International Journal of Coal Geology, 8 (1987) 203-231 203

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam - - Printed in The Netherlands

Petrographic Classification of Oil Shales

ADRIAN C. HUTTON
Department of Geology, University of Wollongong, PO Box 1144, Wollongong, N.S. W. 2500
(Australia)
(Received May 23, 1985; revised and accepted March 31, 1987)

ABSTRACT

Hutton, A.C., 1987. Petrographic classification of oil shales. Int. J. Coal. Geol., 8:203-231.

Oil shales are a diverse group of rocks that contain mineral matter and organic matter. The
organic matter is derived from terrestrial, lacustrine and marine organisms. The maceral nomen-
clature system of the International Committee for Coal Petrology, used widely in coal petrography
and petroleum source-rock studies, is suitable for describing the organic matter in oil shales pro-
vided the terminology for organic matter derived from algal precursors is divided into two sub-
macerals - - telalginite and lamalginite. Macerals of the liptinite group, including alginite, are
volumetrically important constituents of oil shales and are the major source of the shale oil that
is formed during pyrolysis. Liptinite is easily characterized and quantified using fluorescence mode
microscopy and thus the type and abundance of liptinite can be used as a basis for a petrographic
classification of oil shales.
Oil shales are grouped, using the environment of deposition as the discriminatory criterion, into
the three primary divisions of terrestrial, lacustrine and marine oil shales. Type and abundance
of liptinite is then used to subdivide these three groups into cannel coal, torbanite, lamosite ( fur-
ther subdivided into Rundle-type lamosite and Green River-type lamosite ), marinite, tasmanite
and kuckersite.

INTRODUCTION

The probability of utilizing oil shales and discovering new deposits will be
greatly increased as the geology of known deposits and an understanding of
the included organic m a t t e r in the oil shales from these deposits, becomes bet-
ter known. Little agreement as to either a definition of oil shale or the nature
and origin of the included organic m a t t e r in these rocks has been agreed upon
in the past. For example, Tissot and Welte (1978, p. 225) wrote "there is actually
no geological or chemical definition of an oil shale. In fact any shallow rock
yielding oil in commercial amounts on pyrolysis is considered to be an oil shale".
This description is similar to those of Yen and Chilingar (1976) and Schlatter
(cited in Prien, 1976). Tissot and Welte (1978, 1984 ) also reported that where
a rock containing 2.5 weight percent (wt.%) kerogen is retorted, the total
calorific value is used in heating the rock. Consequently, a lower limit of 5%

0166-5162/87/$03.50 1987 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

204

(presumably by weight) organic matter is commonly used in defining oil shales,

although some United States literature uses 10 US gallons per short ton (Tis-
sot and Welte, 1984; p. 255). Five weight percent is equivalent to approxi-
mately 5 volume percent (vol.%) given that the specific gravity of liptinite,
the bulk of the organic matter in most oil shales, is just above 1 gram per cubic
centimetre. For many Australian Tertiary oil shales, 5 vol.% organic matter is
equivalent to a shale oil yield of approximately 25 1/tonne. Yields of less than
25 1/tonne are considered subeconomic for most proposed processing plants,
even those envisaged for the Tertiary oil shales where the lower cutoff is ~en-
erally given as 40 1/tonne.
In this paper, which deals with the petrography of oil shales rather than
econo,nic issues, oil yield is not considered to be as important as the type and
abundance of organic matter and thus any arbitrary lower cutoff figure for
yield can be used. Indeed, in most Tertiary oil shale deposits, oil shale layers
grade into barren claystone and the percentage of organic matter ranges from
> 80% to < 1% by volume. However, for convenience, the term "oil shale" is
applied to any rock containing 5 vol.%, or more, liptinite.
An upper limit is considered unnecessary because some oil shales are com-
posed almost totally of liptinite. For example, Hutton (1982) reported one
torbanite from Ermelo ( South Africa ) with 99% algal matter and Cane (1943)
gave the yield of a torbanite from Marangaroo (New South Wales, Australia)
as > 1000 I/tonne. This latter figure represents a conversion, of rock to shale
oil, of > 99% by weight.
Most oil shales contain abundant liptinite with minor vitrinite and inertin-
ite; some oil shales contain bitumen. The liptinite in oil shales is derived from
numerous organisms once living in several different environments. The char-
acterization of liptinite can be best achieved using organic petrographic
techniques.
Any classification of rocks should be based primarily on easily recognizable
properties of the key constituents, and for oil shales, these should be properties
(such as type and abundance) of the organic matter. Until recently, petro-
graphic properties of oil shales had not been well documented and classifica-
tions of oil shales had been based on criteria such as industrial use (Ozerov
and Polozov, 1968), included mineral matter (Down and Himus, 1940; Jaffe,
1962), physical properties (Mott, 1951), chemical properties of the organic
matter, commonly termed kerogen (Bitterli, 1963; Combaz, 1974; Tissot and
Welte, 1978; Alpern, 1979), especially when referring to a Van Krevelen dia-
gram, or combinations of two or three of these features.
The importance of the organic matter in oil shales should not be overlooked
because it is the type and abundance of organic matter that not only determine
the chemical and physical properties of the oil shale but the yield and chem-
istry of the shale oil as well.
Classification of oil shales has been seriously retarded in two main areas.
 205

Until recently, transmitted-light microscopy and chemical examination have

been the most commonly used methods of identifying organic matter and both
have limited potential for discriminating between the different kinds of organic
matter in rocks. In transmitted light, liptinite macerals, the dominant organic
matter in most oil shales, show little optical contrast with clay and other fine-
grained mineral matter, especially in samples of low rank. With the advent of
blue/ultraviolet fluorescence-mode microscopy, the properties of liptinite
macerals have been elucidated and detailed data on the type and quantity of
these macerals can be provided. Several authors have listed or figured types of
organic matter, and associated optical properties, in recent publications (Alpern
et al., 1972; Combaz, 1974, 1980; Robert, 1979, 1981; Alpern, 1980).
Petrographic data can be related to the chemistry of oil shales and shale oils.
Thus data pertaining to probable yield, seam thickness, environment of depo-
sition and both vertical variation and lateral variation in deposits can also be
obtained using fluorescence-mode microscopy.
Fluorescence-mode microscopy is rapid, involves minimal sample prepara-
tion and is relatively inexpensive. It may be used for outcrop, core or cuttings
samples and as little as a few grams of sample is all that is required for detailed
characterization of a given sample.
The derivation of a useful classification of oil shales has been hindered by
the lack of serviceable terminology and nomenclature for oil shales. Termi-
nology has been, to say the least, both chaotic and parochial with an ad hoc
duplication of names for oil shales which have similar organic constituents but
which are found in different deposits (Table 1 ). In this paper, a limited num-
ber of new terms are introduced because several distinctive and important
organic assemblages have not been described or named. Many previously used
terms do not relate to important properties of the oil shales and are discarded.
The main advantages of the system proposed in this paper, compared with
others previously used, are:
(a) it uses, refines and extends terminology, namely maceral terminology of
the International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP), that is already
in widespread use;
(b) nomenclature and classification are based on organic constituents; these
are the same constituents that determine most of the properties, including
the more important ones, of the oil shale and derived shale oil;
(c) the main elements of the classification are generally easily recognized;
(d) the system is natural as well as systematic and therefore complements
studies in coal petrography and studies of petroleum source-rocks; and
(e) the categories of oil shale defined have different characteristics, modes of
occurrence, specific oil yields and, on the basis of preliminary data, oil
quality.
Aspects of the classification that need further study and/or refinement
include:
206

(a) the system does not separate marine oil shales that contain mostly bitu-
minite from those that contain mostly alginite with only minor bituminite;
(b) the classification neither uses nor accounts for the abundance of vitrinite-
like organic matter, probably derived from algal precursors and possibly
related to bituminite, that occurs in some marine oil shales;
(c) it places strongly fluorescing alginite, derived from acritarchs and dino-
flagellates, in the lamalginite group although the fluorescence intensity is
similar to that from tasmanitid telalginite in the same sample; and,
( d ) this classification does not consider the oil producing potential of the weakly
fluorescing matrix, which contains both mineral and organic matter, that
is found in oil shales such as that from the Green River Formation (USA)
and many marine oil shales; available data suggest that the oil potential of
the matrix, although volumetrically large, is probably not as significant as
previously believed.

NOMENCLATURE

Many previous studies of oil shale and related rocks have been limited to
single deposits or even individual aspects of a lithology or deposit. Conse-
quently, little systematization in terminology has been attempted when refer-
ring either to types of oil shale or the included organic matter. Many terms
have restricted or obscure usage (Table 1 ). Genetic or compositional features
are largely ignored.
Organic matter in oil shales and related rocks is generally referred to by two
terms - - bitumen (a soluble component) and kerogen or kerobitumen, the
insoluble fraction (Saxby, 1976). Where "bitumen" is used for the soluble
fraction of organic matter in oil shales, it is used in a chemical sense. Hunt
(1979) also used it in a chemical sense when he defined bitumens as "native
substances of variable colour, hardness and volatility, composed principally of
the elements carbon and hydrogen and sometimes associated mineral matter,
the non-mineral constituents being largely soluble in carbon disulphide" (p.
546). Thus asphalts, natural mineral waxes, asphaltites and petroleum are
considered to be bitumens. The solubility of bitumen depends significantly on
the temperature at which extraction is carried out and on both the polarity and
chemical reactivity of the solvent (Saxby, 1976). The use of either the char-
acter or abundance of recovered soluble bitumen in a petrographic classifica-
tion of oil shales is not warranted.
In other geological contexts the definitions of bitumen are quite varied. For
example, "bitumen is a generic term applied to natural inflammable sub-
stances of variable color, hardness and volatility. Bitumens are composed prin-
cipally of a mixture of hydrocarbons substantially free from oxygenated bodies"
(Gary et al., 1974, p. 77). This paper advocates the bitumen terminology used
by Jacob (1975), who used a petrographic approach to the classification of
 207

TABLE 1

Terms previously used for oil shale

General terms for Terms pertaining to

oil .shale
Torbanite Tasmanite Cannel coal
Bituminous shale Boghead coal Spore shale Spore coal
Oil mineral Parrot coal White coal Resin coal
Pelionite Torbane Hill mineral Cuticular coal
Alum shale Boghead gas coal Candle coal
Tripolite Kerosene shale Kennel coal
Marahuito Algal shale Cannelite
Albertite Bathvillite Parrot coal
Stellarite Bituminite Curley coal
Schistes bitumineux Brown cannel coal Bastard shale
Wollongongite Toula paper shale
Boghead
Boghead mineral
Bituminite
Cannel coal
Gas coal
Algal coal
Oil mineral
Methol brown shale
Petroleum-oil-cannel-coal
Olenikite
Several of the names are not now used in the same sense as they were initially; several are trans-
lations of others. (Data from Came, 1903; Down and Himus, 1940; Mott, 1951; Jaffe, 1962.)

b i t u m e n . J a c o b b a s e d his classification on t h a t o f A b r a h a m (1945). B i t u m e n

c o m p r i s e s a range o f t y p e s of organic m a t t e r . T h e s e have readily recognizable
optical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . B i t u m e n m a y be fluorescing or non-fluorescing; it can
be i n t e r s t i t i a l to f r a m e w o r k grains or o c c u r as balls, pods a n d lenses in a v a r i e t y
o f lithologies.
B i t u m e n occurs in only a limited n u m b e r o f oil shales a n d w h e r e it does
occur, it is m o s t l y a m i n o r c o n s t i t u e n t . It is t h e r e f o r e n o t used as a discrimi-
n a t o r y p r o p e r t y in t h e classification of oil shales.
C u m - B r o w n i n t r o d u c e d t h e t e r m k e r o g e n in 1912 ( C a n e , 1976) to d e n o t e
the insoluble organic m a t t e r in oil shale but, as discussed b y Cane (1970), t h e
specificity o f t h e t e r m has b e e n lost a n d it is n o w a collective a n d o f t e n con-
fusing t e r m for all or a n y organic m a t t e r in oil shale. F u r t h e r m o r e " k e r o g e n "
studies g e n e r a l l y r e f e r to bulk rock studies a n d a n y one or all o f t h e m a c e r a l
groups m a y be c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e " k e r o g e n " . T h u s k e r o g e n is n o t a suitable
d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t e r m for use in a classification of oil shales.
L i p t i n i t e - r i c h c a n n e l coals h a v e high shale oil yields and, u n d e r t h e defini-
208

tion of oil shale given in this paper, must be oil shales. Vitrinite, inertinite and
liptinite macerals derived from terrestrial vascular plants are volumetrically
minor components in all oil shales except cannel coals and canneloid shales.
Terminology as defined by the I.C.C.P. (1963, 1971, 1975) and Stach et al.
(1975, 1982), adequately encompasses these macerals where found in oil shales.
The maceral alginite was defined for algal matter derived from algae related
to, or synonymous with, Botryococcus (such as Reinschia, Pila and Gloeocap-
somorpha) and to a lesser extent, the algae Tasmanites and Cladiscothallus
( I.C.C.P., 1975). Most brown and bituminous coals commonly contain sparse
or no algal matter whereas in most oil shales, organic matter derived from algae
is dominant, and is derived from a number of precursors. Different precursors
give rise to a number of forms of alginite, each of which has a range of prop-
erties (Tables 2 and 3 ). Thus the term alginite as defined for coals, if applied
to oil shales, is inadequate and considerable revision is needed.
Hutton et al. (1980, p. 48) identified significant morphological differences
between members of the alginite maceral and subdivided alginite into alginite
A ("discrete colonial or unicellular algal bodies related to either Botryococcus
or Pachysphaera:) and alginite B ("finely lamellar benthonic algal material
which constitutes the bulk of the organic matter in many important oil shales").
The terms were subsequently used, as defined above, by Hutton (1980),
Kantsler (1980), Cook et al. (1981) and Kalkreuth and Macauley (1984).
Alginite B was redefined by Hutton (1981, 1982) to include phytoplankton
such as dinoflagellates, acritarchs and the organic remains of diatoms.
In this paper, "telalginite" is used instead of alginite A and "lamalginite" is
used instead of alginite B. Lamalginite and telalginite are defined as follows:
(a) Telalginite is alginite, derived from large colonial or thick-walled unicel-
lular algae (Plate 1), with strong fluorescence at low rank and with dis-
tinctive external structure, and in many cases internal botanical structures,
when viewed in sections perpendicular to bedding.
(b) Lamalginite is alginite, derived from small, unicellular or thin-walled,
colonial planktonic or benthonic algae (Plate 1 ), with weak to moderate
(rarely intense) fluorescence at low rank and a distinctive lamellar form
with little recognizable structure in sections perpendicular to bedding.
"Tel" is derived from tela (Latin) meaning tissue. The use of telalginite is
consistent with the use of the bituminous coal term telinite meaning cell walls
of recognizable plant tissue in vitrinite (I.C.C.P., 1971) and the brown coal
term textinite, derived from the Latin textum meaning tissue, network, or
structure. "Lam" is derived from "lamellar" which is the characteristic shape
of this alginite in sections perpendicular to bedding. Lamalginite occurs in oil
shales formed in a variety of environments and although derived from a diverse
group of precursors, the lamellar form is the common property of this alginite.
Ginzberg and Letushova (1976) referred to colloalginite and thallomoalginite
but neither of the prefixes "collo" and "thallomo" are used. "Collo" is derived
Properties of telalginite
Telalginite derived from
B. brauni
Colour
Transmitted light yellow-white to orange or
green, may fluoresce in
white light
Reflected light colourless to grey or black,
(oil immersion) green fluorescence in
some samples
Internal reflections red
Fluorescence moderately intense to
intense green to orange
Size: Length 0.05 to 1 mm
Thickness 0.01 to 0.5 mm
Internal structure hollow sphere or fan-
shaped branches with
cells around the perimeter
Shape oval to circular
Other properties tetrad arrangement of
cells recognizable;
radiation haloes common;
infilled and/or replaced by
pyrite or chalcedonic
quartz;
positive polishing relief,
retains scratches
i
Occurrence abundant in torbanite,
sparse to rare in lamosite
and cannel coal
G. prisca Tasmanites
colourless to pale brown colourless to pale brown
colourless to pale brown colourhss to pale brown,
sometimes with a granular
texture
orange to brown yellow to brown
weak green to greenish- moderately intense green,
orange yellow to intense orange
0.1 to 0.8 mm 0.05 to 1 m m
0.01 to 0.5 mm 0.005 to 0.5 mm
spherical to ovoid; cell unicellular, porate; some
cavities commonly empty forms sutured, inner and
outer wall in some forms
oval to circular flattened ovoid, rounded
ends
tetrad arrangement of
cells not recognizable
radiation haloes rare radiation haloes rare;
infilled with pyrite, chal-
cedonic quartz or bitumen
positive polishing relief positive polishing relief,
retains scratches
only in kuckersite abundant in tasmanite,
smaller forms sparse to
rare in marinite
Foerstia
yellow to brown
grey, almost opaque in
some samples
none observed
generally weak to very
weak yellow to orange
0.8 to 6 m m
0.02 to 0.06 mm
cell structure visible
flattened, sheet-like
radiation haloes absent;
rarely infilled with chalce-
donic quartz
positive polishing relief,
retains scratches
minor component of
marinite
b~
~D
TABLE 3
Properties of lamalginite
Lamalginite derived from
Pediastrum
Colour
T r a n s m i t t e d light colourless to very pale
brown
Reflected light (oil colourless to pale brown
immersion )
Fluorescence moderately intense to
weak yellow, yellowish-
orange to orange
Size: Length 0.005 to 0.1 m m
Thickness 0.001 to 0.005 m m
Internal structure none visible in sections
perpendicular to bedding
Shape t h i n lamellae
Other properties simple processes on outer
cells visible in sections
parallel to bedding;
infilled with pyrite or
chalcedonic quartz
Occurrence a b u n d a n t in Australian
Tertiary lamosite such as
those from Rundle,
Stuart, Condor a n d Duar-
inga; also occurs in lamo-
site from Thailand,
Yugoslavia, New Zealand,
U.S.A. and C h i n a
Septodinium Cleistosphaeridium Marine dinoflagellates
and acritarchs
colourless colourless colourless to very pale
brown
colourless colourless colourless to pale brown
moderately intense green weak to moderately weak to intense green or
intense green yellow
0.03 to 0.06 m m 0.03 to 0.06 m m 0.02 to 0.3 m m
0.001 to 0.003 m m 0.001 to 0.003 m m 0.001 to 0.005 m m
none visible in sections none visible in sections none visible in sections
perpendicular to bedding perpendicular to bedding perpendicular to bedding
t h i n lamellae t h i n lamellae t h i n lamellae
simple processes on outer simple or bifurcating pro-
wall visible in sections cesses visible in sections
parallel to bedding; parallel to bedding;
infilled with pyrite or
chalcedonic quartz
rare in Tertiary lamosite rare in Tertiary lamosite sparse to common in mar-
from Condor and from Rundle a n d Stuart inites; rare in t a s m a n i t e
Duaringa
 211

from the Greek kolla meaning glue {I.C.C.P., 1971) and has connotations of
an amorphous nature. Clearly lamalginite is not amorphous and therefore
"collo" is not suitable. "Thallomo" is not used because the prefix tel was already
in use.
The terms telalginite and lamalginite are compatible with other terms used
by the I.C.C.P. and, if correctly used, convey significant information as to the
properties of the macerals.
Properties of several forms of telalginite and lamalginite are summarized in
Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Table 4 correlates liptinite terminology, relating
to oil shales, used in this paper with that used elsewhere.

CLASSIFICATION OF OIL SHALES

Organic-rich rocks can be conveniently divided into the three categories of

oil shales, bitumen-impregnated rocks and humic coals {Fig. 1 ) although sev-
eral other schemes have been used in the past. This division allows any of the
presently used coal or bitumen classifications to be included in a general clas-
sification of organic-rich rocks. Tar sands are not included as oil shales, not-
withstanding the large volume of oil that is produced from these rocks. The
organic matter in tar sands and bitumen-impregnated rocks is of secondary
origin, that is, it is a mixture of alteration products derived from biodegrada-
tion, metamorphism or maturation of organic matter. Thus the organic matter
in tar sands is more akin to petroleum than to solid "kerogen". Existing sub-
divisions of bitumen, as have been proposed by Abraham (1945), Bell and
Hunt (1963), H u n t (1963) and Jacob (1975), would not be invalidated by the
oil shale classification proposed here.
Because organic matter in oil shales is derived from a variety of organisms
which include precursors of terrestrial, lacustrine and marine origin, it follows
that a natural subdivision of oil shales should include these terms as a basis
for a primary subdivision. Thus the three major types of oil shales are (Fig.
1):
(a) Terrestrial Oil Shale - - oil shale composed of liptinite derived from terres-
trial organisms.
{b ) Lacustrine Oil Shale - - oil shale composed of liptinite derived from dom-
inantly lacustrine (including brackish, saline or freshwater lacustrine)
organisms; and
(c) Marine Oil Shale - - oil shale composed of liptinite derived from domi-
nantly marine organisms.
The type and quantity of included liptinite is used to divide each of the pri-
mary oil shale types into secondary groups where necessary (Fig. 2 ).

Types of oil shale

Cannel coal. Cannel coal is a brown to black, homogeneous oil shale composed
of liptinite derived from terrestrial vascular plants {Plates 1.1 and 2 ) and gen-
erally vitrinite and inertinite.
TABLE4 t~
t~
Correlationofterminolo~inuse~rliptiniteinoilshales(a~p~dfrom Hutton, 1982)

THIS PAPER Hutton et al., Ginzberg and Teichmtiller Alpern Robe~, Bostick, Alpern, Creaney, Kalkreuth
1980 Letushova, and and 1979" 1979" 1980" 1980 and
Cook et al., 1976 Ottenjahn, Cheymol, Macauley,
1981 1977" 1978" 1984

LIPTINITE sporinite sporinite sporinite spores, sporinite spores, sporites sporinite

DERIVED FROM pollens pollens
TERRESTRIAL
PLANTS cutinite cutinite cutinite cutinite cutinite cuticles
suberinite suberinite suberines
fluorinite fluorinite fluorinite
resinite resinite resinite/ resin resinite
terpenite
chlorophyllinite
liptodetrinite liptodetrinite microlamenae liptodetrinite
bituminite bituminite bituminite
exsudatinite exsudatinite bitumes, solid nigra
exsudatinite bitumen bitumen

ALGAL TELALGINITE alginite A thallomoalginite alginite algues algues algal bodies algues alginite Gp A alginite A
LIPTINITE planctoniques
LAMALGINITE alginite B colloalginite alginite alginiteGp B alginite B
alginiteGp C
alginiteGp D
bituminite bituminite lamelles noir- bituminite floccules gels algaires bituminite
rougestres or and et bacteriens matrix
bituminite groundmass bituminite
noir-rouge
liptodetrinite

oil oil expulsions huile

*Based on Teichmtiller (1981, 1982).

 213

COAL OIL S H A L E B I T U M E N - IMPREGNA1T=D TAR SAND

ROCK

HUMIC TERRESTRIAL LACUSTRINE MARINE NAPHTHENE-

RICH
A ASHPHALTENE-
RICH
k
J J J J J
VITRAIN CANNEL LAMOSITE MARINITE GILSONITE ALBERTITE OIL
CLARAIN COAL TORBANITE TASMAN|TE GRAHAI~TE WURTZILITE BITUMEN
DURAIN KUCKERSITE
FUSAIN

Fig. I. Classification of organic-rich rocks showing the primary division of oil shales into terres-
trial,lacustrine and marine oil shales.
TENAESTmAL LACUGTEINE MARINIE
OIL SHALE OIL KHALE OIL SHALE

LJthotype CANNEL COAL TOAl~tNrrE LAMOSITE MARINITE TASMANITE KUCKERSlTE

J %

RUNDLE GREEN RIVER

TYPE TYPE

Preeureoy VASCULAR GREEN ALGAE GREEN ALGAE ?BLUE-GREEN GREEN A L G A E GREENALGAE GREEN ALGAE
Orsanisms PLANTE ALGAE ACRITARCH8
DmOFt.AGEL-
LATE8

Growth VARIOUS PLANKTONIC PLANKTONIC BENTHONIC PLANKTONIC PLANKTONIC

Form COLONIAL COLONIAL ALGAE? UNICELLULAR UNICELLULAR COLONIAL
UNICELLULAR ALGALOOZE

Dominant SPORINITE TELALGINITE LAMALGINITE LAMALGINITE LAMALGINITE TELALGINITE TELALGINIT1E

Maeefal/ RIESINITE BITUMINITE
ConMBulmt CUTINITE

Known Angiosperms Pfla Podleatrum ? Noatocopsls Teamenltes Gloeocapeo-

Precursors Gymnosperrne RelneeMa Gmmtodlelmn Leloepheor - m o r p h a prlua
Cleiato- IdJm
apheeridium
RelAted Vaslaus Extent Botryooccua Pediastrum Extant Blue- Various Extent PechyaGhaora 8otryooceus
Orgeniems Vascular Plants breUnlI Green Algae Algae Acrltarha pelegla braunii
Dinollagellat ea

Other - Minor Vltrlnite Vltrinlte Tolalolnlte BNumen

Orgonlc Ine~btlt a Inertinlte Vltrlnite
Metto~
- Trsee TelaigJnne Ggorlnito 8portnno Vitrinite TulelglnJte Yltrinlta
81tumlnlte fle0Jnite Bitumen Sporlnlte Vltrlnlte InertilUta
Inortlnlta Lamallkdt e
Eporlnlte
Bitumen

Fig. 2. Secondary divisions of oil shales giving important properties of each oil shale.

Torbanite. Torbanite is a black to greenish-black oil shale in which the prin-

cipal liptinite is telalginite derived from Botryococcus-related, lacustrine algae
(Plates 1.2 and 3).
 215

Lamosite. Lamosite is a pale brown to dark greyish-brown oil shale in which

the principal liptinite is lamalginite derived from lacustrine algae and other
phytoplankton ( Plates 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 4 and 5).

Marinite. Marinite is a grey to dark greyish-black oil shale in which the prin-
cipal liptinite is lamalginite derived from marine algae and other phytoplank-
ton and/or bituminite derived from marine precursors (Plates 1.6 and 6).

Tasmanite. Tasmanite is a dark grey to black oil shale in which the principal
liptinite is telalginite derived from marine tasmanitids ( Plates 1.7 and 7 ).

Kuckersite. Kuckersite is a brown oil shale in which the principal liptinite is

telalginite derived from Gloeocapsomorpha prisca ( Plate 1.8 ).

Minor liptinite components occur in most oil shales but usually in such small
quantities that it is not necessary to include t h e m in the definitions.
Figure 3 summarizes the more important aspects of the respective oil shales
and characteristics of the deposits.

PLATE 1
Oil shales
(photographed in fluorescence mode; sections perpendicular to bedding unless stated)
1. Tertiary c a n n e l coal, from Freshford (New Zealand), composed of suberinite (centre), with
abundant sporinite, liptodetrinite and nonfluorescingvitrinite (within suberinite and bottom
right). Field width = 0.34 mm.
2. Permian t o r b a n i t e , from Newnes (New South Wales, Australia), composed of telalginite
derived from Reinschia in a nonfluorescing groundmass of desmocollinite, inertodetrinite,
micrinite and mineral matter. Field width = 0.56 mm.
3. Tertiary lamosite, from Condor deposit ( Queensland, Australia), composed of abundant, dis -
crete lamalginite derived from the colonial alga Pediastrum with sparse telalginite and pyrite
(black grains) in a clay-sized groundmass. Field width = 0.28 ram.
4. Verylowgradelamosite, from the Rundle deposit (Queensland, Australia),containinglamal-
ginite derived from the colonial alga Pediastrum. Field width = 0.28 mm; section oblique to
bedding.
5. Tertiary lamosite, from the Green River Formation ( Colorado, U.S.A. ), containing abundant
layered lamalginite, with variable fluorescence colours and intensities, with mineral-rich pods
and interlaminae; also abundant pyrite. Field width = 0.22 mm.
6. Cretaceous m a r i n i t e , from the Toolebuc Formation (Queensland, Australia), containing dis-
persed lamalginite and nonfluorescing mineral grains in a groundmass of weakly fluorescing
bituminite. Field width = 0.28 mm; sample was irradiated with UV-violet radiation for 30
minutes.
7. Permian t a s m a n i t e , from the Mersry River area (Tasmania, Australia), composed of abun-
dant telalginite, derived from Tasmanites, with a groundmass of nonfluorescing mineral mat-
ter. Field width = 0.44 mm.
8. Ordovician k u c k e r s i t e , from Estonia, composed of telalginite derived from the alga Gloeo-
capsomorpha. Field width-- 0.44 mm.
216

PLATE 2
Cannel coals
(photographed in fluorescence mode )
1. Hale River deposit ( Northern Territory, Australia);thiscannelcoaliscomposedofabundant
sporinite and less strongly fluorescing liptodetrinite and resinite; nonfluorescing components
include vitrinite, rare inertinite and mineral matter; although not in this field, Botryococcus is
a minor constituent. Field width = 0.18 mm; section parallel to bedding.
2. Nagoorin deposit (Queensland, Australia); a cannel coal from a brown coal unit that is
interbedded with lamosite; it contains abundant resinite (large resinite bodies and small blebs)
with cutinite (lower right) and minor liptodetrinite. Field width = 0.28 mm; section oblique to
bedding.

MICROLITHOTYPES

Macerals rarely occur singly; they are usually associated with other macerals
of the same or another maceral group. Maceral associations or microlithotypes
may be either monomaceral, bimaceral or trimaceral, that is, predominantly
composed of one, two or three macerals respectively. I.C.C.P. (1963, 1971, 1975)
and Stach et al. (1975, 1982) recognized algite as the monomaceral microlith-
otype comprising layers with > 95 vol.% alginite and at least 0.05 m m thick.
Recognition of the macerals telalginite and lamalginite leads to the recognition
of telalgite and lamalgite as microlithotypes comprising > 95 vol.% telalginite
and lamalginite respectively. Both terms have limited use because these
microlithotypes rarely occur. Of the two, telalgite occurs more commonly than
lamalgite and has been observed in tasmanite and very rich torbanite samples
such as those from Ermelo ( South Africa) and Newnes, Glen Davis and Temi
(all in New South Wales, Australia). Lamalgite has been observed in thin
layers of Green River oil shale but in most cases few layers are greater than
0.05-0.06 m m thick. Thus alginite microlithotypes are of minor occurrence in
torbanites and are of very restricted occurrence in other oil shales.
Many torbanite samples are composed of subequal telalginite, vitrinite and
inertinite (either vitrinite or inertinite may be the dominant non-algal con-
stituent). Liptinite-vitrinite-inertinite microlithotypes are termed vitriner-
toliptites with presumably, if convention is followed, the alginite-rich
assemblage in torbanite called vitrinerto-algite.
 217

PLATE 3
Torbanites
(photographed in fluorescence mode; sections perpendicular to bedding)
1. Alpha deposit (Queensland, Australia); this torbanite is composed of abundant telalginite
with well-preserved cell structure; many colonies contain pyrite infilling the central cavity and
cell spaces as shown in this field. Field width = 0.56 ram.
2. Carnarvon Creek deposit {Queensland, Australia); this torbanite is a low-grade torbanite that
contains well-preserved telalginite; the groundmass between colonies contains mostly vitrinite
and inertinite with only minor mineral matter. Field width = 0.56 ram.
3. Temi deposit (New South Wales, Australia); telalginite is smaller than that in the Alpha and
Carnarvon Creek torbanite and the cell structure is less well-preserved. Field width-- 0.34 ram.
4. Ermelo Deposit (South Africa); this torbanite contains very small telalginite that has a thin
brown fluorescing margin; the telalginite also fluoresces quite strongly in reflected white light.
Field width = 0.28 ram.

C a r b o m i n e r i t e , t h e m i n e r a l - r i c h coal m i c r o l i t h o t y p e , c o n t a i n s 2 0 - 6 0 % min-
eral m a t t e r ; if t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e rock is g r e a t e r t h a n 2.0 g / c m 3, it is r e g a r d e d
as waste ( S t a c h , 1975, I 9 8 2 ) . L a m a l g i n i t e - d o m i n a t e d oil shales c o n t a i n as
little as 5 vol.% alginite w i t h m o s t 2 0 - 3 0 vol.%. I f c a r b o m i n e r i t e is applied
s e n s o stricto, m a n y oil shales, such as l a m o s i t e a n d m a r i n i t e , s h o u l d be grouped
as c a r b o m i n e r i t e with m a n y r e g a r d e d as " w a s t e " . T h u s t h e c a r b o m i n e r i t e
m i c r o l i t h o t y p e requires revision if it is to be applied to oil shales.
M a n y samples o f A u s t r a l i a n T e r t i a r y l a m o s i t e are c o m p o s e d o f i n t e r l a m i -
n a t e d alginite-rich a n d v i t r i n i t e - r i c h layers. L a m a l g i n i t e is n o t f o u n d in t h e
coaly layers. T h e a b u n d a n t v i t r i n i t e significantly alters t h e shale oil c o m p o -
218

PLATE 4
Lamosite
(photographed in fluorescence mode; sections perpendicular to bedding unless stated)
1. Condor deposit ( Queensland, Australia) ; this lamosite contains lamalginite derived from the
dinoflagellate Septodinium; some of the lamalginite is partly infilled with nonfluorescing min-
eral matter; small black grains are pyrite. Field width = 0.18 mm.
2. Rundledeposit {Queensland, Australia);thislamositecontainsabundantlamalginitederived
from Pediastrum; Rundle samples also contain strongly fluorescing lamalginite (upper centre )
of unknown origin. Field width = 0.28 ram.
3. Orepukideposit {New Zealand); thislamosite contains abundant lamalginite andtelalginite
( left of centre ) ; the field shows much more telalginite than is the norm; the telalginite is so
strongly fluorescing that the lamalginite is underexposed. Field width = 0.30 mm.
4. Aleksinac deposit (Yugoslavia); the lamalginite is derived in part from Pediastrum and some
of it is partly infilled with pyrite (left of centre). Field width = 0.24 mm.
5. Duaringadeposit {Queensland, Australia) ; in this sample the lamalginite is derived from large
Pediastrum with long processes that give the appearance of a diffuse corona around each lamella.
Field width = 0.28 mm.
6. Elko deposit ( Nevada, U.S.A. ) ; this lamosite contains abundant lamalginite and trace nonflu-
orescing vitrinite ( centre and upper left of centre) ; nonfluorescing mineral grains are abundant
in this field. Field width = 0.28 mm.
 219

PLATE 5
GreenRiver-typelarnosite
Lamosite from Zaire containing abundant layered lamalginite, of a form similar to that which
occursin Green River oil shale, numerous authigenic mineral grains and bitumen (above centre ).
Field width = 0.18 mm; section perpendicularto bedding.

sition and thus this lamosite subgroup is an important oil shale type. In this
paper, the term "carbonaceous" is used to denote oil shales of this type. The
m i n i m u m vitrinite content is taken as 5 vol.%.

DISCUSSION

Alginite

Coal macerals have a range of chemical compositions and physical proper-

ties ( Stach et al., 1975, 1982 ) but each is recognizable, microscopically, by such
properties as reflectance, colour and relief. Thus maceral definitions are based
on a range, albeit a narrow one, of properties. Just as other macerals have
properties that vary within clearly defined limits, so also do telalginite and
lamalginite.
Four algae, Gloeocapsomorphaprisca (Plate 1.8), Botryococcus braunii (Plate
2), Foerstia (Plate 8.1) and Tasmanites (Plates 7.1 and 7.2) are readily rec-
ognizable in sections perpendicular to bedding. Alginite derived from these
algae is placed in telalginite. None has been allotted submaceral status although
the optical properties of any one type are reasonably constant but significantly
different to the optical properties of the other types of telalginite.
Fluorescence and reflected-light properties of the various alginite groups are
responsive to factors such as maturation stage state of preservation and parent
organisms. The state of preservation in telalginite ranges from poor to excel-
lent (Plates 1 and 3). Alpha (Australia) torbanite and some Australian Ter-
tiary lamosites, have telalginite that is infilled with a n d / o r replaced by pyrite
(Plate 3.1 ). (In the latter oil shales, telalginite is also infilled a n d / o r replaced
by carbonate and quartz. ) Fluorescence intensity from pyritized telalginite is
220

PLATE 6
Marinite
(photographed in fluorescence mode; sections perpendicular to bedding unless stated}
1. Marinite from the Posidonia Shale (Germany) containing sparse lamalginite, > 0.08 mm long
and abundant lamalginite < 0.04 mm long; Other fluorescing components found elsewhere in
the sample include bituminite, telalginite derived from tasmanitids and rare sporinite. Field
width = 0.28 mm.
2. Marinite from the Huron Member of the Ohio Shale (Means Prospect, Kentucky, U.S.A.)
composed of lamalginite and thicker-walled telalginite derived from tasmanitids. Field
width = 0.34 mm.
3. Marinite from the Toolebuc Formation (Julia Creek, Queensland, Australia) composed of
lamalginite; much of the smaller lamalginite is enclosed within weakly fluorescing bituminite
although this does not show out in the photograph. Field width = 0.18 mm.
4. Marinite from the Doublehorn Shale (Texas, U.S.A.) containing abundant lamalginite and
sparse telalginite derived from thick-walled tasmanitids; some of the lamalginite is infilledwith
nonfluorescingmineral matter (upper right). Field width=0.28 mm.

much reduced compared to the fluorescence intensity of non-pyritized telal-

ginite. Pyritization of telalginite in Alpha samples is most common in weath-
ered samples.
Where telalginite and lamalginite coexist, the fluorescence intensity of telal-
ginite is generally much more intense than that of lamalginite (Plate 4.3).
This is not the case in marinite where lamalginite, derived from dinoflagel-
lates, has more intense fluorescence than the tasmanitid telalginite. Where two
or more types of telalginite or two or more types of lamalginite occur in the
same sample, the fluorescence intensities and colours of each type are usually
 221

+++ ~ +++

.... 0
PLATE 7
Tasmanite [rom Alaska
(photographed in fluorescence mode; sections perpendicular to bedding)
1. Tasmanite composed of densely packed telalginite with sparse mineral matter between some
of the algae; some algae appear to have a double wall. Field width = 0.34 ram.
2. Tasmanite, of lower grade than in the previous field, composed of strongly fluorescing telalgin-
ite that has been broken; almost all algae have been infilled with nonfluorescing mineral matter.
Field width = 0.34 ram.

CANNEL TORBANI,TE LAMOSITE MARINITE TASMANITE KUCKERSITE

COAL A

RUNDLE GREEN RIVER

TYPE TYPE

Precursor TERRESTRIAL PLANKTONIC PLANKTONIC BENTHONIC PLANKTONIC PLANKTONIC PLANKTONIC

PLANTS ALGAE ALGAE ALGAE ALGAE ALGAE ALGAE

Environment Peat Swamb Lacustrine (in a Fresh to Stratified or Markte ShlllowMarlna Shallow Marine
of Peat Swamp) Brackish Lake Saline Lake
Oapoeition

Hand- Black to Black to Olive-Grey, Brown, Grey to Bark Dark Grey to Brown, Massive
Specimen Brown, Brittle GroenMB-Black, Brown to Dark Laminated Greyish Black. Black. Massive
Conchoidai Greyish-Brown, Massive to to Laminated
Fracture Massive to Laminated
Laminated
Age Carbon)tarsus Carboniferous Carboniferous Tertiary Cambrian to Permian Ordovlclan
to Tertiary Permian Tert)ary Cretaceous Cretaceous Jurassic

Resources Small Small Larpe Very L m Small Large

Seam
Thickness variable 0.2-2 30-75 15-130 1-10 1-2 1-3
(m)
Seam variable lansoidel laterally laterally laterally lensoldsl laterally
Geometry persistent persistent persistent persistent
Average
Yield 60-100 230-800 00-130 135 60-80 115-150 210-320
(L/tonne)

Maximum
Yield 300 1090 320 460 1SO? 290 t 400?
(L/tonne) SSOa

(t - Tasmania, a - Alaska)

Fig. 3. Important properties of oil shales and characteristics of the deposits.

222

-- w
r
i

PLATE 8
(photographed in fluorescencemode)
1. Telalginite,derived from Foerstia, in marinite from the Huron Member of the Ohio Shale
(Means Prospect, Kentucky,U.S.A. ) ; the alga has well-preservedcell structure and is up to 5
mm long. Field width = 0.34 mm; section perpendicularto bedding.
2. Telalginite,derivedfrom Tasmanites, in MerseyRiver (Tasmania, Australia) tasmanite; Tas-
manites is unicellularand is porate (although this does not show in the photograph). Field
width = 0.28 mm; section parallel to bedding.

different. For example, in marinite from the Devonian Huron Member of the
Ohio Shale ( Kentucky, U.S.A. ), telalginite derived from Foerstia ( Plate 8.1 )
has much weaker intensity t h a n t h a t for telalginite derived from tasmanitids
( Plates 6.2 and 6.4). In the same samples, lamalginite derived from acritarchs
and dinoflagellates has more intense fluorescence t h a n telalginite derived from
Foerstia. Despite its intense fluorescence, the former lamalginite is placed in
the lamalginite maceral because in sections perpendicular to bedding it has the
distinctive lamellar form t h a t is characteristic of lamalginite.
Australian Tertiary lamosites contain liptodetrinite ( < 0.01 mm in length)
that has the same fluorescence and textural properties as lamalginite. It occurs
in siltstone and claystone as diffuse fragments and is abundant in strew mounts.
The fluorescence properties suggest t h a t this organic matter is derived from
alginite t h a t has probably been degraded by mechanical, bacterial or other
biological agents. Algodetrinite would be a suitable term for this organic matter
but the definition of liptodetrinite ( Stach et al., 1975, 1982 ) precludes the use
of this term.

Alginite and bituminite

Teichmfiller (1974a) defined bituminite as a liptinite maceral with proper-

ties midway between those of sporinite and vitrinite. It is distinguished above
all by the fact t h a t it is "amorphous". Previously, Teichmiiller (1950) had
referred to bituminite as "amorphous bitumen" and Diessel ( Stach et al., 1975)
had used the same term for bituminite in sapropelic coal from the K a t h a r i n a
Seam of the Ruhr area. Teichmiiller (1974a) listed the following properties of
bituminite:
 223

(a) slightly higher reflectance than cutinite or sporinite in low-rank hard coals
but lower reflectance than vitrinite;
(b) less intense fluorescence than sporinite or cutinite with dark orange to
brown colours;
(c) amorphous form;
(d) occurs as striae of various sizes with asymmetrical boundaries in Carbon-
iferous hard brown coals;
(e) occurs as a groundmass in bogheads and sapropelites;
(f) is closely associated with vitrinite and micrinite;
(g) may be transformed into micrinite in the flame to gas flame coal stage.
Bituminite is soft, polishes with difficulty and transmits light freely ( Stach et
al., 1975; 1982).
Teichmiiller (1974a) and Teichmiiller and Ottenjahn (1977 ) considered that
bituminite was formed from organisms rich in fats and proteins. Bituminite in
Posidonia Shale of West Germany was divided, by Teichmiiller and Ottenjahn,
into three types - - Type I, Type II and Type III. Creany (1980) recognized
Type I bituminite in the Boundary Creek Formation (Beaufort-Mackenzie
Basin of Canada) as well as matrix bituminite ( referred to as a fourth type by
Teichmiiller (1982), and one other unnamed form.
Teichmiiller (1974b) stated that alginite played a larger part in the forma-
tion of peat than can be assumed on the quantities of observed alginite. It was
believed that during humification, the majority of these algae, in contrast to
the alginite-forming algae, are not preserved morphologically. The algae and
bacterial bodies were assimilated into the coal and do not retain their original
form. Thus while the above implies that some alginite inherently lacks "pres-
ervation properties", the occurrence of well-preserved structure of alginite in
torbanite, tasmanite, kuckersite and marinite illustrates that many algae have
an innate ability to be preserved.
Given the respective properties of bituminite as described by Teichmiiller
(1974a, 1982), bituminite and lamalginite are not equivalent macerals. The
use of bituminite should be restricted to:
(a) amorphous or poorly structured organic matter in coal, and other humic-
rich rocks such as cannel coal and some torbanite, where it occurs as a
groundmass enclosing telalginite and humic macerals; and
(b) amorphous or poorly structured organic matter in marinite.
The use of bituminite in both contexts is consistent with the descriptions
given by Teichmiiller (1982).

Types of oil shales

The petrographic classification used in this paper has been developed from
those given in Hutton (1980), Hutton et al. (1980), Cook et al. (1981) and
Hutton (1981). The terms for the different types ofoil shale have been derived
224

from one or more distinctive features of the organic matter in the oil shale with
the exception of torbanite, tasmanite and kukersite which are used consis-
tently and without ambiguity. Although the terms do not have genetic conno-
tations they are well entrenched in the literature, are widely used terms at
present and each is restricted to a specific oil shale type. The terms are useful
in a petrographic classification and replacement of these terms is therefore not
only unnecessary but would be extremely difficult, if not impossible.
Cannel coal is "microstratified, black and dull, sometimes with a rather greasy
lustre. It is very homogeneous and compact and breaks with a conchoidal frac-
ture" (Stach et al., 1975, p. 134). Cannel coal can be distinguished from "bog-
head coals" by the lack of alginite in the former. The composition of cannel
coals is variable. For example, Stach et al. (1975) stated that cannel coal may
contain dominantly sporinite or fine-grained vitrinite. However, it is also
implied in that cannel coal may contain abundant sporinite, resinite or cutinite
since the "composition of cannel coals is similar to that of clarite, durite and
trimacerite" (p. 135 ). All cannel coals (such as those figured in Plate 2 ) with
the exception of liptinite-poor, vitrinite-rich cannel coal, would produce sig-
nificant volumes of shale oil during pyrolysis and can be classed as an oil shale.
Liptinite-poor cannel coals should remain in the coal group ( Fig. 1 ).
"Sapropelic" coal, which includes both boghead and cannel coal is reported
to form from subaquatic organic muds which accumulated under anaerobic
conditions (Stach et al., 1975, 1982). Furthermore, essential constituents are
biological and physical degradation products of contemporaneous peat swamps
( Moore, 1968). The latter conditions are probably necessary for the formation
of cannel coal with abundant bituminite but are unlikely to be mandatory where
resinite-rich coals, such as from Kutch (India) and suberinite-rich coal, such
as from Freshford (New Zealand), were formed.
Alginite content of torbanite and alginite-bearing coal ranges from < 1 vol.%
to 99 vol.% (Plate 3). Any cutoff value that separates torbanite from telalgin-
ite-bearing coals is thus arbitrary. However, for consistency of definitions, 5
vol.% telalginite is the arbitrary lower limit for torbanite. The terms boghead,
boghead coal and kerosene shale have been used in the past but their use as oil
shale terms is not advocated.
Petrographically, lamalginite can be divided into two types:
- - t h i n - w a l l e d alginite which occurs as discrete entities {<0.5 mm long)
enclosed in mineral matter in all but the very rich samples ( Plates 1.3, 1.4
and 4 ) ; and
- - layers composed of' numerous sheet-like algal remains ( Plates 1.5 and 5),
some or all of which may have been biologically or physico-chemically
degraded.
The two types of lamalginite are referred to as "discrete lamalginite" and
"layered lamalginite", respectively, wherever specificity is required. Oil shales
with either type of lamalginite were grouped together previously as lamosite
 225

(Hutton, 1980, 1981; Hutton et al., 1980). Oil shales characterized by abun-
dant layered lamalginite [for example Green River lamosite (Plate 1.5 ) and
lamosite from Zaire (Plate 5 ) ] generally have ifiterlaminated organic-rich and
mineral-rich laminae whereas laminations are usually not as well-developed in
lamosites with discrete lamalginite (for example Rundle oil shale). T h e pre-
cursors of some lamalginite have been identified to genus level ( Plate 9 ).
The two types of lamosite should also be separated because:
(a) Green River-type was formed under more saline conditions than Rundle-
type; and
(b) Green River-type is probably derived from blue-green algae ( Eugster and
Surdam, 1974), whereas Rundle-type is derived mostly from green algae.
Combaz (1980) used the term laminite to denote laminated oil shales. This
usage of the term has a slightly different sense to that originally used by
Lombard (1963) who used it to denote finely stratified flysch. Other authors
subsequently applied laminite to fine-grained sediments in low-energy envi-
ronments (Combaz, Compagnie Franqaise des Petroles; pers. commun., 1985).
Combaz (1980) included oil shales from the Sahara and Paris Basin as well as
the Irati and Green River oil shales in his use of laminite. Laminite is a term
which is suitable to Green River oil shale and other oil shales with well-defined
laminations and layered lamalginite. However, it has been pre-empted and
further usage of this term in relation to oil shales is not warranted.
Marine oil shales are divided into three types - - kuckersite, tasmanite and
marinite. The inclusion of kuckersite in the primary group of marine oil shales
and the inclusion of torbanite in freshwater oil shales illustrates that classifi-
cations separate rocks which may have characteristics in common. Telalginite
in both kuckersite and torbanite is derived from Botryococcus-related algae
(Cane, 1977), yet the former is of marine origin (Zalessky, 1916; Duncan,
1976) and the latter is of lacustrine origin. The "shallow sea lagoons" of Zales-
sky could encompass backwater or tidal flat lagoons which have a considerable
input of freshwater runoff. Such an environment would be comparable to the
Coorong area of South Australia where coorongite, believed by many to be a
precursor of torbanite, forms.
Brown, massive Ordovician oil shale from the Galena Group, Illinois, con-
tains abundant Botryococcus-telalginite some of which is poorly structured and
some which has well-preserved structure. The latter have yellow to yellowish-
orange fluorescence whereas the former have weaker orange fluorescence. Many
of the properties of the Galena Group oil shale, both petrographically and in
hand-specimen, are similar to corresponding properties of kuckersite. Burgess
(1975) has interpreted the environment of deposition of the oil shale section
of the Galena Group as brackish "adjacent to a truly marine one nearby".
Marine fossils including brachiopods, bryozoans and trilobites are found in
overlying limestone. The Galena Group oil shale is tentatively placed in the
226

PLATE 9
Algal precursors of lamalginite in Australian Lamosite
(photographed in fluorescence mode )
1. Pediastrum a stellate acustrine clnial algae that is typicaly flattened; Rundle depsit. Field
width = 0.09 mm.
2. Septodinium, a freshwater dinoflagellate; Condor deposit. Field width=O.OT mm.
3. Pediastrum; Duaringa deposit. Field width = 0.07 mm.
4. Pediastrum with long thin processes; Duaringa deposit. Field width=O.O8 mm.
5. Pediastrum, Duaringa deposit. Field width =0.14 mm.
6. Cleistosphaeridium, a freshwater acritarch; Stuart deposit. Field width = 0.06 mm.

t o r b a n i t e group. However, the similarities in p r o p e r t i e s b e t w e e n oil shale f r o m

the G a l e n a G r o u p a n d k u c k e r s i t e m a y indicate a similar e n v i r o n m e n t of depo-
sition for both. F u r t h e r s t u d y is required to d e t e r m i n e if the chemical p r o p e r -
ties of kuckersite a n d oil shale from the G a l e n a G r o u p are similar.
 227

Tasmanite (Plates 1.7 and 7.1 and 7.2 ) is composed of abundant tasmanitid
telalginite, with minor lamalginite and vitrinite. It is not possible to distin-
guish between the genera Tasmanites and Leiosphaeridium in fluorescence
mode. Oil shales in which either genus is dominant are classed as tasmanite.
Liptinite in marinites comprises telalginite derived from tasmanitids, lamal-
ginite derived from marine algae, sporinite and bituminite. Minor constituents
usually include vitrinite, inertinite and bitumen. Many marinites also contain
abundant vitrinite-like organic matter, much of which may have been derived
from algae. Reflectance values for this "vitrinite" range from 0.20% to 0.35%.
"Vitrinite" is commonly associated with micrinite and, in many samples, has
a weak brown fluorescence. Although an algal origin is inferred for this organic
matter, further study is required to determine the origin of this organic matter
and whether marinites containing this vitrinite-like organic matter should be
placed in the same group as those without it.
Marine petroleum source-rocks have the same organic assemblage as mar-
inites; lamalginite and/or bituminite are dominant in many. The petrographic
classification advocated in this paper, can be extended to include petroleum
source-rocks if required.

LAMALGINITE

Toarcian Shale (France)

Posidonia Shale (Germany)

Sunbury Shale (USA)
New Albany Shale (USA)
Antrim Shale (USA)

,~ Ooublehorn Shale (USA)

Chattanooga Shale (USA)
Cleveland Member (USA)

4F

TELALGINITE BITUMINITE

Fig. 4. Abundance of telalginite, lamalginite and bitumen in selected marinite samples.

228

"Mixed oil shale" has been used ibr oil shales of marine origin and which
contain telalginite, lamalginite and humic matter ( Hutton, 1980, 1981; Hutton
et al., 1980; Cook et al., 1981 ). The term "mixed oil shale" is only valid if the
designated oil shale has a mixed assemblage of liptinite, that is, the oil shale
contains two or more co-dominant liptinite macerals. For example, Fig. 4 shows
the distribution of liptinite in selected marinite samples. Several samples have
co-dominant lamalginite and bituminite; another sample has co-dominant
bituminite and telalginite. Oil shale of the latter type is, strictly, both a mar-
inite and a tasmanite; it should be classed as a mixed oil shale.
It is possible that conditions within any basin, in which oil shale was form-
ing, changes with time. Thus two types of oil shale could form at different
times. For example, if the salinity of a lake increased, Green River-type lamo-
site could form instead of Rundle-type lamosite. Sherwood et al. (1984) stated
that lamosite from the Mae Sot deposit of Thailand had properties midway
between those of the Rundle lamosite and those of Green River lamosite. Other
samples from Mae Sot are typical of those from the Rundle deposit ( Hutton,
1982). Thus the samples described by Sherwood et al. and Hutton may well
illustrate that conditions changed within the Mac Sot basin. Such occurrences
where two types of oil shale form within the same basin, are probably not
common.

CONCLUSIONS

Any classification is only useful if the constituents of the population can be

accurately, and easily, identified and if the classification accommodates most
members of a population without erecting a large and unworkable number of
categories. A petrographic classification of oil shales does this.
Organic matter in oil shales and related sedimentary rocks is derived from a
variety of precursors ranging from simple unicellular freshwater or marine algae
and phytoplankton to large terrestrial vascular plants. The volumetrically
important components of oil shales are generally liptinite, and in particular,
alginite. Liptinite is easily recognized using normal coal petrographic tech-
niques and it is therefore logical and useful to construct a petrographic classi-
fication of oil shales. The type and quantity of liptinite should be the dominant
criteria for the hierarchical subdivision of oil shales.
The petrographic classification of oil shales suggested in this paper is based
on terminology already in use for coal and petroleum source-rock studies. Two
alginite macerals, telalginite and lamalginite, have been defined and this per-
mits the characterization of seven types of oil shales - - cannel coal, torbanite,
Rundle-type lamosite, Green River-type lamosite, marinite, tasmanite and
kuckersite. The classification can be extended to include petroleum source-
rocks because most of these are composed of macerals of the liptinite group.
 229

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

T h e m a j o r p a r t o f this s t u d y was c a r r i e d o u t whilst t h e a u t h o r was t h e recip-

ient of a n A u s t r a l i a n P o s t g r a d u a t e R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r s h i p . D u r i n g this p e r i o d
discussions were held w i t h P r o f e s s o r A.C. C o o k a n d M r N.R. S h e r w o o d . S o u t h -
ern Pacific P e t r o l e u m N L a n d C e n t r a l Pacific M i n e r a l s N L p r o v i d e d m o s t o f
t h e s a m p l e s o f A u s t r a l i a n T e r t i a r y oil shales. N u m e r o u s p e r s o n s supplied s a m -
ples o f overseas oil shales. T h e a u t h o r gratefully a c k n o w l e d g e s this help.

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