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MIDTH INSTITUTE Operation and Optimization of Kiln Systems Fuel Types and Their Characteristics ‘Asocem ‘August 2006 119 ism TH INSTITUTE Table of Contents 3! | 3.1. INTRODUCTION 4 3.2 FUEL OIL. = 3.2.1 Fuei Oil Properties. . 3.2.2. Fuel Oil Preparation, 7 3.2.3 Fuel Oil Atom: 3.2.3.1 Visee 9 3.2.3.2 Oil Pressuie. 10 3.23.3 Flow Regulation . 10 3.2.3.4 Regulating the Oil Spray Angle. 4 3.2.4 Fuel Oil Burners 16 33 COAL — . 7 3.3.1 Coal Characteristics . 13 3.3.2 Coal Classifieistion. ca 3.3.2.1 The Cone 3.3.2.2 Chemical Composition and Prop~rtics of Coal 3.3.2.3 Moisture 3.3.2.4 Volatile Matter 3.3.2.5 Ash in Coal 3.3.2.6 Calorific Value 28 3.3.2.7 Analyses of Coal Ash 29 30 ¢ Content 30 3.3.3.2 Fineness 3 3.3.4 Utilising Special Coa! T 3 3.3.4.1 The Use of Low Grade Gros! in Cement Kiln Systems. 32 3.3.4.2 The Use of Anthracite al Petroleum Coke in Cement Kiln Systems... 36 3.3.5 Components Introduced with the Fuel at 3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION snes AD socom Page 2 August 2006 120 Asocem ‘August 2006 Page 3 MiIDTH INSTITUTE 121 Gismiotn INSTITUTE FUEL TYPES AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 31° INTRODUCTION In principle almost all types of fuel can be used for firing rotary kilns; coal, anthracite, lig- nite, petroleum coke, heavy fuel oil, crude oil, natural gas, coal gas and mixtures thereof. However for firing in the rotary kiln the flame must release the heat at a temperature high enough for the clinker formation process to take place. This can rule out some fuel types which display very low theoretical flame temperatures, e.g. coals with very high ash con- tent. In the international cement industry, the majority of cement plants utilise coal in varying qualities as the main fuel source for firing in the kiln system. The use of oil as the main fuel is limited although, some oil will always be used in heating of the kilns and for firing in auxiliary furnaces etc. The use of gas as a primary fuel source is practically non-existent and will therefore not be dcalt with here in detail Alternative fuels such as sawdust, used tires and combustible waste materials of high calo- tific values, are receiving growing attention in the cement industry. For the successful ap- plication of these fuels in the cement kiln, various aspects must be considered that differs according to the highly variable fuel characteristics. These alternative fuels are therefore not treated in this module This module consists of two main parts relating to fuel type and their characteristics and a summary part. The two main parts comprise: ‘© Fuel oil its properties and preparation including atomisation and fuel oil bumers * Coal, its characteristics, classification and preparation including utilisation of special coal types and components introduced with the fuel ‘Asocem Page 4 August 2006 122 FUSmore INSTITUTE 3.2 FUEL OIL All cement plants use oil at some point in the plant, For instance for start up and heating of a coal fired kiln and for use in auxiliary furnaces. For this use normally an expensive diesel oil is used as it requires no preheating to burn easily and thuis only simple installations, As the use of diesel oil and other lighter oil types arc limited to these purposes, the following part will concentrate on the heavier and cheaper oils used for kin firing, The section comprises the following subsections, - Fuel Oil Properties, describing the basic properties of fuel oil - Fuel Oil Preparation, including oil firing installations and preheating = Fuel Oil Atomisation, including the influence of viscosity, pressure, flow regulation, and oil spray angle and; + The development of fuel oil bumers 3.2.1 Fuel Oil Properties Fuel oils comes in several types such as gasoil, light fuel-oil and heavy fuel-oil. The chemi- cal composition within various types varies only little with the origin of the crude oil and the refining process. The price differs considerably for the various types and heavy oil is often considerably cheaper than for instance gasoil. This is the main reason that cement plants use heavy fuel oils. Basically all fuel-oils are composed of approximately 86% Carbon, 11 — 17 % Hydrogen and | ~2.% Sulphur. The sulphur content in heavy fuels-oils is more than twice as much as in lighter gas-oils, reaching levels-of 4 ~ 5 %. ‘The sulphur content of the fuel oil is a main concern of the cement plant as sulphur may accumulate in the kiln system to a point where is can cause closure of riser pipes and clogs in cyclones. This is described in more detail in Module 4. ‘The most noticeable difference between the oil types is the oil temperature that is required to obtain a viscosity of 2 ~ 2,S°F (degree Engler) or 12 ~ 18 cSt (centiStoke). Viscosity is measured in various units of which degree Engler (°E) is the easiest for our purpose. The viscosity is the most important figure for the practical use of fuel oil and viscosities in the range between 2 ~ 2,5°E is required by most burners for the satisfactory atomisation of the oil Asocem Page $ ‘August 2006 123 Gsmiotn INSTITUTE Figure 3.1 shows the variation of the viscosity with the temperature; itis fortunate that the shape of the curve is nearly always the same so that when a viscosity is known at one tem- perature, the viscosity at other temperatures can be predicted. It is seen in Figure 3.1 that to obtain 2°E gas oils need heating to less than 20°C and heavy oils to more than 150°C. Asooem Page 6 ‘August 2006 124 USMIOTH INSTITUTE igure 3.1 Viscosity / Temperature Relation 3.2.2 Fuel Oil Preparation Before using heavy oil as fuel it is necessary to treat it as it cannot be utilised in its raw form. The treatment necessary for optimum combustion of heavy fuel is as follows: = Heating to constant temperature and desired viscosity = Pressure necessary for atomisation = Proper flow for the burner = Proper oil spray angle Figure 3.2 describes the basic components of the oil firing installation Figure 3.2 Typicu! hntallarion for an Oi Pired Kiln Asocem Page 7 August 2006 125 Giismiora INSTITUTE The oil is stored in a storage tank (1), usually placed at the perimeter of the plant and sur- rounded by a high wall, This acts as a dam if the tank leaks and confines the leaking oil to the immediate area of the tank. il pumps (2) transfer the oil to the feed tank (3) and from here the oil is pumped by high pressure pumps (4) through the pre-heater (5) and the burner station (6) to the burner (7). The pre-heater supplies the bumer with oil at a predetermined pressure and temperature, irrespective of variations in the oil quantity and quality. The burner station is the final con- trol position for supervision of these parameters, The tank (9) contains light diesel oil for the boiler (8) which in turn supplies steam to the pre-heater, the burner station and the heat- ing coils in the storage and feed tanks. It is essential that the oil temperature and the oil pressure before the burner station is auto- matically kept constant to avoid disturbances in the oil atomisation and oil flow rate. Preheating of the oil can be affected with steam, electrically or via heat transmitting oil When heating the oil to more than 130°C, heat transmitting oil is normally preferred The bumer station monitors the oil temperature, pressure and flow rate and will give an alarm if pre-set ranges are exceeded. Furthermore it shuts off the oil to the burner when ap- propriate and purges the oil burner with air or steam, Measurement of the oil flow is either carried out by displacement type or turbine type me= ters. In modern installations, the meter is often through a PI regulator connected to the oil flow regulating device so that the pre-set amount of oil is maintained within + 0.25%. When handling fuel oil special safety precautions are not required as the flash point of heavy fuel oil is as high as 110°C. Open tanks should of course not be heated excessively, but the rest of an oi! installation is closed and offers no risk when it is kept clean and with- out breakage. A serious risk exists, however whenever ail is introduced into the kiln with- out being ignited or if bumed with a deficit of air. Explosions both in the kiln and in the precipitator can occur. An interlocking system stopping the oil flow by means of a mag- netic (solenoid) valve when disturbances occur is therefore a necessity for safe oil firing, Asocem Page § August 2006 126 2 iSmiorHw INSTITUTE 3.2.3. Fuel Oil Atomisation The properly prepared and heated fuel oil must be atomised in droplets of a suitable size and mixed with the combustion air. Practice has shown that oil droplets should be of an av- erage size of 80 — 100 jum as finer droplets are difficult to mix with the air and large drop- lets burn too slowly. Proper atomisation is vital for the combustion process of the oil. Droplets beyond a certain size will not combust completely during the time-span allocated within the flame and CO is created by the flame even at elevated oxygen levels in the kiln Large droplets will furthermore have a tendency to fall out of the flame and drop burning ‘onto the charge in the kiln. When this happens, reducing conditions are created in the kiln which will increase the re-circulation of sulphur and adversely affect the clinker quality as ‘well as significantly reduce the lifetime of lining materials. Atomisation can be achieved using compressed air, steam or with the oil pressure alone, also known as mechanical atomisation. When high capacities are desired, as for the kiln ‘main bumer, the most widely used and most economic principle, is pressure atomisation, ‘The atomisation is effected by the oil's viscosity and pressure, Increasing viscosity as well as reduced atomising pressure will reduce the atomisation and produce undesired larger droplets. 3.2.3.1 Viscosity The lower the temperature the higher the viscosity and the greater the difficulty to atomise the oil. To obtain a desired atomisation the viscosity must therefore be kept constant by maintaining a pre-set oil temperature, This is normally done automatically in the oil pre- heating installation and monitored by the bumer station which gives an alarm should pre- set limits be exceeded. Increasing the pump pressure to compensate for a lower temperature is impossible for the majority of oil fired installations. When the oil preheating fails, the first noticeable effect is an increase in the CO levels in the kiln, This is caused by the incomplete combustion of the now larger oil droplets. Asocem Page 9 August 2006 127 Giismiotn INSTITUTE 3.2.3.2 Oil Pressure Atomisation is affected by the oil pressure and a high oil pressure is required to form small oil drops. Since the flow rate of the oil is dependent upon the oil pressure and the'size of tke discharge orifice, the discharge orifice must be selected according to the desired flow rate. It is important that the selected orifice is not excessively large, so that a suitable oil pres- sure is obtained at the desired flow rate. 3.2.3.3 Flow Regulation te Regulating the flow rate when using pressure atomisation can be done by two principles: (1) having a fixed orifice and changing the oil pressure @) using a discharge orifice of variable size and keeping a constant oil pres- sure Fixed Orifice When using the fixed orifice, the flow is controlled within a range given by the orifice size by regulating the oil pressure between approximately 25 to 50 bar. For the purpose of flame shaping, the oil flow in the burner head is often divided into an axial and tangential component which can be controlled independently. The tangential flow introduces a rotating movement in the oil which will then leave the orifice at an angle. By adjusting the ratio between the two flows the oil spray angle can to some extent be ad- justed. A widely used burner of the fixed orifice type is the Pillard burner seen in Figure 3.3, The oil flow is divided into a tangential and an axial flow to permit flame regulation. Increasing, the ratio of tangential oil pressure to axial oil pressure will result in a larger oil spray angle which in conjunction with appropriate regulation of the primary air will produce a wider flame, To increase the oil flow rate while maintaining the oil spray angle, both the tangen- tial and axial oil pressures are increased. ‘Asocem Page 10 ‘August 2006 128 ism DTH INSTITUTE Pillard primary air nozzle tongeritial oil flow ‘axial oil flow tangential stots swirl chamber orifice plate orane Figure 3.3 Pillard Burner Asocem Page U1 August 2006 129 Gis DTH INSTITUTE Variable Orifice ‘An example of the variable orifice design is the FLS TFSM bumer which uses the adjust- able needle valve principle for flow rate control. The nozzle, as seen in Figure 3.4, consists, of a circular orifice through which a concentric conical needle passes and the nozzle is thus ring shaped. Displacing the needle changes the arca of the nozzle which will then reduce or increase the oil flow, while the oil pressure remains constant, The spray angle of the oil is adjusted independently of the flow rate as illustrated in Figure 3.5 by giving the oil more or less rotation. This is accomplished by adjustment of the openings in the spreader part which is performed at the end of the burner. 2 Bitte me Aang pus gy ech emulating mguatiny past Asocem Page 12 ‘August 2006 130 Figure 3.4 TFSM Burner. [etsmuorn INSTITUTE Figure 3.5 Spreader Regulation. Asocem Page 13 ‘August 2006 ism DTH INSTITUTE 3.2.3.4 Regulating the Oil Spray Angle Regulation of the oil spray angle is a tool for shaping the flame. It is mostly used when the bumer type leaves little room for flame shiape control by means of the injected primary air, e.g. a single channel oil burner seen in Figure 3.6. The only way of widening or narrowing the flame on a single channel bummer is by regulating the oil spray angle. Qil Burner * Figure 46 Single Chanel Oil Barner For a modem burner type seen in Figure 3.7 the amount and distribution of axial and radial air is more important for the control of the flame shape and the oil spray angle is normally kept at a moderate angle Asocem Page 14 ‘August 2006 . 132 Gis IDTH INSTITUTE Qadjustment of flow area for radial air @Adjustment of flow area for axial air @ Damper © Castable = @ Coal a @© Rodial air @axial air @oit @swirt Figure 3.7a Multi Channel Oil and Coal Burner (SWIRLAX). ‘Asocem Page IS August 2006 133 (gésmiotw INSTITUTE REFRACTORY IGNITION GAS BURNER SET CENTRAL “FUEL” DUCT Figure 3.7 Tio Channel Burner (DUOFLEN) In the initial stages of heating of a cold kiln it can be an advantage to start with a wide and relatively soft flame to obtain a stable oil ignition. When the radiated heat from the lining is sufficient to get a stable flame, the oil spray angle can be reduced to narrow the flame in the kiln and reduce the thermal load on the lining, 3.2.4 Fuel Oil Burners As burner technology has advanced rapidly, several types of bumers for all fuel types in- cluding oil are available from various suppliers. For heat economy reasons new burners have been implemented which often are designed to minimise the use of primary air and subsequently require high primary air velocities and high primary air supply pressure. To ensure a good flame formation with oil the necessary flame momentum range between 1.200 to 1.500 % ms"! and the optimum flame momentum is often slightly higher with oil than for coal firing, Asocem Page 16 ‘August 2006 134 (gsm a) INSTITUTE 3.3 COAL Coal is a solid fossil fuel and constitutes an important natural resource. It is related to peat, which can be considered a precursor and as coal formed from plant-derived organic re- ‘mains. Other fossil fuels such as petroleum and oil shales are generally agreed to originate from animal organic remains. Coal is not another form of carbon, as graphite or diamond, but is a complex mixture of or- ganic chemical substances containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, together with smaller amounts of nitrogen, sulphur and some non-organic minerals. The organic components of coal basically constitute its combustible part. Thus, coal is a fossil, or an organic sedimen- tary rock, formed mainly by the action of temperature and pressure on plant debris and is associated with, various amounts of moisture and minerals. For such a rock to be called coal, however, it is conventionally required that the organic components constitute more than 50 % by weight on a dry basis. The most widely used fuel type is coal, This is mainly due to coal being cheaper than oil and casily available from domestic sources. In this section coal will be dealt with under the following headings: = Coal characteristics = Coal classification = Coal preparation = Utilising special coal types - Avoiding reducing condition in the Kiln ~ Firing installations for coal Asocem Page 17 ‘August 2006 135 Gismiotn INSTITUTE 3.1 Coal Characteristics Among the principle types of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) coal represents the wid- est range of variations regarding quality. Some typical range of properties for the main groupings of coal are shown on Figure 3.8. Representative examples on chemical composition, calorific values, etc. are also given. It appears that as the coals become older it loses more and more of the gas forming elements, as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen and is consequently being enriched in carbon. Compared to oil and gas, the content of hydrogen in most coals is fairly low, averaging 2 — 5 % H re- sulting in a low dew point of the waste gases, and a relatively small difference between {gross and net calorific values of 200 ~ 300 kcal/kg, Properties of Typical Coals Lgnite Bitur. Goal Anthracite anges ‘Tota motsture % os 5108 Volates % fos0 100 : hygr water toa S ; ash pS Examples (Commercial grade) Ghoment ”"Gompontion EB 70 7a oH 3 3 ast 5 i anno 8 3 2 Catone value gross 512066257100 ost) mot aad e300 Lignite Bitum. Coal Antheacite ms 92 a wming 33 ra ts Gambuston gee hmng 88 Pa " ae : Vol% — €O,+S$0, 17.8 176 48.9 vere m2 eee Gowpomt "Sp st Figure 38 Properties of Typical Coals. The calorific value of 2 coal sample depends quite naturally on the content of inert sub- stances such as moisture and ash, but the content of volatile material will also affect the calorific value yet in a more complex way. Since the calorific values of hydrocarbons are Asovem Page 18 ‘August 2006 136 Giismivtn INSTITUTE considerably higher than that of carbon, the calorific value will increase with the volatiles. This is so for ordinary bituminous coals with moderate volatiles, see Figure 3.9. Por young and gas rich lignites, the opposite is found to be the case, due to an increasing proportion of the volatiles being compounds nitrogen and oxygen, inactive in the combustion. FUELS AND FIRING SYSTENS EN ORIFIC VALUE/E VOLATILES e500 8000 ‘7500 7000 6500 NET CALORIFIC VALUE OF MOISTURE ~ IND ASHPEREE COAL ( KEAL/KG o 0 D2 M © 0% Volatiles, 100 300 PCS = IPC, +585"% Ale: + 100 eae eGee 300-%A 300-%C Figure 3.9. Fuels and Firing systems: Calorific Value /% Volatiles. Asocem Page 19 ‘Angust 2006 137 DTH INSTITUTE Bigure 3.10 Seyler's Coal Chart Sulphur contents of 1% are indicated for the three types of coal selected in Figure 3.8. The sulphur content of coals displays substantial variations depending on their origin, Gener- ally, European coal is moderate in sulphur (0,5 to 1,5%S), whereas coals from certain loca- tions in the USA occasionally are as high as 4 ~ 5% S. Some British coals hold chlorides in amounts that make them unsuitable for preheater kilns (1% chloride), unless a kiln by-pass is installed, Asocem Page 20 August 2006 138 Giismiotn INSTITUTE A very illustrating graph to aid understanding the nature of coals is the so-called Seyler’s Chart reproduced in Figures 3.10 & 3.11. From this chart we can sec that although the properties may vary widely, the variations are bound to follow certain patterns. Seyler’s chart is used to classify a coal as anthracite, bituminous or lignitous as well as to predict additional information such as the calorific value. An example in the use of the chart is given in Figure 3.10. Hete the C and H in the coal analysis are converted to dry mineral free basis by division with the factor (100 ~ Ash ~ moisture) and termed C* and HY. Entering the chart with C* on the abscissa and H* as the ordinate, the intersection point describes the coal type. Using the analysis given in the example of C* = 83,3 and H* = 5,3, the intersection point is seen to fall in the group of meta-lignitous coal. Asocem Page 21 ‘August 2006 139 Giismiomm INSTITUTE Coal Analysis Gas 29.3% Moisture 2,55% Ash 18,5% c 65,7% H 4.16% s 0.7% Hs 6534 keallkg, Hy 6130 kealhkg, 100-C 100- Ash-H,O SEYLER’s CHART (Example of utilisation) Dry Mineral Free cH Hw vo Hs" CONVERSION FACTOR TO "DRY-MINERAL-FREE” : “(Same formula for H, VM and H,) 833 = 53 STA 8055 igure 3.11 Sesler’s Chars Asooem August 2006 140 [etsmuor INSTITUTE 3.3.2. Coal Classification ‘The classification of coal is dealt with under the following poin = The concept of rank = Chemical composition and properties of coal = Moisture = volatile matter - Ash in coal - Calorifie value - Analyses of coal ash 3.3.2.1 The Concept of Rank Rank is an important concept in all coal classification systems. The rank is an expression of the fixed-carbon content of the coal, that is, the carbon which stays after the coal is treated to a specific temperature, e.g. 925°C or 950°C, depending on which standards are consid- ered. In general, this ranking consists of peat, lignite, bituminous coal and anthracite, with corresponding fixed carbon contents increasing from about 29% to about 95%, This rank or scale of coalification basically implies: = progressive increase of the fixed carbon content; = progressive decrease of the volatile matter content; = _ progressive decrease of the hydrogen and oxygen content; = _ progressive increase of the calorific value At the end of the scale of coalification, however, the calorific value tends to decrease slightly because of the effect of the decrease in volatile matter. From a practical point of Asocem Page 23 August 2006 141 Giism DTH INSTITUTE view, the increase of calorific value is the most important because itenhances the value of coal as a fuel. All classification schemes use a measure of rank as one of the parameters to classify coal, However, rank is not an objective property and therefore opinions may differ as to which parameter would provide the best "measure" of rank. Coals do not simply follow a single, band of development from the lowest to the highest rank. Coal is formed froma diverse set of flora and different phenomena characterised by the various peat swamps and marshes from which coal originated, This led to a great vari- ety of coal types being formed throughout the geological ages; different coal types can be found within one coal deposit and even within a single coal seam. Coals in different arcas also reached their present rank under widely differing sets of conditions. Thus, one may expect many distinct bands of coal development. 3.3.2.2 Chemical Composition and Properties of Coal Coals to be used in the cement industry, are subjected to a range of analyses in order to as- sess their properties with respect mainly to - their use as a fuel = their qualities in relation to grinding, In the classification of coals, distinction is made between two types of chemical analysis + a proximate analysis which gives the relative amounts of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon in coal; and = an ultimate analysis which determines the total amounts of each of the prin- cipal elements present in coal, namely carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur, In addition to these analyses, it is of special importance to the cement industry also to de- termine the heat value of the coal, its content of alkalis and chlorine as well as results of certain other tests such as grindability, abrasion, swelling and safety index, Moreover, a Asovem Page 24 ‘August 2006 142 FUSmo TO INSTITUTE sieve analysis may be performed on the raw coal. Finally, different tests on the coal ash can be performed such as a determination of its chemical constituents and its fusibility The different types of analyses performed on coal will briefly be described in the following Most chemical analyses on coal are carried out on air-dried samples and the percentages of the various constituents are reported on this basis . However, the analytical results can be modified by appropriate corrections to allow expressions (Factors) to a number of different bases, In an analysis scheme, the following bases of reported results are used: «as analysed (air dried) (ad) - data is expressed as percentages of the coal af- ter air drying until the sample has reached equilibrium with the laboratory atmosphere © as received (ar) - here all results are expressed as percentages of coal re- ceived by the laboratory + dry basis (db) - data are expressed as percentages of the coal after the mois- ture has been removed, which largely dependent on atmospheric conditions; © dry, ash free basis (daf) - the coal is assumed to be free of both moisture and ash © dry, mineral matter free basis (dmmf) - the coal is assumed to be free of both moisture and mineral matter and the data are therefore a measure of only the organic component of coal. Analyses calculated to the dmmf basis give a better measure of the organic portion of coal than the daf basis, For example, when coal is heated to determine volatile matter, volatile species will be evolved from both the organic constituents and from the decomposition of the associated inorganic material, This will include water from the hydration of the clay minerals, carbon dioxide from the carbonates, sulphides from pyrite and marcasite, and hy- drogen chloride from the chlorides. When volatile matter is calculated to a daf basis, no al- lowance is made for this contribution from the decomposition of the minerals and thus volatile matter on a daf basis will be higher than on a dmmf basis. The difference will be most marked in coals high in pyritic sulphur, carbonates and chlorides. An ash determina- tion is however, easier to perform than the analyses required for dmmf calculations. 3.3.2.3 Moisture Asocem Page 25 ‘August 2006 143 Gismiorn INSTITUTE Knowledge of the moisture content pf the coal has a bearing on the economic value of a coal, since moisture is incombustible. A high moisture content is a disadvantage since it reduces the calorific value; heat is required to vaporise the moisture and therefore this amount of heat does little useful work, Excessive moisture in the coal meal can hinder ignition and a high moisture content reduces the flame temperature, slowing the rate of combustion, increasing the burnout time and re- sulting in a longer flame envelope and an increased risk of flame instability. ‘The moisture content can also influence the handling of the coal elsewhere in the process. For example, a high moisture content can cause caking problems in the fine coal bins and reduce the stability of the coal dosage equipment by affecting the flowability of the coal meal. Spontaneous combustion problems can also be promoted by the moisture content, Generally, coals with a low moisture content are preferred; however, a certain amount of moisture is required to avoid the risk of explosion Free Moisture Raw coal always contains a certain amount of moisture. The moisture content of a coal sample is always expressed as a percentage of the initial wet weight. Free moisture is the moisture which is removed by air drying at or slightly above room temperature. The amount of free moisture is determined by drying coal of a standard amount and fineness for 24 hours at 30°C. Moisture in air dried sample ‘The moisture remaining in an air dried sample is the hygroscopic moisture, which is more tightly bound to the coal and is not removed until the sample has been heated for some time ata temperature above 100°C. Total moisture The total moisture is the sum of the free moisture and the hygroscopic moisture. These two quantities cannot immediately be added together as their basis of calculation are different. ‘Asocem Page 26 August 2006 144 (FtjSmmoore INSTITUTE ‘Typical moisture percentages are given below: Type of coal | Free moisture in | Hygroscopic moisture in % of initial weight % of net weight Anthracite coals 5-10 1-2 Bituminous coals 5-10 2-6 Lignite 10-20 10-25 3.3.2.4 Volatile Matter The yield of volatile matter is one of the most commonly employed parameters in the clas- sification of coal. The volatile matter yield is an important property in combustion reac- tions, providing a rough indication of the reactivity or combustibility of a coal Important steps in combustion are the devolatilization, ignition and burning of the volatiles. The mass of volatiles evolved varies with coal rank (as indicated by carbon content), de- creasing with increasing rank for a given set of conditions. As the rank approaches anthra- cite, the ignition temperature rises, and ignition becomes more difficult. In order to assist flame stability, volatile matter yield (daf) should preferably be at least 22%. Volatile matter also influences the length of a flame. No general correlation exist between the volatile mat- ter of a coal and the combustion behaviour, since other properties also influence these proc- esses. The volatile matter of coal cannot be directly related to flame stability or burnout. Yields of volatiles are heavily dependent of the combustion process conditions, such as the final temperature reached, heating rate, particle size and pressure. Differences in the combustion of coals with the same volatile matter yield have been ob- served and attributed to differences in their maternal composition. Volatile matter is also one of the factors governing the reactivity and burnout efficiency of the residual coke parti- cle. Coke reactivity is one of the main factors determining combustion efficiency. There is, unfortunately, no standard test for its determination Volatile matter is determined by heating the coal sample under rigidly controlled condi- tions. Typically in a special oven in a nitrogen atmosphere at 900°C for 7 min, The percent- age loss of mass less the percentage of moisture gives the proportion of volatile matter. Asocem Page 27 ‘August 2006 145 Giism DTH INSTITUTE 3.3.2.5 Ash in Coal When a coal sample is incinerated, the pure carbon and any organic constituents will burn completely and form water, CO2, SO2 and NO> (if present). The residual amount of ash de- pends on the content of mineral matter in the sample Ash is thus the residue left after combustion and its formation is influenced mainly by the chemical composition, thermal properties and mode of oceurrence of the mineral matter in coal. Ash differs in both mass and composition from the mineral matter from which it was formed. Mineral matter (ash) is not merely an inert diluent of coal during combustion. It influent the reactivity of coal, lowering the calorific value and delaying ignition. .6 Calorifie Value Calorifie value (or specific energy) is one of the most widely employed parameters used in classification schemes for the lower rank coals and is of obvious commercial significance, both in the trade and evaluation of coal. In the operation of a cement kiln it is considered the most important quality of the coal. ‘The maximum theoretical amount of energy available from a coal for a given process is calculated from the calorific value, and consequently, the calorific value is used to deter- mine the quantity of coal required in the process The amount of combustible ballast, that is, the mineral (ash) and water (moisture) contents in coal influences the calorific value. A high ash and moisture content decreases the calo- rific value. The calorific value is, however, not directly related to the combustibility and reactivity of the coal, Distinction is made between gross calorific value and net calorific value. In industrial installations the net calorific value is of more significance than the gross calo- rific value since it allows for the loss of heat resulting in the latent heat of vaporisation of steam. However, the net calorific value can be calculated from the gross calorific value, and vice versa, Gross calorific value is determined by burning a weighed sample of coal under controlled conditions in pure oxygen, usually in a calorimeter, and correcting the results for the pres- ence of sulphur and nitrogen. Asocem Page 28 ‘August 2006 146 [etsom0 TM INSTITUTE The net calorific value is lower than the gross calorific value and these two values can fer significantly for low rank coals with high moisture content. The net calorific value important in the commercial market since it gives a more accurate estimation of the calo- tific value of coal under actual operating conditions. However, it is the gross calorific value that is usually used in the various classification schemes. The two values can be predicted from each other, if the moisture and hydrogen contents of the coal, as burned, are known, 3.3.2.7 Analyses of Coal Ash Various ash analyses may be performed both to predict the final composition of the clinker produced in the rotary kiln and calculate the required corresponding raw mix composition. Such analyses include a chemical analysis including the main oxides of interest in the ce- ment industry as well as the loss on ignition of the ash. Typically this is carried out by X- ray fluorescence analysis of the coal ash sample. In addition, the contents of alkalis, chloride and sulphur in the ash may be calculated on the basis of their concentrations in the coal sample. Finally, a determination of the fusibility of the ash may be carried out, The ash fusion tem- peratures (AFT) arc used in combustion applications to predict the slagging and fouling properties of coal. The test provides relative information on a coal which is compared with data on coals of known behaviour. The empirical method for determining AFT's in- volves the gradual heating of a cone of ash at a controlled rate and in a controlled atmos- phere. Summary The purpose of the various physical and chemical studies described in the above is to evaluate the value of the coal as a fuel and of its properties and thereby: evaluate the risk of self-ignition and explosions evaluate the coal consumption during kiln operation predict flame characteristics evaluate contribution to the re-circulation of alkalis and sulphur SSNS calculate the amount of ash absorbed in the clinker and the raw mix compo- sition Y aid in the design of coal grinding installations Asocem Page 29 ‘August 2006 147 Gismiora INSTITUTE 3.3.3 Coal Preparation The preparation of the raw coal for firing in a kiln system involves a drying and grinding process. ‘The raw coal characteristics and the fact whether the fuel is meant for the kiln or caleiner will decide the optimal parameters for the coal mea! namely; = Moisture content - Fineness 3.3.3.1 Moisture Content The moisture content of the coal meal is irportant not only for the firing process but for the trouble free and safe operation of the coal milling plant and the coal meal handling depart- ment. The risk of fire and explosions can be limited considerably if the coal meal is pro- duced with a certain content of residual moisture. esidual Moisture in Fine Coal 5 20 25% Hygroscoplc Moisture Figure 3.12 Recommended Residual Moisture of Coul Dust. Asocem Page 30 August 2006 148 Egsm TH INSTITUTE The recommended residual moisture content in coal meal depends on the content of hygro- scopic moisture in the raw coal as indicated in figure 3.12, The higher the hygroscopic moisture of the raw coal, the higher the residual moisture in the finished coal meal must be. 3.3.3.2 Fineness To achieve a complete combustion in kiln and calciner and a satisfactory flame formation in the kiln, the proper fineness of the coal meal is very important. The optimal fineness of the combustible is not necessarily identical for the kiln and the calciner, Due to the different combustion conditions, most noticeable the lower combustion temperature in the calciner, the combustible will often have to be ground finer for firing in the calciner. The optimal fineness is mainly a function of the volatile content of the coal. As high vola- tile coals will develop a very porous structure with a higher specific surface as the gas is expelled, the burn out time is reduced compared to a low volatile coal. Thus the optimal fineness decteases with increasing volatile content as indicated in Figure 3.13 . % Residue 30 — 90p sieve i 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 % Volatile Asocem Page 31 * August 2006 149 Giismors INSTITUTE A substantial part of the production cost of clinker is the purchase of combustibles. The utilisation of coal types which can be obtained at a competitive price on a calorific basis. will obviously reduce the production costs but can put special demands on the design and operation of a kiln system In the following the experiences obtained with the use of high ash low calorific coal and anthracite and petroleum coke in cement kilns are discussed. 3.3.4.1 The Use of Low Grade Coal in Cement Kiln Systems Generally, the cement industry normally receives low-grade coal types having specific heat values below 5.000 kcal/kg, No international definition of low-grade coal exists, but with reference to the use in the ce- ment industry we will here consider a coal low-grade if the content of mineral matter in a dried coal sample exceeds 30% and/or if the net calorific value is below 5.000 keal/kg (20,9 Mifkg).. The cement industry is well suited to utilise low-grade coal as the mineral matter of the coal can substitute the clay component in the raw meal and partly offset the extra cost of trans- portation and grinding the mineral matter. Impact on clinker quality The low lime content of the introduced coal ash will require that the LSF of the raw meal is increased when switching to firing with low-grade coal. Figure 3.14 shows the relation between the ash content in the coal and the LSF of the raw meal, in order to keep a constant LSF of 90% in the clinker. It is seen that when firing low- grade coal, the raw meal LSF must be increased up to between 100 and 115% in order to keep a good clinker quality with LSF of 90%, Itis also necessary to ensure that: ~ he coal ash is introduced continuously into the system at the anticipated rate = the coal ash is distributed evenly in all the clinker, which means that the ash should preferably be mixed with the raw meal before clinker nodulisation starts Asocem Page 32 ‘August 2006 150 FL DTH INSTITUTE USF Calcined rew meal 20 0 40 50% Ash in coal meal Figure 3.14 Relation berween the Ash in Coal meal and the Raw Meat. The first condition implies that the raw coal must be homogenised before it is fed to the coal mill, and that rapid changes between coal types or changing to oil firing is impossible unless the kiln feed LSF instantaneously can be adjusted by the feeding of a separate com- ponent such as fly ash To fulfil the second condition it is advantageous to introduce the low-grade coal in the pre- calciner. In kiln systems with precalciner, 55 to 65% of the heat input will be directed to the precalciner where the ash component formed by the combustion will be thoroughly mixed with the raw meal, In the rotary kiln, some of the ash introduced by the coal meal can settle on the already formed clinker in the burning zone. In this case, the clinker will exhibit a centre with rela- tive high free lime and an ash layer on the surface. To avoid this phenomenon, a modern burner which can blow the coal ash high up into the kiln must be utilised. Asocem Page 33 ‘August 2006 151 fiism DTH INSTITUTE The ash content will as previously discussed influence the flame temperature and result ina less intensive flame which can make it difficult to reduce the free lime in the clinker even in a easy burning raw meal. By grinding the coal more finely, using a moder burner with a high flame momentum and at times using preheated primary air, flame intensity has been increased and satisfactory results have been obtained. Specific energy consumption The use of low-grade coal will inevitably increase the calorifie consumption of the kiln sys- tem as compared to firing high-grade coal or fuel oil. This is due to the fact that as the (cold) ash component replaces some of the (preheated) raw meal, the raw meal/kiln gas ratio decreases and subsequently the temperature and heat content of the smoke gas leaving the preheater increase The approximate relation between the ash content of coal meal and heat consumption of a typical 4-stage precalciner kiln is depicted in Figure 3.15 3 5 = a0 = 2 790 2 2 10 5 & 10 20 30 Ash in coal meal Figure 3.15 Approximate relation berween Ash content in Coal meal and specific heat consumption of a Kiln system with 4-stage preheater Asocem Page 34 ‘August 2006 ae [PUsmiote INSTITUTE For the same kiln system the relation between the ash content and the exhaust gas tempera- ture and volume is shown in Figure 3.16. Gxyqu auinjoa seB ayous aytoadg S a p 0 10 2 30 40 50% Ash in coal meal re 3.16 Approximate relationship between Ash content in coal meal, and temperature and specific vol- sume of exhaust gas from a Kiln system with 4-siage preheater It can be inferred from the graph, that the gas temperature is increased by approximately 30 °C and the volume by approximately 10% when the ash content is increased from 15 to 40%. Consequently, the smoke gas fan must be amply dimensioned for the utilisation of low-grade coal. Asocem Page 35 ‘August 2006 153 INSTITUTE 3.3.4.2 The Use of Anthracite and Petroleum Coke in Cement Kiln Systems Petroleum coke or pet coke is the undesirable waste of the petroleum refinery, Compared with bituminous coal the fixed carbons and calorific values are considerably higher in the petroleum coke, while the ash and volatile matter content is much lower. An important fea- ture is the high sulphur content which is directly related to the characteristics of the crude oil being refined and to the cooking process employed (see Figure 3.17). —_—_—— Petroleum Coke As Received Air Dry Basis Proximate Analysis: % Total Moisture 8,03 0,00 % Inherent Moisture 0,00 0,00 Ash 027 0.29 % Volatile 10,25 Us % Fixed Carbon 8145 88,56 keal/kg 1787 sami % Sulphur 3,17 5,62 Hard-grove Gl 60,00 0,00 Ubtimate Analysis: % Moisture 8.03 0,00 % Carbon 80,00 86,99 % Hydrogen 3,52 3,83 % Nitrogen 44 137 % Chlorine 0,000 0,000 % Sulphur 5.17 5,62 %Ash 027 0,29 % Oxygen 137 1,70 Figure 3.17 Anabses of Paroleum Coke Asocem Page 36 ‘August 2006 184 [ats TH INSTITUTE For the purpose of firing in cement kilns, important properties such as burn-out characteris- tics of anthracite and petroleum coke are comparable. Petroleum coke generally has burn- ut properties similar to those of a coal type with a similar content of volatile matter and considerations regarding the combustion process of these low volatile fuels will generally be valid for both. Notwithstanding these similarities, the elevated sulphur content of petroleum coke will have a significant impact on the re-circulation of volatites e.g. sulphur, chlorides and alkalis (not to be confused with volatile matter of coal) within the kiln system. Common problems encountered are formation of rings in the kiln, increased build-ups occurring in the riser duct and frequent blockages of preheater cyclones, but the impact on kiln operation will vary from plant to plant depending on raw meal characteristics, kiln operation and the par- ticular kiln type. For these reasons, the successful firing of petroleum coke requires that the total input of volatile components is routinely monitored and information is gathered to become familiar with the behaviour of the volatiles in the particular kiln Combustion considerations The burn-out time of the coke particles will generally be high due to the dense coke struc- ture resulting from the low volatile content. Thus the required fineness will increase and in Figure 3.18 the recommended fineness is related to the volatile content. It is noted that the fineness for the caleiner fuel is higher than for the rotary kiln, Asocem Page 37 ‘August 2006 155 Gism DTH INSTITUTE OR + 451 10 42 «14 «(16 [% Volatile (dafy Figure 3.18 Recommended fineness of Fuel as function of the Volatile content (daf) for Rotary Kiln and Cale ciner firing (normal temperature operation) respectively When considering the factors influencing the burn-out time of a coal patticle, it becomes necessary to distinguish between the combustion process as it occurs in the kiln as opposed to the calciner, Firing in the calciner In the calciner the heat released by the combustion process is immediately absorbed by the raw meal in the strongly endothermic calcination reaction. Heat + CaCO; — CaO + CO; As long as a reasonable amount of carbonate is present, the temperature can only temporar- ily exceed the equilibrium temperature which typically is in the range of 850 ~ 900 °C. At this low temperature, the combustion rate of a low volatile coal or petroleum coal is low and a long retention time is required to complete the combustion of the residual coke. Asocem Page 38 ‘August 2006 156 ism TH INSTITUTE This is the reason why firing of a calciner with anthracite or pet coke is considerably more problematic than firing the rotary kiln. ‘The required fineness of the fuel for the calciner becomes as high as < I per cent +90 jum and <6 per cent +45 um, which poses great demands to the grinding installation. Decreasing the burn-out time by operating the precalciner with an increased oxygen level will normally have a limited effect. Further-more, as it will raise the volumetric flow through the preheater, the pressure drop over the preheater will increase and result in higher exit gas temperatures and higher power consumption of kiln ID fans. The most efficient way to-decrease the burn-out time of pet'coke is by raising the combus- tion temperature. This is performed by the implementation of a special design of the precal- ciner which permits the temperature to be increased beyond the equilibrium temperature of the calcining process. This is achieved by splitting the raw meal feed into various flows and adding them step-wise to the calciner. A high temperature zone is created which ensures the complete combustion of the fuel after which the rest of the feed is added and the tempera- ture brought down to normal levels. An example of this principle is seen in Figure 3.19. Asocem Page 39 ‘August 2006 157 mipTH INSTITUTE Figure 3.19 ILC System for Combustion of Anthracite or Pet-Coke Asocem Page 40 August 2006 158 Giism DTH INSTITUTE Firing in the rotary kiln Provided the kiln is equipped with a modern multi-channel burner installation with proper provisions for adjusting the flame, experience shows that anthracite and pet coke can be bumed without problems. In the rotary kiln, the high combustion temperature will help ensure a satisfactory burn-out time of the fuel. As the target is to maintain the same mixing controlled flame length with anthracite as with bituminous coal, this can be done by grinding the anthracite to a greater fineness. An old rule of thumb says that the order of magnitude of the +90 jum sieve residue should be 0,50 —0,75 times per cent volatile (dm) The flow pattern in the flame is very important when firing fuels of high ignition tempera- ture, To reduce the ignition time, a high secondary air temperature must be ensured and it is important that the bumer generates the required momentum while using low percentage of primary air. 3.3.5 Components Introduced with the Fuel When firing a fuel, the introduced ash component left afier the combustion will in most kiln systems leave the kiln as a part of the clinker. Normally the ash will have a low lime con- tent with a composition comparable to the clay component of the raw meal. This means that in order to ensure a certain LSF in the clinker, the raw meal must be designed with a higher LSF While most plants will have no problem to produce a raw meal with high LSF, to facilitate the production of a consistent clinker quality it is imperative that the ash component is in- troduced continuously into the process, at the exact anticipated rate.» « Rapid changes between different coal types or switching to oi! firing is impossible unless special measures have been taken to compensate, such as the provision of a special feeding system for fly ash. With increasing ash content in the coal, the impact on the clinker composition increases and it becomes increasingly important that the coal meal is homogeneous, implying that some kind of pre-homogenisation of the raw coal becomes necessary for firing coal with high ash content. The fuels will also provide a large part of the total sulphur input.to a kiln system. Sulphur has an affinity for forming sulphates with the alkalis, potassium and sodium. The remaining sulphur will react with the calcium in the raw meal forming calcium sulphate. There are limits to the amount of sulphur that the kilri System can absorb without problems being experienced. The volatile nature of sulphur will always induce a re-circulation as part Asocem Page 41 August 2006 aon Giism DTH INSTITUTE of the sulphur is evaporated in the kiln burning zone. The evaporated sulphur gas (SO;) will react with the calcined raw meal in the preheater cyclones to reform calcium sulphates and again be transported to the burning zone where it will once again be evaporated. The formed cycle can lead fo large amounts of sulphur being present in the kiln and create un- desired coatings in the preheater. If large amounts of sulphur is present in the fuel, it can become necessary to extract some of the kiln gas in the kiln riser duct with a kiln gas by- pass to reduce the sulphur level in the k 3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION In this module we have related the properties of fuel oil to the necessary preparation of the oil for the use in the cement kiln. The importance of proper fuel preparation together with the factors influencing this has been described in relation to kiln operation and clinker qual- ity. For obtaining good atomisation of fuel oil, it has been demonstrated that the oil pres- sure and viscosity are important parameters. Coal is the most important fuel for the cement industry and the characteristics and proper- ties of coal has been described in relation to the classification of the coal, the behaviour of coal in the combustion process and to the preparation of the coal. Properties of raw coal as the volatile content and hygroscopic moisture, is seen to greatly influence the optimal preparation of the coal that in turn also depends on the combustion process for which the coal is used. Important characteristics of the fine coal for the use in the cement kiln include calorific value, ash composition, moisture, volatile content and fineness. The influence of these pa- rameters on the operation of the kiln system as a whole is discussed with the considerations that must be taken Finally the use of high ash coal and anthracite in the kiln system is discussed, these being the two principal special coals that are widely employed for economic reasons. Asocem Page 42 ‘August 2006 160

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