INTRODUCTION

Fuelisasubstancewhich,whenburnt,i.e.oncomingincontactandreactingwith
oxygenorair,producesheat.Thus,thesubstancesclassifiedasfuelmustnecessarily
containoneorseveralofthecombustibleelements:carbon,hydrogen,sulphur,etc.In
theprocessofcombustion,thechemicalenergyoffuelisconvertedintoheatenergy.
Toutilizetheenergyoffuelinmostusableform,itisrequiredtotransformthefuelfrom
itsonestatetoanother,i.e.fromsolidtoliquidorgaseousstate,liquidtogaseousstate,
orfromitschemicalenergytosomeotherformofenergyviasingleormanystages.In
thisway,theenergyoffuelscanbeutilizedmoreeffectivelyandefficientlyforvarious
purposes.
Objectives
Afterstudyingthisunit,youshouldbeableto

describetheclassificationoffuels,

explainthevarioustypesoffuelsandtheircharacteristics,and

knowtheirapplicationsinvariousfields.
3.2PRINCIPLESOFCLASSIFICATIONOFFUELS
Fuelsmaybroadlybeclassifiedintwoways,i.e.
(a)accordingtothephysicalstateinwhichtheyexistinnaturesolid,liquid
andgaseous,and
(b)accordingtothemodeoftheirprocurementnaturalandmanufactured.

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Noneoftheseclassifications,however,givesanideaofthequalitativeorintensivevalue
ofthefuels,i.e.theirpowerofdevelopingthethermalintensityorcalorimetric
temperatureunderthenormalconditionofuse,i.e.combustionoffuelsinmixturewith
atmosphericairinstoichiometricproportion.
Weshallnowproceedwiththefurtherdescriptionofthefuels.Abriefdescriptionof
naturalandmanufacturedfuelsisgiveninTable3.1.
Table3.1:NaturalandManufacturedFuels
NaturalFuels
ManufacturedFuels
SolidFuels
Wood
Coal
Oilshale
Tanbark,Bagasse,Straw
Charcoal
Coke
Briquettes
LiquidFuels
Petroleum
Oilsfromdistillationofpetroleum
Coaltar
Shaleoil
Alcohols,etc.
GaseousFuels
Naturalgas
Coalgas
Producergas
Watergas
Hydrogen
Acetylene
Blastfurnacegas
Oilgas
3.3SOLIDFUELSANDTHEIRCHARACTERISTICS
Solidfuelsaremainlyclassifiedintotwocategories,i.e.naturalfuels,suchaswood,
coal,etc.andmanufacturedfuels,suchascharcoal,coke,briquettes,etc.(Table3.1).
Thevariousadvantagesanddisadvantagesofsolidfuelsaregivenbelow:
Advantages
(a)Theyareeasytotransport.
(b)Theyareconvenienttostorewithoutanyriskofspontaneousexplosion.
(c)Theircostofproductionislow.
(d)Theypossesmoderateignitiontemperature.
Disadvantages
(a)Theirashcontentishigh.
(b)Theirlargeproportionofheatiswasted.
(c)Theyburnwithclinkerformation.
(d)Theircombustionoperationcannotbecontrolledeasily.
(e)Theircostofhandlingishigh.
3.3.1WoodsandtheirCharacteristics
Themostcommonlyusedandeasilyobtainablesolidfueliswood.Itistheoldesttypeof
fuelwhichmanhadusedforcenturiesafterthediscoveryofthefireitself.InIndia,

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TypesofFuelsand
theirCharacteristics
woodisusedinalmosteveryvillage,aswellasinsmalltownsandcities.Insomeparts
ofcountrysuchasKashmirandMysore,woodisusedforindustrialpurposesaswell.
ConstituentsofWood
Woodisvegetabletissueoftreesandbushes.Itconsistsofmainlycellulartissue
andligninandlesserpartsoffatandtar,aswellassugar.
ThemainconstituentsofseveralkindsofwoodaregiveninTable3.2.
Table3.2:ConstituentsofWood(%)
TypeofWoodWaterSugarFattarCellularTissueLignin
Beachwood
12.57
2.41
0.41
45.57
39.14
Birchwood
12.48
2.65
1.14
55.62
28.21
Fir(Boot)
13.87
1.26
0.97
55.90
26.91
Pinewood
12.87
4.05
1.63
53.27
28.18
TheconstituentsofcellulartissueandligninofwoodaregiveninTable3.3.
Table3.3:ConstituentsofCellularTissueandLigninofWood(%)
Constituents
CellularTissue
Lignin
Carbon
44.4
54.58
Hydrogen
6.2
5.86.3
Oxygen
49.4
35.39
Thecellulartissuehasadefinitechemicalcompositionandthushasstableconstituents,
whilethoseofligninvarywithinnarrowlimits.Hence,theconstituentelementsof
differentkindsofwoodareslightlyvariable.Table3.4givestheconstituentselementsof
woodandtheaveragevaluesofconstituentsofwoodaregiveninTable3.5.
Table3.4:ConstituentsofdifferentkindsofWood(%)
Element
PineWoodBirchWoodOakWood
C
50.05
48.45
49.8
H
6.04
5.95
5.81
O+N
43.21
45.26
44.00
Ash
0.70
0.34
0.4
Table3.5:AverageValuesofConstituentsofWood
Constituents
CellularTissue
C
50.00
H
6.00
O
43.10
N
0.30
Ash
0.60
CalorificValue
EngineerA.Marjhevskeedeterminedthecalorificvaluesofdifferentkindsof
woodwiththehelpofthesamplestakenoutfromthesametreeatdifferent
distancesfromcentre.ThecalorificvaluesaregiveninTable3.6.

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Table3.6:CalorificValuesofWood
KindsofWoodLowestCalorificValue
(cal/kg)
HighestCalorificValue
(cal/kg)
Oak
4729
4750
Birch
4695
4831
Elm
4674
4833
Alder
4745
4839
Pine
4818
5310
Fir
4887
4900
Lrch
4775
4840
Ash
Theashcontentofwoodisnegligible.Theashconsistsofmineralwaterthatis
foundinthewooditself,withanadmixtureofsomeimpuritieswhichaccure
duringtransportation,etc.Themineralmatteisdistributedinthetreerather
irregularly.Theashconsistsofmainlypotassiumcarbonatewithvaryingdegrees
ofcalcium,magnesiumandsodiumcarbonate,aswellasminutequantitiesofiron
oxides,aluminaandsilica.Pureashiswhiteincolour.
Moisture
Afreshlyfelledtreeanythingfrom40%to60%ofhygroscopicmoisture
dependinguponthespeciesofthetreeaswellastheseasonsoftheyear.On
exposuretoatmosphericair,themoisturedriesupandreducesto1520%inabout
18months.Ontheexposureforalongerperiod,noappreciablechangehadbeen
observed.Whenwoodisseasonedinwater,itabsorbsnearly150%ofwaterby
weight.
CharacteristicsofFlame
Thenatureoftheflamedependsonthetarcontentofwood.Pineandbirch
containmoretarandhenceburnwithathickandbrightflame,whileaspenand
alderburnwithadim,transparentflame.Thelengthoftheflamealsodependson
thetarcontent.
CombustionCharacteristics
Thelighterthewood,themoreintenselyitburnswithalongflame.Thisis
becauseairpenetrateseasilythroughoutthewholepieceduringcombustion.Ifthe
woodisheavy,i.e.hard,thepenetrationofairisrendereddifficultanda
concentratedflameresultswiththedevelopmentofmoreheatatthepointof
burning.
IgnitionTemperature
Woodignitesveryeasily.Thatiswhyitisusedforlightingotherfuels.The
averageignitiontemperatureofdifferentkindsofwoodisgiveninTable3.7.
TypeofWood
IgnitionTemperature
(oC)
Pine
295
Oak
287
Larch
290
Fir
292
3.3.2CoalsandtheirCharacteristics
Itiscommonlyadoptedviewthatcoalisamineralsubstanceofvegetableorigin.The
largedepositsofcoalinIndiaareinBengal,BiharandMadhyaPradesh.Mostofthe

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TypesofFuelsand
theirCharacteristics
Indiancoalisoflowgradevarietyandcoalwashingtoobtainlowashmetallurgicalcoal
isunavoidable.Over30%ofcoaloutputisconsumedbyrailways,anothersimilar
proportionisusedbyindustryincludingironandsteelworks.Thisleavesbarely40%of
coalminedforuseofthepowersupplyundertakings.
AnalysisofCoal
Toascertainthecommercialvalueofcoalcertaintestsregardingitsburning
propertiesareperformedbeforeitiscommerciallymarketed.Twocommonlyused
testsare:ProximateanalysisandUltimateanalysisofcoal.Calorificvalueofcoal
isdefinedasthequantityofheatgivenoutbyburningoneunitweightofcoalina
calorimeter.
ProximateAnalysisofCoal
Thisanalysisofcoalgivesgoodindicationaboutheatingandburning
propertiesofcoal.Thetestgivesthecompositionofcoalinrespectof
moisture,volatilematter,ashandfixedcarbon.Themoisturetestis
performedbyheating1gmofcoalsampleat104oCto110oCfor1hourin
anovenandfindingthelossinweight.Thevolatilematterisdeterminedby
heating1gmofcoalsampleinacoveredcrucibleat950oCfor7minutes
anddetermininglossinweight,fromwhichthemoisturecontentasfound
frommoisturetestisdeducted.Ashcontentisfoundbycompletelyburning
thesampleofcoalinamuffledfurnaceat700oCto750oCandweighingthe
residue.Thepercentageoffixedcarbonisdeterminedbydifferencewhen
moisture,volatilematterandashhavebeenaccountedfor.Theresultsof
proximateanalysisofmostcoalsindicatethefollowingbroadrangesof
variousconstituentsbyweight:
Moisture
330%
Volatilematter
350%
Ash
230%
FixedCarbon
1692%
Theimportanceofvolatilematterincoalisduetothefactthatitlargely
governsthecombustionwhichinturngovernsthedesignofgrateand
combustionsspaceused.Highvolatilematterisdesirableingasmaking,
whilelowvolatilematterformanufacturingofmetallurgicalcoke.
TheUltimateAnalysisofCoal
Thisanalysisofcoalismoreprecisewaytofindthechemicalcomposition
ofcoalwithrespecttotheelementslikecarbon,hydrogen,oxygen,
nitrogen,sulphurandash.Sinethecontentofcarbonandhydrogenthatis
alreadycombinedwithoxygentoformcarbondioxideandwaterisofno
valueforcombustion,thechemicalanalysisofcoalaloneisnotenoughto
predictthesuitabilityofcoalforpurposeofheating.However,thechemical
compositionisveryusefulincombustioncalculationsandinfindingthe
compositionoffluegases.Formostpurposestheproximateanalysisofcoal
isquitesufficient.
Thebroadrangeinwhichtheconstituentsofcoalvarybyweightas
determinedbyultimateanalysisaregivenbelow:
Carbon
5095%
Hydrogen
2.55%
Oxygen
24%
Sulphur
0.57%
Nitrogen
0.53%
Ash
230%

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3.3.3ManufacturedSolidFuelsandtheirCharacteristics
Themanufacturedsolidfuelsinclude,charcoal,coke,briquettes,etc.Theyareobtained
fromthenaturalfuels,likewood,coal,etc.
CharcoalanditsCharacteristics
Outofthementionedvariousmanufacturedfuels,thecharcoaloccupiesthefirst
placeinIndia.Insomepartsofthecountry,forexample,Mysore,hugequantities
ofcharcoalarebeingusedtilltodayinblastfurnacesforreducingironores,etc.
andinmanyhomescharcoalisusedforcookingpurposes.Charcoalisaproduce
derivedfromdestructivedistillationofwood,beingleftintheshapeofsolid
residue.Charcoalburnsrapidlywithaclearflame,producingnosmokeand
developingheatofabout6,050cal/kg.
CokeanditsCharacteristics
Itisobtainedfromdestructivedistillationofcoal,beingleftintheshapeofsolid
residue.Cokecanbeclassifiedintotwocategories:softcokeandhardcoke.Soft
cokeisobtainedasthesolidresiduefromthedestructivedistillationofcoalinthe
temperaturerangeof600650oC.Itcontains5to10%volatilematter.Itburns
withoutsmoke.Itisextensivelyusedasdomesticfuel.Hardcokeisobtainedas
solidresiduefromthedestructivedistillationofcoalinthetemperaturerangeof
12001400oC.Itburnswithsmokeandisausefulfuelformetallurgicalprocess.
BriquettesandtheirCharacteristics
Thetermbriquettesisusedinrespectofthedust,culm,slackandothersmallsize
wasteremainsoflignite,peat,coke,etc.compressedintodifferentshapesof
regularform,withorwithoutbinder.Dustandrubbleresultinconsiderable
percentageduringmining,transportation,etc.andthebriquettingindustryis,
therefore,animportantsteptowardsthesavingoffueleconomy.
Goodbriquettesshouldbequitehardandaslittlefriableaspossible.Theymust
withstandthehazardsofweather,andmustbesuitableforstoringandgeneral
handlinginuse.Thesepropertiesareimparttobriquettesbyacorrectlyselected
binder,orsuitableprocessingsuchaspreheating,pressing,etc.Amongstthe
binders,asphalt,pitcharemostcommonlyused,givingfineresults.Thegeneral
conclusionisthat58%bindershouldbeusedtoproducehighqualitybriquettes.
BagasseanditsCharacteristics
Bagasseistheresidueofsugarcane,leftaswasteinthesugarmillafterextraction
ofsugarjuice.Inweight,itisabout20%ofvirgincane.Bynature,itisfibrous
fuelwhichcanbecomparedtowood.Itcontains3545%fibre,710%sucroseand
othercombustible,and4555%moisture,andpossessesanaveragecalorificvalue
of2200cal/kg.Onmoisturefibrebasistheaveragecompositionis:
C=45%,H2=6%,O2=46%andAsh=3%
Bagasseisthemainfuelsatisfyingtheneedsofsugarindustriesandeffortsare
beingmadefordecreasingthepercentmoistureofbagassewiththehelpof
fluegaswasteheatdryers.Bagasseisaquickburningfuelwithgoodefficiency.
3.4LIQUIDFUELSANDTHEIR
CHARACTERISTICS
Theliquidfuelscanbeclassifiedasfollows:
(a)Naturalorcrudeoil,and
(b)Artificialormanufacturedoils.

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TypesofFuelsand
theirCharacteristics
Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofliquidfuelscanbesummarizedasfollows:
Advantages
(a)Theyposseshighercalorificvalueperunitmassthansolidfuels.
(b)Theyburnwithoutdust,ash,clinkers,etc.
(c)Theirfiringiseasierandalsofirecanbeextinguishedeasilybystopping
liquidfuelsupply.
(d)Theyareeasytotransportthroughpipes.
(e)Theycanbestoredindefinitelywithoutanyloss.
(f)
Theyarecleaninuseandeconomictohandle.
(g)Lossofheatinchimneyisverylowduetogreatercleanliness.
(h)Theyrequirelessexcessairforcompletecombustion.
(i)
Theyrequirelessfurnacespaceforcombustion.
Disadvantages
(a)Thecostofliquidfuelisrelativelymuchhigherascomparedtosolidfuel.
(b)Costlyspecialstoragetanksarerequiredforstoringliquidfuels.
(c)Thereisagreaterriskoffivehazards,particularly,incaseofhighly
inflammableandvolatileliquidfuels.
(d)Theygivebadodour.
(e)Forefficientburningofliquidfuels,speciallyconstructedburnersand
sprayingapparatusarerequired.
3.4.1PetroleumanditsCharacteristics
Petroleumisabasicnaturalfuel.Itisadarkgreenishbrown,viscousmineraloil,found
deepinearthscrust.Itismainlycomposedofvarioushydrocarbons(likestraightchain
paraffins,cycloparaffinsornapthenes,olefins,andaromatics)togetherwithsmall
amountoforganiccompoundscontainingoxygennitrogenandsulphur.Theaverage
compositionofcrudepetroleumis:C=79.5to87.1%;H=11.5to14.8%;S=0.1to
3.5%,NandO=0.1to0.5%.
Petroleumsaregradedaccordingtothefollowingphsiochemicalproperties:
(a)Specificgravity,
(b)Calorificvalue,
(c)Fishpointorignitionpoint,
(d)Viscosity,
(e)Sulphurcontents,
(f)
Moistureandsedimentcontent,and
(g)Specificheatandcoefficientofexpansion.
ClassificationofPetroleum
Thechemicalnatureofcrudepetroleumvarieswiththepartoftheworldinwhich
itisfound.Theyappear,however,tobethreeprincipalverities.
ParaffinicBaseTypeCrudePetroleum
Thistypeofpetroleumismainlycomposedofthesaturatedhydrocarbons
fromCH4toC35H72andalittleofthenapthenesandaromatics.The
hydrocarbonsfromC18H38toC35H72aresometimescalledwaxes.

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AsphalitcBaseTypeCrudePetroleum
Itcontainsmainlycycloparaffinsornaptheneswithsmalleramountof
parffinsandaromatichydrocarbons.
MixedBaseTypeCrudePetroleum
Itcontainsbothparaffinicandasphaltichydrocarbonsandaregenerallyrich
insemisolidwaxes.
3.4.2ManufacturedLiquidFuelsandtheirCharacteristics
ManufacturedliquidfuelsincludeGasoline,Dieseloil,Kerosene,Heavyoil,Naptha,
Lubricatingoils,etc.Theseareobtainedmostlybyfractionaldistillationofcrude
petroleumorliquefactionofcoal.
GasolineorPetrolanditsCharacteristics
Thestraightrungasolineisobtainedeitherfromdistillationofcrudepetroleumor
bysynthesis.Itcontainssomeundesirableunsaturatedstraightchainhydrocarbons
andsulphurcompounds.Ithasboilingrangeof40120oC.
The,unsaturatedhydrocarbonsgetoxidizedandpolymerized,therebycausing
gumandsludgeformationonstoring.Ontheotherhand,sulphurcompoundslead
tocorrosionofinternalcombustionengineandatthesametimetheyadversely
affecttetraethyllead,whichisgenerallyaddedtogasolineforbetterignition
properties.
Thesulphurcompoundsfromgasolinearegenerallyremovedbytreatingitwithan
alkalinesolutionsodiumplumbite.Olefinsandcolouringmatterofgasolineare
usuallyremovedbypercolatingthroughFullersearthwhichabsorbs
preferentiallyonlythecoloursandolefine.Itisusedinaircrafts.Itisalsousedas
motorfuel,indrycleaningandasasolvent.
Someofthecharacteristicsofanidealgasolinearethefollowing:
(a)Itmustbecheapandreadilyavailable.
(b)Itmustburncleanandproducenocorrosion,etc.oncombustion.
(c)Itshouldmixreadilywithairandafforduniformmanifold
distribution,i.e.shouldeasilyvaporize.
(d)Itmustbeknockresistant.
(e)Itshouldbepreigniteeasily.
(f)Itmusthaveahighcalorificvalue.
DieselFuelanditsCharacteristics
Thedieselfuelorgasoilisobtainedbetween250320oCduringthefractional
distillationofcrudepetroleum.Thisoilgenerallycontains85%C.12%H.Its
calorificvalueisabout11,000kcal/kg.
Thesuitabilityofadieselfuelisdeterminedbyitscetanevalue.Dieselfuels
consistoflongerhydrocarbonsandhavelowvaluesofash,sediment,waterand
sulphaltcontents.
Themaincharacteristicsofadieselfuelisthatitshouldeasilyignitebelow
compressiontemperature.Thehydrocarbonmoleculesinadieselfuelshouldbe,
asfaraspossible,thestraightchainones,withaminimumadmixtureofaromatic
andsidechainhydrocarbonmolecules.
Itisusedindieselenginesasheatingoilandforcrackingtogetgasoline.
KeroseneOilanditsCharacteristics
Keroseneoilisobtainedbetween180250oCduringfractionaldistillationofcrude
petroleum.Itisusedasanilluminant,jetenginefuel,tractorfuel,andfor

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TypesofFuelsand
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preparinglaboratorygas.Withthedevelopmentofjetengine,kerosenehas
becomeamaterialoffargreaterimportancethanitisusedtobe.Whenkeroseneis
usedindomesticappliances,itisalwaysvaporizedbeforecombustion.Byusinga
fairexcessofairitburnswithasmokelessblueflame.
HeavyOilanditsCharacteristics
Itisafractionobtainedbetween320400oCduringfractionaldistillationofcrude
petroleum.Thisoilonrefractionationgives:
(a)Lubricatingoilswhichareusedaslubricants.
(b)Petroleumjelly(Vaseline)whichisusedaslubricantsinmedicines
andincosmetics.
(c)Greaseswhichareusedaslubricants.
(d)Paraffinwaxwhichisusedincandles,bootpolishes,waxpaper,
tarpolinclothandforelectricalinsulationpurposes.
3.5GASEOUSFUELSANDTHEIR
CHARACTERISTICS
Gaseousfuelsoccurinnature,besidesbeingmanufacturedfromsolidandliquidfuels.
Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofgaseousfuelsaregivenbelow:
Advantages
Gaseousfuelsduetoeraseandflexibilityoftheirapplications,possessthe
followingadvantagesoversolidorliquidfuels:
(a)Theycanbeconveyedeasilythroughpipelinestotheactualplaceof
need,therebyeliminatingmanuallabourintransportation.
(b)Theycanbelightedatease.
(c)Theyhavehighheatcontentsandhencehelpusinhavinghigher
temperatures.
(d)Theycanbepreheatedbytheheatofhotwastegases,thereby
affectingeconomyinheat.
(e)Theircombustioncanreadilybycontrolledforchangeindemandlike
oxidizingorreducingatmosphere,lengthflame,temperature,etc.
(f)Theyarecleaninuse.
(g)Theydonotrequireanyspecialburner.
(h)Theyburnwithoutanyshoot,orsmokeandashes.
(i)
Theyarefreefromimpuritiesfoundinsolidandliquidfuels.
Disadvantages
(a)Verylargestoragetanksareneeded.
(b)Theyarehighlyinflammable,sochancesoffirehazardsintheiruseishigh.
3.5.1NaturalGasanditsCharacteristics
Naturalgasisgenerallyassociatedwithpetroleumdepositsandisobtainedfromwells
dugintheoilbearingregions.Theapproximatecompositionofnaturalgasis:
CH4=70.9%,C2H6=5.10%,H2=3%,CO+CO2=22%
Thecalorificvaluevariesfrom12,000to14,000kcal/m3.Itisanexcellentdomesticfuel
andisconveyedinpipelinesoververylargedistances.InAmerica,itisavailabletoa
greatextent,andso,isquitepopularasadomesticfuel.Itisnowusedinmanufactureof
chemicalsbysyntheticprocess.

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Itisacolourlessgasandisnonpoisonous.Itsspecificgravityisusuallybetween0.57
to0.7.
3.5.2ManufacturedGasesandtheirCharacteristics
Manufacturedgasesareobtainedformsolidandliquidfuels.Someoftheimportant
manufacturedgaseousfuelswhosecharacteristicsarediscussedinthefollowingsections
arecoalgas,blastfurnacegas,watergas,producergasandoilgas.
CoalGasitsCharacteristics
Coalgasisobtainedwhenitiscarbonizedorheatedinabsenceofairatabout
1300oCineithercokeovensorgasmakingretorts.Ingasmakingretortprocess
coalisfedinclosedsilicaretorts,whicharethenheatedtoabout1300oCby
burningproducergasandairmixture.
2
1
C
O
CO29.5kcal
2
+

+
Coalgasisacolourlessgashavingacharacteristicodour.Itislighterthanair
andburnswithalongsmokyflame.Itsaveragecompositionis:H2=47%,
CH4=32%,CO=7%,C2H2=2%,C2H4=3%,N2=4%,CO2=1%and
rest=4%.Itscalorificvalueisabout4,900kcal/m3.
Itisusedas(a)illuminantincitiesandtown,(b)afuel,and(c)inmetallurgical
operationsforprovidingreducingatmosphere.
BlastFurnaceGasanditsCharacteristics
Itisabyproductfluegasobtainedduringthereductionofionorebycokeinthe
blastfurnace.Itscalorificvalueisabout1,000kcal/m3.Itcontainsabout2025%
carbonmonoxidealongwithCO2,N2,etc.About1/3ofthisgasisusedfor
preheatingairusedinblastfurnaceitself;whiletheremaining2/3rdisavailablefor
useinboilersoraftercleaningingasengines.Itisalsousedforburningina
specialtypeofstoves(calledCowpersstove)wherethefurnaceispreheated.
Thisgascontainsmuchdustandisusuallycleanedbeforeusebydustsettlers,
cyclonesorelectrolyticprecipitators.
WaterGasanditsCharacteristics
WatergasisessentiallyamixtureofcombustiblegasesCOandH2withalittle
fractionofnoncombustiblegases.Itismadebypassingalternativelysteamand
littleairthroughabedofredhotcoalorcokemaintainedatabout900to1000oC
inarector,whichconsistsofasteelvesselabout3mwideand4minheight.Itis
linedinsidewithfirebricks.Ithasacupandconefeederatthetopandanopening
atthetopfortheexitofwatergas.Atthebase,itisprovidedwithinletpipesfor
passingairandsteam.
Reactions
Suppliedsteamreactswithredhotcoke(orcoal)at9001000oCtoformCO
andH2.
C+H2OCO+H229kcal
C+O2CO2+97kcal
Composition
Theaveragecompositionofwatergasis:H2=51%;CO=41%;N2=4%;
CO2=4%.Itscalorificvalueisabout2,800kcal/m3.
Uses
Itisusedas(a)asourceofhydrogengas,(b)anilluminatinggas,and
(c)afuelgas.

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TypesofFuelsand
theirCharacteristics
ProducerGasanditsCharacteristics
Producergasisessentiallyamixtureofcombustiblegasescarbonmonoxideand
hydrogenassociatedwithnoncombustiblegasesN2,CO2,etc.Itispreparedby
passingairmixedwithlittlesteam(about0.35kg/kgofcoal)overaredhotcoalor
cokebedmaintainedatabout1100oCinaspecialreactorcalledgasproducer.It
consistsofasteelvesselabout3mindiameterand4minheight.Thevesselis
linedinsidewithfirebricks.Itisprovidedwithacupandconefeederatthetop
andasideopeningfortheexitofproducergas.Atthebaseithasaninletfor
passingairandsteam.Theproduceratthebaseisalsoprovidedwithanexitfor
theashformed.
Reactions
Thegasproductionreactionscanbedividedintofourzonesasfollows:
AshZone
Thelowestzoneconsistsofmainlyofash,andtherefore,itisknown
asashzone.
CombustionZone
Thezonenexttotheashzoneisknownasoxidationorcombustion
zone.HerethecarbonburnsandformsCOandCO2.Thetemperature
ofthiszoneisabout1100oC.Thefollowingreactionstakeplace.
C+O2CO2+94kcal
2
1
C
O
CO29.5kcal
2
+

+
ReductionZone
Herecarbondioxideandsteamcombineswithredhotcarbonand
liberatesfreehydrogenandcarbonmonoxide.Thereactionsare:
CO2+C2CO94kcal
C+H2OCO+H229kcal
C+2H2OCO2+2H219kcal
Allthesereductionreactionsareendothermic,so,thetemperaturein
thereductionzonefallsto1000oC.
DistillationZone
Inthiszone(400800oC)theincomingcoalisheatedbyoutgoing
gasesbygivingsensibleheattothecoal.Theheatgivenbythegases
andheatradiatedfromthereductionzonehelpstodistillatethefuel
therebyvolatilematterofcoalisaddedtotheoutgoinggas.
Composition
TheaveragecompositionofproducergasisCO=22.3%,H2=8.12%;
N2=52.55%;CO2=3%.Itscalorificvalueisabout1,300kcal/m3.
Uses
Itischeap,cleanandeasilypreparablegasandisused(i)forheating
openhearthfurnaces(insteelandglassmanufacture),mufflefurnaces,
retorts(usedincokeandcoalgasmanufacture),etc.and(iii)asareducing
agentinmetallurgicaloperations.
OilGasanditsCharacteristics
Oilgasisobtainedbycrackingkeroseneoil.Oilinathinsteamisallowedtofall
onastoutredhotcastironretort,whichisheatedincoalfiredfurnace.The

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AppliedThermal
Engineering
resultinggaseousmixturepassesoutthroughabonetcovertoahydraulicmain,a
tankcontainingwater.Heretargetscondensed.Thenatthetestingcap,theproper
crackingofoilisestimatedfromthecolourofthegasproduced.Agoodoilgas
shouldhaveagoldencolour.Byproperadjustingthesupplyofair,gasofrequired
colourcanbeobtained.Thegasisfinallystoredoverwateringasholders.
Composition
Theaveragecompositionofoilgasis:CH4=25.30%;H2=5055%;
CO=10.12%;CO2=3%.Itscalorificvalueisabout6,600kcal/m3.
Uses
Itisusedaslaboratorygas.
SAQ1
(a)Whatisthedifferencebetweennaturalandmanufacturedfuels?
(b)Whatarethemeritsanddemeritsofsolidfuels?
(c)Whatarethemainconstituentsofwood?
(d)Whatisthedifferencebetweenultimateanalysisandproximateanalysisof
coal?
(e)Mentiontheusesofdifferenttypesofcoal.
(f)
Whatarethecharacteristicsofcokeandbriquettefuels?
(g)Mentionthecompositionofcrudepetroleum.
(h)Mentiontheusesofdifferenttypesofmanufacturedliquidfuels.
(i)
Mentiontheoriginandcompositionofnaturalgas.
(j)
Mentionthecharacteristicsofthefollowinggaseousfuels:
(i)Coalgas,
(ii)Watergas,
(iii)Producergas,and
(iv)Blastfurnacegas.
3.6SUMMARY
Letussummarisewhatwehavelearntinthisunit.Inthisunit,wehavediscussedin
detailthetypesoffuelsandtheircharacteristics.
Thefuelisasubstancewhichwhenonceraisedtoitsignitiontemperaturecontinuesto
burnifsufficientoxygenorairisavailable.Themainconstituentsofanyfuelarecarbon
andhydrogen.Theseconstituentsarecalledcombustibles.Thecalorificvalueofafuelis
amountofheatliberatedbyitscompletecombustion.Forsolidandliquidfuels,calorific
valueisexpressedinkJ/kg,whereasforgaseousfuelsitisexpressedaskJ/m3.Wehave
learntvarioustypesoffuelsandtheircharacteristics.

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TypesofFuelsand
theirCharacteristics

3.7KEYWORDS
Fuel
:Afuelisasubstancewhichwhenonceraisedto
itsignitiontemperaturecontinuestoburnif
sufficientoxygenorairisavailable.
CalorificValueofFuel
:Thecalorificvalueofafuelisamountofheat
liberatedbyitscompletecombustion.
Bagasse
:Theresidueofsugarcaneiscalledabagasse.
3.8ANSWERTOSAQs
RefertheprecedingtextforalltheAnswerstoSAQs