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Information and advice from TWI are provided in good faith and based, where appropriate, on the best
engineering knowledge available at the time and incorporated into TWI's website in accordance with TWI's
ISO 9001:2000 accredited quality system. No warranty expressed or implied is given regarding the results or
effects of applying information or advice obtained from the website, nor is any responsibility accepted for
any consequential loss or damage.
Introduction
This part of the guide provides information to aid understanding of the principles of resistance spot welding. It also examines
equipment involved, including the different types of welding current power supply, weld timers and controllers, electrodes
and tooling.
Please note that information on Standards relating to resistance welding, and definitions of frequently encountered
terms used in resistance welding, can be found in Section 1 of the guide.
The resistance spot welding process is versatile and can be operated at a range of different levels: from manual welding of
undemanding applications, through to complex, automated lines. To achieve a product of the required quality, it is important
to consider the fundamental requirements of the process - regardless of the level of operation.
Also provided in this section of the guide are guidelines on process economics in terms of the factors to be considered, whilst
actual costs must be established on a case-by-case basis.
Process description
The fundamental principle which describes the heat generated for welding can be expressed as -
Resistance is controlled by the properties (resistivity) and surface condition of the materials being welded. It also
depends on the cross-section area through which current flows. In spot welding, the current is delivered to the
workpiece through shaped electrodes which concentrate the current through a small area. This increases resistance,
providing local intense heating of the materials.
Weld time is normally short, typically 10cycles (0.2s) per mm of the single sheet thickness being joined. This enables
heat to be generated rapidly, and minimises the heat lost by conduction into the electrodes and the bulk of the material
being joined.
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Electrode configurations
In normal operation, matching electrodes contact either side of the workpiece. Dissimilar electrodes may be used to
compensate for non-symmetrical heat balance when joining different material thickness combinations. A large flat electrode
or pad can be used on one side to achieve minimum surface marking. Complete freedom from surface marking is very
difficult to obtain without risking unacceptable weld quality. Typical electrode configurations are shown in Fig.2.1.
Series welding is a possible alternative configuration where access to one side is more convenient . In such cases, two
matching electrodes are applied to one side of the component and a conducting backing-bar is placed on the other side to react
the force and conduct the current between the two electrode contact points, as shown in Fig.2.2. In this way, two welds are
made simultaneously in series. If the lower sheet material is of sufficient thickness it may provide the current path on its own,
allowing the conducting backing to be omitted. It can be difficult to balance the size of welds made by series welding and
process tolerance may be reduced.
In cases where the electrode force cannot be reacted immediately underneath the weld, such as sheet-to-tube joining, welds
The spot welding process involves a series of precisely controlled events. This sequence normally consists of five
time-periods, which are set on the spot welding timer/controller (Fig.2.3) .
1. Squeeze time: time set to ensure predetermined welding force is achieved before current flow; some timers are also
equipped with a pre-squeeze time setting
2. Weld time: time for which welding current is switched on
3. Hold time (forge): time electrodes are held together under pressure after weld time
4. Cool time: current off time between successive current pulses in pulsation or seam welding
5. Off time: time used for repeat welding such as stitch welding; time between end of hold time on one weld and
start of squeeze time on the next, during which electrodes are re-positioned
Equipment
There is a large range of equipment types available for resistance spot welding. Factors to consider in equipment selection are:
type of machine and degree of mechanisation or automation required
mechanised, for example bowl feed into carousel for small parts
Pedestal machines are of most use when the components can be easily fed into the machine and particularly when high
powers are required. Capacities range from 5kVA to over 400kVA.
Projection welding is generally done using pedestal machines equipped with platens since these provide the necessary
frame stiffness and alignment.
Portable guns
Portable welding guns allow the welding gun to be moved around a component either manually or using a robot. This
provides flexibility but several gun designs may be required to reach all the welds. Capacities usually range from
10kVA to 150kVA.
The gun can be suspended from a balancer for manual operation, and power is supplied either from an integral
transformer attached to the gun or from a remote transformer via a kickless cable. This configuration is generally used
for manual welding of large components in medium to high volume applications.
High capacity robots, up to 120kg payload, are required to carry large integrated transformer guns and are used for high
volume assembly. Capacity is linked to the integral transformer gun weight and payload limit of the robot.
Multi-welders
Multi-welder systems are typically large, automatic welding machines with many welding heads and component
fixturing. A number of electrode sets or guns are built into a frame and connected to welding transformers. One
transformer may supply two guns. Such equipment is normally dedicated to high volume production of one component.
Capacities range from 20kVA to over 400kVA. Welds are made virtually simultaneously with weld time cascaded
between transformers to prevent very high instantaneous peak current being drawn from the mains supply.
Fig.2.6. Multi-welder
(Courtesy Ford Motor Co)
Equipment capacity
The initial choice of equipment size depends on the range of materials and the thicknesses to be joined. This will determine
the welding current and electrode force required.
Electrical factors
The power capacity of a machine is normally quoted in kVA at 50% duty cycle. This refers to the power that may be
drawn by the transformer over a long period of time, with current flowing for 50% of that time, without causing the
transformer to overheat. On a.c. equipment, the maximum allowed current on the primary side of the transformer at 50% duty
cycle is then the kVA rating divided by the mains voltage. In practice, resistance welding machines can draw much higher
primary current levels for short times. This is acceptable, provided account is taken of the actual duty cycle.
The allowable power at duty cycle x% may be calculated as follows:
The welding current available from a transformer of a given capacity depends on the secondary voltage available. In a
simple single phase a.c. power supply, the welding transformer converts the mains supply voltage (primary side) to a low
voltage (secondary side), typically in the range 2 to 20 volts. This depends on the turns ratio of the primary and secondary
transformer windings (e.g. 100 turns on the primary supply side at 400volts would give 4 volts on a single turn secondary). At
the same time, the current is multiplied by the same ratio. The actual welding current that can be drawn depends largely on the
secondary voltage available and the impedance of the welding circuit and transformer.
The available welding current will be much lower than the maximum rated short circuit current for a particular
machine. This is because of the added resistance of the component being welded and the associated electrodes or tooling. In
simple terms, Ohm's law (V=IR) applies: the voltage (V) available equals the current (I) which can be drawn multiplied by the
circuit resistance (R).
The secondary circuit impedance is also influenced by an inductive component. This is related to the size of the machine
throat. Current is reduced if this area is increased, and even more so if there is steel within the throat. Thus, the arm spacing
and routing of jumpers or flexible connections is important in order to minimise the losses. These factors are not easy to
calculate but a long-reach machine with a relatively high secondary circuit resistance could easily require a transformer of
twice the kVA rating compared with a compact, small-throat machine, to give the same welding current.
Add at least 20% to the estimated welding current required. This allows for any minor adjustments to the welding
condition needed, and for automatic heat control adjustments in controllers which provide constant current control or
automatic mains voltage compensation. The maximum available current from a transformer is based on normal mains supply
voltage. The welding transformer voltage would be reduced if the high voltage mains transformer, or the supply lines to the
machine, are of low capacity.
Machine manufacturers can normally provide guidance on kVA ratings required, based on application experience with their
equipment.
A.C. power supplies can have a low power factor because of the high inductive component of the power drawn. In large
installations it may be necessary to consider power factor correction, and advice should be taken from the electricity supply
company.
Mechanical factors
The electrode force required for a specific application depends on the materials to be joined, their thickness and the
weld size required. Recommended values are available in Standards and other published information for a wide range of
applications of both spot and projection welding.
Low inertia, low friction and fast follow-up are important, particularly for projection welding, as this allows rapid response
and movement of the machine head during projection collapse. This helps to avoid weld splash and forges the weld
effectively. Supplementary spring systems may be needed in machines with slow response, such as with hydraulic force
application.
Inverter
Capacitor discharge
Transistorised
Inverter welders
Medium frequency inverter welders, normally about 1,000Hz are used to enable more efficient transformers to be used.
This allows weight-saving compared with a.c. transformers, particularly for robot guns. A three-phase supply is first
rectified then chopped with a transistor unit to give medium frequency a.c. This a.c. at about 600V is then converted in
the welding transformer to low voltage/high current at the same frequency. This is immediately rectified to give a d.c.
welding current. These supplies are finding increasing use in robotic spot welding in the automotive industry, and also
for miniature applications, where fine control of the current pulse shape can be achieved.
Capacitor discharge
A short duration d.c. pulse, typically less than 10ms, is achieved by discharging a bank of capacitors through a welding
transformer. A low power demand is required to charge the transformers. Such equipment is common for miniature
applications, but large machines are available for large projection welding operations. These are often portal machines
and have high force capacity with a fast follow-up, low inertia head. The heat input is relatively low compared with a.c.
or d.c. power supplies.
Electrode force is usually applied using a pneumatic cylinder. Alternative systems include servo motors, springs or hydraulic
cylinders.
Pneumatic systems involve delivering regulated air pressure to the welding cylinder. The cylinder may be a simple type,
providing single action with a fixed retract position, or incorporate a high lift position and an adjustable working stroke.
Adjustment of the lower cylinder exhaust rate may allow control of the speed at which the electrodes close. High speed causes
undesirable hammering of the electrodes.
Compound cylinders provide higher forces for a given cylinder diameter, and some may be operated with two regulated
pressures to allow dual pressure schedules (welding force/forging force) to be used.
Servo guns use a servo motor to provide controlled electrode position, approach rate and force. Compared with
pneumatic systems, servo guns are more costly but they offer several advantages, for example, savings through not using an
air supply, possible faster operation in robotic application, reduced electrode impact, and feedback of positional information to
the controller.
Spring systems are used for foot-operated machines and some miniature equipment. The electrode force is pre-set, and
the current pulse is triggered by a microswitch. However, the actual force can be affected by the speed of operation of the
machine pedal. In such cases, the equipment would not be recommended for high quality work.
Hydraulic cylinders provide high forces for small diameter cylinders. As the oil is incompressible, it is essential to provide a
spring between the cylinder and electrode to ensure that good head follow-up is available. This helps to minimise weld splash.
Electrodes
Spot welding electrodes apply the force and convey the current into the parts to be joined through a localised area of
contact. The electrodes must deliver the current without themselves overheating, and provide a consistent contact area on the
component, to concentrate the welding current and create the weld. Excessive electrode contamination or wear affects weld
quality.
Electrode materials
Electrode materials in general use are copper alloys developed to combine high conductivity and hardness, plus reasonable
resistance to softening at the working temperature of the tip. Common materials are shown in Table 2.1.
Electrode costs vary with material type. Where suitable alternatives are available, their relative performance and life need to
be considered. A more expensive electrode type can be justified if savings can be achieved by reduction in maintenance and
disruption to production.
Electrode design
A wide range of electrode shapes and sizes is available (Fig.2.14) and international Standards apply in most cases. The choice
of design depends on the application and is frequently affected by available access to the joint. Standard female electrode
caps, fitted to adaptors, are commonly used for minimum electrode cost (Fig.2.15). Where possible, observe the following
guidelines for the best results.
Electrode cooling
Electrode life is critically dependent on water cooling. All electrodes have an internal cooling passage (Fig.2.16). Cooling
of the tip face during the weld time depends on the shape and size of the electrode itself, i.e. the heat sink effect of the copper.
Water cooling prevents progressive build-up of heat in the electrode.
Electrode Maintenance
It is important to maintain consistent electrode contact with the material being joined. The electrode tip contact area,
alignment and surface condition should be regularly maintained, either by changing the electrode or redressing the tip. An
example of a tool for automated electrode tip dressing is shown in Fig.2.17.
Holders and adaptors provide the transition between the machine arm and the electrodes themselves.
Jigs for multiple projection welds should provide highly accurate alignment of tooling and electrodes. Alignment accuracy
depends on the application but is typically within 0.05mm across the weld array. The jig should also allow a linear weld array
to be positioned in a line across the machine's throat, rather than into it.
in statistical form, to warn of deviations in the process and allow process monitor records to be stored.
Constant current control is widely used to correct for variations in available current. Variations may be caused by:
mains supply voltage fluctuation, changes in resistance of the welding circuit (e.g. deterioration of flexible jumper cables),
and the effect of steel within the machine throat. Constant current control will not correct for shunt current losses caused by
variable weld spacing or short circuits between the electrodes and component or tooling.
Current stepping can be programmed to provide progressive increase in current to compensate for electrode wear. The
current level can be stepped or ramped-up by a set percentage according to the number of welds made. Step changes depend
on the application and are usually set by experience and trials.
(Note: trials are required to set up weld quality monitors to ensure that adequate correlation with destructive tests can be
achieved for each application).
Economics
Resistance spot welding is a low cost process, particularly suitable for high volume applications and a high degree of
automation.
The costs associated with spot welding depend on a wide range of factors, in particular the component being joined and the
volume required. The most economic production method would need to be established on a case-by-case basis.
Cost factors to be considered include the following:
Welding machine type.
Tooling requirements.
Labour.
Quality assurance.
Capital costs
Cost of equipment depends on the type of welding unit (e.g. pedestal machine or hand operated gun) and its capacity, power
supply type, and degree of automation or mechanisation.
For a given type of set-up, the specification and equipment details will differ between manufacturers. It is, therefore,
necessary to consult equipment manufacturers for actual equipment costs. However, typical price ranges (year 2002) for basic
equipment are shown in Table 2.
System type Manual pedestal machine Portable welding gun Multi-welder Robot system
Typical cost range 5-40k + 5-20k + 10-100k + 60-80k +
High volume production is often best achieved using dedicated automated equipment where the high capital cost of a cell may
be offset by the savings in labour cost.
Operating costs
2. Service costs depend on equipment type, size and production rate and are based on the following requirements.
Power for welding is high but of short duration and may be estimated from the product of secondary current x
open circuit voltage x weld time. The energy consumed per 1000 welds is typically about 2 to 4kWh for 1mm
steel and 15 to 30kWh for 3mm steel.
Cooling water requirement is typically 10 to 20 litres/min continuously, per single machine, although larger
machines or high duty cycles may demand more. Check manufacturers' recommendations. Depending on the
system volume, a chiller may be required to maintain a maximum inlet temperature of 20C.
Air usage depends on the cylinder size and type, and the welding stroke. When welding thin sheet steel, e.g.
1mm, the air requirement per weld is likely to be around 0.25 to 0.5 litres of air at line pressure (about 6 bar).
3. Electrode usage depends on the application, cooling efficiency and the type of electrodes used. Standard cap electrodes
are generally the lowest cost, and 10,000 to 50,000 welds may be achieved per pair, with good dressing procedures.
The cost of electrodes depends on the supplier and the number of electrodes purchased. Typical prices are shown in
Table 3.
Type
Special electrode shapes or special
Cu/Cr/Zr caps Cu/Cr/Zr straight electrodes
materials
Typical price (each) 30-50p 50-100p 1 +
4. Maintenance items depend very much on the type of machine and the operating conditions. In volume production
applications using welding guns, maintenance items may be in the region of 10% of the gun cost per year.
5. Quality assurance costs include simple instrumentation or monitoring equipment for setting up and routine checks of
process parameters plus the cost of routine destructive tests. In some cases, non-destructive testing can be applied, and
the welding timers provide process control functions.
This is one Section of a TWI Best Practice Guide. You can select other Sections from the Introduction and
Contents page of this guide.
TWI information:
Information and advice from TWI are provided in good faith and based, where appropriate, on the best engineering knowledge available at the time and incorporated into TWI's website in
accordance with TWI's ISO 9001:2000 accredited quality system. No warranty expressed or implied is given regarding the results or effects of applying information or advice obtained from the
website, nor is any responsibility accepted for any consequential loss or damage.
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