 h Tap water
Subsea 500 Hz 3 U0 40 C 30 bar 2850 h* Artificially
* Testing stopped mixed salt
due to time water
constraints
Table 4. Summary of testing conditions for subsea wet design medium voltage cable [17].

Material High Productivity polymer Copolymer modified polymer(WTR)

Cenelec test 50 Hz 500 Hz Subsea 50 HZ 500 Hz Subsea
Electrical breakdown 42.4 42.5 55.1 49.1 53.5 49.7
strength kV/mm
Vented tree size m <200 <300 <150 <100 <200 <150
Conductor screen
Vented tree size m 0 0 0 0 0 0
Insulation screen
Bow tie tree size m <150 <300 <150 <150 <200 <150

Table 5. Summary of accelerated water tree testing according to Cenelec standard test protocol as well as extended
test at elevated pressure and in salt water.

The wind turbine development has designed more powerful turbine and the need for upgrade of array cables to 66
kV design is suggested for new wind farm development. 66 kV design typically would be similar to high voltage
designs which normally use a metallic moisture barrier. Studies to develop wet design of 66 kV cable to keep
control on investment cost, is ongoing and suggested design include water barrier based on polyethylene jacket and
water blocking design with high quality XLPE insulation, water tree resistant XLPE insulation and EPR insulation
respectively.

The inter array cables are connected to an off shore substation platform and from the substation platform export
cable deliver the electricity to a land based substation. Two different technologies can be used for the export cables:
HVAC (High Voltage, Alternating current) is limited by transmission distance, normally less than 50-80
km
HVDC (High Voltage, Direct current) used for longer distances and for system interconnection.

HVAC cabling has been the preferred technology for connection of offshore wind farms located close to land.
HVDC technology is based on high power electronics and electronic control equipment. HVDC links always
require converters to connect to AC grids. This is necessary for converting the alternating AC voltage to a constant
DC voltage. The selection of HVDC or HVAC subsea connections depends on case by case projects and is driven by
total economics. HVDC links have lower transmission losses over long distances and support grid stability with
controllable power flow and stable behavior under transient conditions in the AC grid. The HVDC cable systems are
less expensive but the cost of converters adds to the total project cost.
HVDC technology can be divided into two subcategories based on the converter technology:
Line commuted converter, LCC HVDC
Voltage source converter, VSC HVDC.
The former is the "classic" HVDC technology, using power thyristors as the main components for converting AC to
DC and vice versa. VSC HVDC technology was developed during the 1990s, and the first commercial transmission
link was commissioned in 1997. VSC is based on power transistors, IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors), as
the converting components. IGBTs, being more controllable devices than thyristors, make VSC HVDC a more
flexible technology than LCC HVDC, and easily adaptable for transmissions from renewable and variable power
sources such as wind farms. VSC HVDC technology is also suitable for building DC grids, interconnecting groups
of wind farms or solar power installations for feeding mainland HVAC grids at various locations. The VSC
technology has been developed strongly over the years and VSC converters are the preferred technology in off shore
installation as VSC stations is compact and save cost at platform construction.
HVDC technology has also been developed in China, by State Grid and South China Grid, table 7 shows installed
projects.

Project Voltage rating, (kV) Capacity (MW) Length (km) Commissioning

Nanhui wind farm 30 18 8.4 2011
integration
Zhoushan five 200 1000 141 2014
terminal (Subsea 129)
interconnection
Xiamen Island 320 1000 10.7 (Subsea) 2015
power supply
Table 6. HVDC projects in China

Figure 6. 1.3 km of 320 kV HVDC cable ready for installation (Courtesy; ZTT)
Conclusions and recommendations
XLPE cable technology has a long track record and material solution have been improved over the years. The
development of HV and EHV cables has driven the development of optimized material solutions and material
performance. Quality assurance and consistency is best assured by integrated suppliers, by monitoring of material
manufacturing from ethylene to complete compound. Specially designed base resin, as diene modification, offer
benefits with respect to productivity (longer production run, reduced degassing time), particularly for production of
subsea cables.
Compact cable design, utilizing enhanced performance of materials, gives options to review cable system design to
get cost benefit. When changing design it is important to keep in mind that all components in the system need to be
compatible:
Cable core consist of insulation screen/XLPE insulation/Insulation screen and change of individual
material may change performance
Performance of accessories must be verified if change in cable dimensions
Considerations for installation, operation and environmental influences
If implementing compact design it is importance to make necessary test program including pre-qualification (PQ)
test.

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