1.

The Audio-lingual Method

Background Also known as army method. It was necessary to set up a special language
training program in order to supply the US government with personnel who were fluent in
foreign languages. The objective was only to attain conversational proficiency.
Approach
Theory of language: Language is a system of structurally related elements for the
encoding meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and
sentence types. Speech is language.
Theory of learning: Language mastery is represented as acquiring a set of appropriate
language stimulus-response chains. Foreign language learning is a process of mechanical
habit formation. Language skills are learned more effectively if the items to be learned
are presented in spoken form before they are seen in written form. Analogy provides a
better foundation for language learning than analysis. The meaning that the words of a
language have for the native speaker can be learned only in a linguistic and cultural
context and not in isolation.
Design
objectives short-range include training in listening comprehension, accurate
pronunciation, recognition of speech symbols as graphic signs on a printed page and the
ability to use these symbols in writing, and long-range must be language as the native
speaker uses it.
syllabus .Audiolingualism is a linguistic or structure-based approach to language
teaching. The starting point is linguistic syllabus which contains the key items of
phonology, morphology, and syntax of the language arranged according to their order of
presentation.
types of learning and teaching activities dialogues (used for repetition and
memorization) and after these dialogues are presented and memorized, specific
grammatical patterns are selected and become the focus of certain a drills such as:
repetition, inflection, replacement, restatement, completion, transposition, expansion,
contraction, transformation, integration, rejoinder, restoration
learners role they play reactive role by responding to stimuli and thus have a little
control over the content, pace or style of learning. Theyre not encouraged to initiate
interaction because this may lead to mistakes.
teachers role central and active, teacher models the target language, controls the
direction and pace of learning, corrects the learners performance.
materials teacher-oriented; tape recorders and audiovisual equipment; language
laboratory may be considered essential
Procedure The process of teaching includes extensive oral instruction. The focus of instruction
is on immediate and accurate speech, there is little provision for grammatical explanation or
talking about the language.
Although this method has been discredited scientifically, it is still sometimes used by teachers.

2. Total Physical Response (TPR)

Background language teaching method built around the coordination of speech and action,
attempts to teach language through physical (motor) activity, developed by James Asher

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Approach
Theory of language: TPR reflects a grammar-based view of language. Asher views the
verb, and particularly the verb in the imperative, as the central linguistic motif around
which language use and learning are organized.
Theory of learning: Three learning hypothesis:
There exists a specific innate bio-program for language learning, which defines an
optimal path for first and second language development.
Brain lateralization defines different learning functions in the left- and right-brain
hemisphere. Asher sees TPR as directed to right-brain learning, whereas most SL
teaching methods are directed to left-brain learning.
Stress intervenes between the act of learning and what is to be learned; the lower the
stress, the greater the learning.
Design
objectives to teach oral proficiency at a beginning level, to teach basic speaking skills
syllabus sentence-based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria
types of learning and teaching activities imperative drills, conversational dialogues and
role play
learners role listener and performer, they listen and respond physically to commands
given by the teacher. Theyre encouraged to speak when they feel ready to speak.
teachers role active and direct, decides everything
materials For beginners theres no use of materials. Materials play an increasing role in
later learning stages. The teacher may use common classroom objects (book, pens, cups).
As the course develop materials may include pictures, realia, slides, word charts.
Procedure TPR represents a useful set of techniques and is compatible with other approaches
to teaching.

3. The Silent Way

Background developed by Caleb Gattegno; the teacher should be silent as much as possible in
the classroom but the learner should be encouraged to produce as much language as possible.
Learning is facilitated (olakano): if the learner discovers or creates rather than remembers and
repeats what is to be learned; by accompanying physical objects; by problem solving involving
the material to be learned.
Approach
Theory of language structural approach
Theory of learning vocabulary is a central dimension of language learning and the
choice of vocabulary is crucial. Awareness is educable. As one learns in awareness,
ones capacity to learn becomes greater
Design
objectives to give beginning-level students oral and aural facility in basic elements of
the target language. An immediate objective is to provide the learner with a basic
practical knowledge of the grammar
syllabus structural syllabus with lessons planned around grammatical items and related
vocabulary

2
 types of learning and teaching activities Silent way has the function to encourage
student oral response without direct oral instruction from the teacher. Charts,rods and
other aids may be used to elicit responses.
learners role they are expected to develop independence, autonomy and responsibility,
to work cooperatively rather than competitively, to come to their own conclusions
teachers role silent teacher is the most demanding role of Silent Way. By teaching is
meant presenting the item once, and than using gestures, charts in order to elicit student
responses
materials set of colored rods, color-coded pronunciations and vocabulary wall charts, a
pointer and reading/writing exercises, all of which are used to illustrate the relationship
between sound and meaning in the target language
Procedure The Silent Way is characterized by its focus on discovery creativity, problem
solving and the use of accompanying materials.

4. Community Language Learning (CLL)

Background developed by Charles A. Curran and his associates. It is the use of Counseling-
Learning theory to teach languages. Counseling is one person giving advice, assistance and
support to another. A message/lesson/class is presented first in native language and then again in
the second language. Teacher is the counselor and learners the clients in the language classroom
Approach
Theory of language (as elaborated by La Forge) language is people, language is persons
in contact, language is person in response
Theory of learning View of learning is holistic since true human learning is both
cognitive and affective, this is termed as whole-person learning. The process of learning
is a new language, then is like being reborn and developing a new persona, with all the
trials and challenges that are associated with birth and maturation.
Design
objectives not defined
syllabus no conventional language syllabus, topic-based with learners nominating
things they wish to talk about.
types of learning and teaching activities translation, group work, recording,
transcription, analysis, reflection and observation, listening, free conversation
learners role learners become members of a community-their fellow learners and the
teacher-and learn through interacting with the community. Learning is not viewed as an
individual accomplishment but as sth that is achieved collaboratively. Learners are
typically grouped in a circle of six to twelve learners
teachers role to respond calmly and no judgmentally, and help to understand problems
materials textbooks are not necessary; summaries on the blackboard or projectors
Procedure each course is a unique experience.

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 5. Suggestopedia

Background developed by Georgi Lozanov; characteristics are decoration, furniture, and

arrangement of the classroom, the use of music and the authoritative behavior of the teacher
Approach
Theory of language View of language in which lexis is central and stressed (lexical
translation rather than contextualization), the emphasis is on memorization of vocabulary
pairs
Theory of learning suggestion; six principal components: authority, infantilization
(parent to child relation), double-planedness (learner learn from direct instruction and
from environment), intonation, rhythm and concert pseudo-passiveness. The musical
background helps to induce a relaxed attitude.
Design
objectives to deliver advanced conversational proficiency quickly
syllabus course lasts 30 days and consists of ten units of study; classes are held 4 hours
a day, 6 days a week. The central focus of each unit is a dialogue consisting of 1200
words or so.
types of learning and teaching activities Primary elaboration of the text consists
of:imitation, question and answer, and role play
learners role mental state is critical to success, they must maintain a pseudo-passive
state. They are expected to tolerate and encourage their own infatilization
teachers role authority of the teacher, teacher must create situations and show absolute
confidence in the method
materials direct support materials (text and tape) and indirect support materials
(classroom fixtures and music)
Language problems should be introduced in a way that does not distract students from the
content.
Procedure

6. Multiple Intelligences (MI)

Background developed by Howard Gardner; human intelligence has multiple dimensions that
must be developed in education; intelligence is culture-free. Gardner posits 8 native
intelligences: linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal,
intrapersonal and naturalist; learning goes beyond traditional books, pens and pencils
Approach
Theory of language language is held to be integrated with music, bodily activity, and
interpersonal relationships and so on. Language encompasses all aspects of
communication
Theory of learning there are aspects of language such as rhythm, tone, volume that are
more closely linked to the theory of music than to a theory of linguistics. Language has
its ties to life through the senses. The senses provide the context for the linguistic
message that give it meaning and purpose.
Design
objectives no goals

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 syllabus no syllabus as such. There is a basic developmental sequence that has been
proposed as an alternative to syllabus, it consists of four stages: 1. awaken the
intelligence (through multisensory experiences), 2. amplify the intelligence (describing
objects and events of their own choosing), 3. teach with/for the intelligence (small-group
projects and discussion), 4. transfer to the intelligence (students relate issues to real life).
There are 5 types of projects: multiple intelligence, curriculum-based, thematic-based,
resource-based, student-choice
types of learning and teaching activities play to strength, variety is the spice, pick a tool
to suit the job, all sizes fit one, me and my people
learners role process of personality development of the whole person above that of
being successful language learners
teachers role not just teacher, but they have role to help developing learners
intelligence. They are encouraged not to think of themselves merely as language teachers.
materials - all
Procedure

7. Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP)

Background developed by John Grindler and Richard Bandler in the mid 1970s as an
alternative form of therapy; set of general communication techniques; it is not a language
teaching method
Approach
Theory of language In NLP neuro refers to beliefs about brain and how it functions),
linguistic to theory of communication, programming to observable patterns of thought
and behavior . NLP practioners claim to be able to deprogram and program clients
behaviors with a precision close to computer.
Theory of learning modeling is also central to NLP views on learning (you can model
skills, values, beliefs..)
Design
objectives There are 4 key principles: 1.outcomes (goals or ends) NLP claims that
knowing what you want helps you achieve it, 2. Rapport essential for effective
communication (maximizing similarities and minimizing differences between people and
a nonconscious level, 3. sensory acuity noticing what another person is communicating,
consciously and nonverbally, 4. Flexibility having a range of skills to do sth else or sth
different
syllabus - no
types of learning and teaching activities - no
learners role expected to find successful models; if you want to be an excellent
teacher, model excellent teacher
teachers role expected to model their teaching on expert teachers they most admire
materials
Procedure NLP principles can be applied to the teaching of all aspect of language

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 8. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Background origins are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition
dating from the late 1960s, the work of Council of Europe; it can be interpret in different ways;
notion of direct rather than delayed practice of communicative acts is central to most CLT
interpretations; language should be studied in the broader socio-cultural context of its use.
Approach
Theory of language a theory of language as communication; language is a system for
the expression of meaning; the primary role of language is to allow interaction and
communication; the structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses;
the primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but
categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse.
Theory of learning activities that involve real communication promote learning;
activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning;
language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process
Design
objectives levels: 1. integrative and content (language as a means of expression); 2.
linguistic and instrumental (lang. as an object of learning); 3. affective level of
interpersonal relationships and conduct(lang. as a means of expressing values and
judgments about oneself or others); 4. individual learning needs (remedial learning based
on error analysis); 5. general educational level of extra-linguistic goals (language learning
within the school curriculum)
syllabus discussion of the nature of syllabus have been central in CLT
types of learning and teaching activities range of exercise types and activities is
unlimited. Two major activity types in CLT are: 1. functional communication activities
include tasks such as comparing set of pictures, finding similarities and differences and 2.
social interaction activities(conversation, discussion, dialogues, role-plays, skits, debates)
learners role interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher
teachers role facilitate communication between all participants; act as an independent
participant; researcher and learner; needs analyst, counselor, group process manager
materials primary role of promoting communicative language use; text-based, task-
based and realia
Procedure

9. Cooperative Language Learning (CLL)

Background approach to teaching that makes maximum use of cooperative activities involving
pairs and small groups of learners in the classroom; developed by John Dewey; it is learner-
centered approach to teaching
Approach
Theory of language interactive/cooperative nature of language and language learning
Theory of learning central role of social interaction in learning. CLL also seeks to
develop learners critical thinking skills as central to learning. It seeks to develop
classrooms that foster cooperation rather than competition in learning

6
Design
objectives to foster cooperation rather than competition, to develop critical thinking
skills, to develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction
activities
syllabus no since activities can be taught via cooperative learning
types of learning and teaching activities 3 types of cooperative learning groups: formal
cooperative learning group (last from one class period to several weeks. Students work
together to achieve shared learning goals), informal cooperative learning group(last from
a few minutes to a class period, used to focus student attention), cooperative base
group(long term, last or at least a year; consist of heterogeneous learning groups,
purpose-to allow members to give each other support, help, encouragement they need to
succeed academically); key elements of successful group-based learning: positive
interdependence, group formation, individual accountability, social skills, structuring and
structures
learners role member of a group, must work collaboratively on tasks with other group
members, learners have to learn teamwork skills
teachers role must create well-organized learning environment, sets goals, plan and
structure tasks..; teacher is facilitator of learning; speaks less than in teacher-fronted
classes
materials important part in creating opportunities for students to work cooperatively
Procedure

10. Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

Background refers to an approach to second language teaching in which teaching is organized

around the content or information that students will acquire, rather than around a linguistic or
other type of syllabus
Approach CBI is grounded on the following two central principles: 1. People learn a second
language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring information,
rather than as an end in itself. 2. CBI better reflects learners needs for learning second language.
Theory of language Language is text- and discourse-based; language use draws on
integrated skills; language is purposeful
Theory of learning People learn a second language more successfully when they use the
language as a means of acquiring information, rather than as an end in itself. People learn
a second language most successfully when the information they are acquiring is
perceived as interesting, useful, and leading to desired goal. Some content areas are more
useful as a basis for language learning than others. Students learn best when instruction
addresses students needs. Teaching builds on the previous experience of the learners.
Design
objectives objectives of the content course. However in theme-based CBI objectives
drive the selection of theme topics. Single-skill objectives are also possible
syllabus derived from the content area; macro- and micro-structuring of the yearlong
syllabus

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 types of learning and teaching activities language skills improvement, vocabulary
building, discourse organization, communicative interaction, study skills, synthesis of
content materials and grammar
learners role to become autonomous so that they can understand their own learning
process
teachers role not a typical role of language teacher. Instructors must be more than just
good language teachers. They must be knowledgeable in the subject matter and able to
elicit that knowledge from their students.
materials used typically with the subject matter of the content course (tourist
guidebooks, technical journalist, railway timetables, newspaper ads, radio and TV
broadcasts )
Procedure the principles of CBI can be applied to the design of courses for learners at any
level of language learning

11. Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)

Background refers to an approach based on the use of tasks as the core unit of planning and
instruction in language teaching
Approach
Theory of language language is primarily a means of making meaning; multiple models
of language inform TBI; lexical units are central in language use and language learning;
conversation is the central focus of language and the keystone of language acquisition
Theory of learning tasks provide both the input and output processing necessary for
language acquisition; task activity and achievement are motivational; learning difficulty
can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular pedagogical purposes
Design
objectives the ability to communicate accurately and effectively in the most common
English-language
syllabus - task-based communicative syllabus specify 2 types of tasks: real world tasks
and pedagogical tasks
types of learning and teaching activities listing, ordering and sorting, comparing,
problem solving, sharing personal experience, creative tasks; jigsaw tasks, information-
gap task, decision-making tasks, opinion exchange
learners role group participant, monitor, risk-taker and innovator
teachers role selector and sequencer of tasks, preparing learners for tasks,
consciousness-raising
materials pedagogic materials, realia which includes newspapers, TV, internet
Procedure pre-task activities, task activity, post-task activities

1. What is glotodidaktika?

Glotodidaktika is a theory of teaching foreign language that deals with general principles and
contents that can be applied to the teaching of any language. Any organized form of education
must be based on certain theoretical principles which are imposed by social needs, as well as by

8
the nature of the subject and teaching content. Foreign language teaching is by its very nature
closely related to linguistics and linguistic researches. That is why many experts, primarily
linguists, classify foreign language teaching theory among the areas of applied linguistics.
Foreign language teaching uses research results not only from the field of linguistics, but also
from the fields of psychology, sociology and pedagogy. By its nature foreign language teaching
is also interdisciplinary teaching.
Foreign language teaching problems are different from others problems in teaching and because
of that require a different approach to the teaching practice, as well as in scientific researches.
Foreign language teaching theory is as an independent discipline for the first time mentioned in
our professional literature in 1972, and it is called didaktolingvistika or lingvodidaktika. It
examines the individual factors that affect the rate and the extent of acquiring of language with
systematic training. Primary goal of such researches is improving foreign language teaching. One
of the tasks of glotodidaktika is providing sufficient theoretical knowledge to prospective
teachers, which will enable them to choose the most appropriate method and procedures, in
accordance with the goals they want to achieve and the conditions in which they work.

2. What are the main differences between L1, L2 and FL?

Acquiring of mother tongue is closely related to the cognitive development of the child and it is a
consequence of his need to adapt and to establish contact with the environment that surrounds
him. This acquiring is called primary acquiring of language.
There are two types of not primary acquiring of language:
1. acquiring of second language in natural environment among native speakers of the
language with speech interaction in real-life situations,
2. foreign language teaching, where language is being acquired in formal institutions (for
ex. schools) in the environment where that language is not used as a medium of
communication.
Lennebergs theory about critical period refers to primary language acquisition (first few years of
life). Considering not primary language acquisition, Lamendella suggests term sensitive period
(before the age of puberty), in which, in favorable conditions, language is acquired easier and
native-like fluency is achieved.
L1 learning is a continuous process parallel to the psychophysical development of a child. A man
finds out something new about his language during his whole life, he increases his vocabulary,
changes his way or style of expressing, but still the basic skill of using mother tongue he learns
in his early childhood.
Process of second language acquisition can, but doesnt have to be a continuous and circled
process. Mostly it depends on the students age and motivation. Analysis of students spoken
production shows the degree of language acquisition.
Foreign language learning results just partly depend on the student. They depend on the whole
line of factors like conditions in which foreign language is acquired, teaching material, teaching
curriculum, the teacher, etc., on which the student can not influence.
The differences between mother tongue, second language and foreign language relate to
1. linguistic input
2. need for communication
3. feedback or errors correction
4. conscious learning or subconscious acquiring of language

9
 5. type of motivation.

When we talk about the first and the second language learning in natural surrounding, the
language input is practically unlimited. On the other hand, the student of foreign language is
exposed to that language in unlimited scope, and mostly to the controlled input.
Our need for communication is the basic reason why we develop L1, but also L2 in natural
surroundings. But in foreign language learning theres no need for communication in that
language.
Every language learning in the students speech is marked with errors. When it comes to the L1
learning, we talk about developing errors which are the consequences of the childs wrong
assumption about the language system he learns. It is similar with L2 learning. In foreign
language learning, if the errors are corrected rightly, it contributes to the rationalization of
teaching and language learning.
We can say that L1 is subconsciously learnt, L2 is partly adopted and partly learnt, and foreign
language is consciously learnt.
One of the main factors that influence on L2 learning is motivation. So the students attitude
towards the members of one language group is an essential factor for his progress in L2 learning.
The students who are integratively motivated to learn the second language and have a desire to
identify with another language community will acquire second language faster than those with
instrumental motivation (they learn second language because of promotion at work, etc.)
Considering motivation for foreign language learning, very important role also has teacher, as
well as teaching materials, methods that are applied , etc.

3. What are the internal factors that influence FL learning?

Foreign language is language that is being acquired in formal institutions (for ex. schools) in the
environment where that language is not used as a medium of communication.
Foreign language learning is a complex process which depends on the whole line of factors that
mutually influence the learning results.
One of these factors is students age. It is known that in natural conditions children learn
language easier and faster than adult students. Considering linguistic adaptation, children adapt
easier to a new environment than their parents. This phenomenon can be explained by the
interaction of biological factors (sensitive period) and psychological factors (integrative
motivation).
Also, studies have shown that younger students have certain advantages in mastering a foreign
language over adult learners. On the other hand, because of greater intellectual capabilities, adult
learners, if they are motivated enough, learn the language faster and easier.
Other individual characteristics that affect foreign language teaching outcomes are:
Phonetic coding: the students feature to recognize foreign sounds or words and expressions in
the process of hearing, to store them in the memory and to remember them in every situation.
Grammatical sensitivity: the capability of understanding grammatical functions of different
language elements and rules. This may depend on the extent of formal grammar education in
MT.
Inductive learning: capability of creating conclusions about the usage of words and structures
based on the examples of their application.

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Mechanical memory: the capability to memorize a lot of associations quickly.
Motivation: one of the most important factors. Motivation to learn a foreign language is
different from motivation to learn a second language. Students attitude towards the country and
the people he learns about is very important; his attitude towards his teacher, teaching material,
and in the end self-elevation.
For every learning, foreign language learning too, it is very important the way you learn. So
students who learn continuously have better results than those who learn periodically.

4. What are the external factors that influence FL learning?

Factors that influence FL learning but dont depend on students are:

The number and the composition of students in a group: for foreign language learning it is
very important that a group doesnt contain more than 20 students and that it is composed of
students with the same degree of knowledge
The number of foreign language classes: the bigger number of foreign language classes and
frequency of classes can contribute to achieving better results.
Teaching material should be adapted to the students age and interests; it should ensure
language progression and develop all language skills.
Foreign language learning outside the classroom: media and communication with native
speakers can speed up the process of FL learning if the student is motivated enough.
Teachers role is also very important. Factors that influence the achievement of better results in
learning are: level of foreign language knowledge, attitude toward the foreign language and
people, work attitude, attitude toward students, skills in the use of teaching techniques,
objectivity in the evaluation of knowledge, error correction mode.

5. Define listening comprehension

Receptive skill understanding speech (listening) precedes the development of productive skill,
i.e. the development of speech. The capability of correct listening and understanding the speech
is as important as spoken expression. Listening is an active process which includes the
perception of voice signals and decoding a spoken message. For a listener, the most important
thing is to recognize the subject matter of the spoken act. To understand the spoken message
correctly, one should:
- Know the language system (morphology, syntax, vocabulary, etc.)
- Know the subject matter (sport, economy, law, etc.)
- Speakers and listeners shared experience about the world around them
- Be familiar with the speaker and his attitudes, beliefs, interests, etc.)
- Know the circumstances in which the message is spoken.
According to the American psycholinguist Miller, the process of decoding spoken signals can be
divided into six parts: - a listener, who hears the spoken signals,- phonological interpretation of
the spoken signals,- listener should accept the spoken signals as language structures, - semantic
interpretation,- comprehension of the spoken message, - the valuation of the spoken message
as something important.
The capability of the comprehension of the spoken message in foreign language is often built on
the experience gained in NL. The result is often a misinterpretation of voice input.

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The process of listening comprehension is an active process and considering FL it can be divided
into skills like: distinction of phonemes that carry the meaning, notice of accent and intonation,
guessing the words meaning based on context, recognizing the grammatical structures, notice of
key words, foreseeing on the basis of given situation, differentiation of literal and implicit
meaning, etc.
Before listening to the text, the students should be warned to pay attention to something
important in the text. The first listening, whose goal is to understand the basic thoughts and
messages, is called the global listening, and the second intensive listening, whose goal is to
notice the lexical and syntactical details in the text.

6. Teaching reading

The development of phonetics at the beginning of the century established the sequence of
language skills- listening mandatory precedes speech, speech reading, and reading precedes
writing.
When we talk about written language in foreign language teaching, there are two types of text.
One type is used in the lower level of FL teaching. Mostly, these texts are simplified and
adaptable to the students language knowledge. With these texts, mechanical reading skills are
improved. Their purpose is to hand down information about the language.
The second type of texts used in FL teaching is for communication and these texts are authentic
or simultaneous authentic.
According to Goodman, reading is a psycholinguistic process in which a reader reconstructs a
message encoded by the writer in the graphical shape, and he names it psycholinguistic guessing
game.
When reading, the reader simultaneously relies on three types of data from text: graphic and
phonological system, syntactic indicators and semantic data.
At the beginning of FL learning, loud reading is usually used, and it can be group or individual
loud reading. Some methodologists recommend look and say method for reading beginners.
Vilga Rivers, famous American FL teaching expert, differentiates six degrees in teaching
reading: 1.on the first degree, the texts are usually dialogues, 2. texts written in simple and
informal language, attention paid to the text meaning, 3. students meet the style of written text
and complex structures, 4.a) intensive reading: connected to grammar and vocabulary, b) reading
for fun, 5. reading with the purpose of developing students imagination and critical way of
thinking, 6. students are prepared to read whatever they want to read. When we talk about
reading in FL teaching, we should differentiate the first reading, reading text of familiar
contents, from quiet reading used in more advanced FL teaching levels.
Students should be familiar with the contents of the written text in order to activate their
guessing capabilities. One of the most common forms of written text exercises is filling the
missing words. These exercises are known as cloze test, where the missing words are usually
verbs, articles, prepositions, etc.

7. Teaching speaking

The capability of right choice what to say to a listener in certain circumstances is called
communicative competence. The main goal in every FL teaching is to prepare students for
communication. Successful communication depends on the speakers wish to say something, the

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reason why he wants to say that, and on the language knowledge which helps the speaker to
choose correct language information to achieve the communication goal. At the same time, the
listener should be interested in what the speaker wants to say and possess certain language
knowledge. Spoken activities in the class are different from natural communication because they
are controlled by the teacher. In FL teaching, there are two types of spoken activities in the class,
a) spoken activities with the purpose of exercising language phenomena
b) spoken activities where the main purpose is communication
These both types are necessary for FL learning and they are present in almost every class.
Neglecting one or the other type could negatively influence the students progress.
If the spoken activities arent prepared the way they should be, then the students use avoidance
strategy.
When one is prepared for communication in foreign language, it means that one knows
phonological language components: pronunciation, rhythm, intonation.
Pronunciation exercises are most successful when there is some kind of speaking model. It is
very important that the speaking model is clear enough and that the students understand the text
clearly.
Dialogue is used when students no longer need the speaking model.
The purpose of dialogue is learning grammatical structures and practice of communication
functions.
There are also spoken exercises called role play, where the students are given imaginary roles
to improvise communication situations. Role play as spoken exercise is usually played with
more advanced students who can successfully speak foreign language.

8. Teaching writing

The main purpose of written exercises in foreign language is developing clear, fluent and precise
written expression. This can be achieved by gradual mastering a number of skills: knowledge of
the graphics system of a foreign language, knowledge of orthographic legality, punctuation, etc.
Written exercises are mostly connected to other language skills such as listening, speech, and
reading. The simplest form of written exercise is copying, where students copy words from the
blackboard or books, adapting new graphical symbols.
These exercises can be organized in a way that students bring in some changes in the text they
copy. One of the oldest written exercise forms is dictation. Thats written exercise when
students listened text turn into written form. It has some advantages in front of other exercises
because while writing dictation, all students are active at the same time; they also listen carefully
what the teacher says, and it can be corrected soon after writing. Dicto-comp is a combination
of dictation and written test where the teacher reads a text two or three times without a pause and
then students write down what they remembered. Grammatical and lexical written exercises are
usually based on substitution, supplementing the text, transformation or synthesis.
The most common form of written communication in everyday life is letter. Writing letters in
foreign language is used in all levels of FL teaching.
Written compositions are also used in FL teaching. Students can also write them when they are
given a drawing, a painting or a comic strip.
Writing more complex compositions is used at the more advanced FL teaching levels, when the
students are capable of expressing their own thoughts in foreign language. Students also do
written exercises outside the classroom, as homework, without the teachers control and help,

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and their main purpose is that students understand the subject matter explained and exercised in
the classroom
9. Teaching grammar

For foreign language teaching, it is very important to distinguish between: grammar as science
about a language which describes the lang. system of the certain language, and grammar as a
component of language mechanism, essential for language existence.
One can not learn foreign language without systematic learning of grammar and well-organized
grammar exercises. In our country most programs of foreign language teaching provides
grammatical progression as the main backbone of the teaching content of textbooks and teaching
materials. Lately there is a tendency to make the foreign language programs communication-
oriented.
A teacher can choose the way he wants to explain grammar, depending on students age and FL
learning level. At the beginning, inductive access to grammar is used, when everything is
explained in mother tongue because it is more useful. At the more advanced levels, teachers
usually use deductive access, where students are introduced to a new structure and then they
exercise its use in suitable language context.
Except grammar explanation, grammar exercises are very important components in FL teaching.
The most common form of exercise in FL teaching is questions and answers. Their purpose is to
encourage a student to use specific grammatical structures while answering.
Translation, as grammar exercise, can also help students to understand structures and their
functions, because it shows similarities and differences between the language they speak and the
language they learn. There are also spotting and recognition exercises, substitution,
transformation.

10. Error correction

Errors that students make are visible in language production, which can be written or spoken,
and they are available to observe and analyze. During 1970s, some researches in
psycholinguistics were made. They showed that there were developing errors, when a child,
while adapting a mother tongue, created hypotheses or assumptions about that language on the
basis of available input.
Sellnker differentiates three basic error types made by students, while learning foreign language:
a) errors caused by the mother tongue interference
b) errors that can be result of not knowing the rules inside a foreign language
c) errors caused by the teaching methods and teaching materials
Corder mentions lapses that are caused by misalignment of competence and performance. It is
important to enable the student to self correct. If he cannot do this, the teacher has to correct him,
using further explanations if necessary. Correcting errors in speech can be immediate or delayed
(when the student uses the somewhat longer monologue, dialogue, etc.).
For teachers errors have diagnostic function because they show them students progress in
foreign language learning.
Errors help students to identify the system of language they acquire, to form and change their
assumptions about the language they acquire.

11.EVALUATION AND GRADING OF YOUR STUDENTS WORK

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The purpose of evaluation is to define success of students and success of teaching. Evaluation
gives teacher information about his work, whether he was successful or not, and it is also
motivation for students.
Tests of objective type were used for evaluation in students work.
The acquisition of phonological, morphological, lexical and syntactical units was tested
separately. The tasks in the tests of objective type had offered a few answers, but one of them
was correct. The good thing about these tests was that they were easy and fast to correct. But the
preparation of these tests took a long time.The main criticism for these tests was that they
checked the language acquisition in small segments and communication skills couldnt be
checked. American linguist Oller concerned himself with the problems of testing. He mentions
dictation, although according to some linguists it is not good way of evaluation. He mentions
also another types of tests: doze-test, speech intervju, free written assignment and
translation.
In schools teachers evaluate their students individiually, in order to check their work and success
and to mark them.
Tests and other types of evaluation are often used in schools in order to stare or punish students.
In these cases evaluation loses its pedagogical worth and affects the FL learning negatively. We
know that FL teaching is based on communication between teacher and students. In this way
teacher can meet students, evaluate their work. He can take notes about his students. Is is
important to say that evaluation and grading are demanding job for teacher.
FL testing can be oral and written. The combination of these two gives more objective results.
Teacher has to be objective when he evaluates and grades the knowledge of his students.

12. TEACHING MATERIALS

Teaching materials can have very big and important role, if they are properly used.
Visual teaching materials have been used for a long time. They include drawings, pictures,
photos, films.
It is known that motivation is one of the most important factors in FL learning. Students are
motivated, if teaching is interesting and attractive. Visual materials can strongly affect
motivation, especially when we talk about younger students /learners. In the FL teaching visual
materials have two main functions:
1. They are used for explaining of unknown words
2. They are used as a motive for conversation and communication

It is important that pictures are clear, so that students understand the meaning.
When visual teaching materials are used as motive for communication, their possibilities are
boundless.
Drawing , which teacher puts on blackboard, can be good beginning of talk.
Pictures can be very useful in the FL teaching. They can show things, actions, situations.
Students can talk about things or situations that are shown on the picture. They can even write
about it, describe it. They can have dialogue and discuss the things that are shown. They can
write a whole story about that picture.
Graphoscope can also be used in FL teaching.
When teacher works with beginners, cards with words can be very useful. They are good for
practicing and learning vocabulary.
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Magnetophon or CD-player are also very useful teaching materials, because students can listen
to native speech.
They are good for practicing and correction of speech, understanding by listening...
Television can be useful for the FL teaching/learning. Students can also in this way listen to
native speech.
Computers the same

13. MOTHER TONGUE IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM

There are many different attitudes towards the usage of mother tongue in the FL classroom. For
example, at many Fl courses, that are held in the land, where FL is spoken. Mother tongue is not
used, because teachers and students do not have a common language. That is why that teachers
use methods, which exclude mother tongue in Fl classroom.
On the other side teachers who teach Fl in schools, in which they and their students have a
common language know that the usage of mother tongue in FL teaching can be useful, because in
that way students understand better new structures in the FL teaching.
It is well-known that mother tongue can affect FL learning. Students can use some grammatical
structures from their mother tongue; although those structures do not exist in the FL they learn.
That is INTERFERENCE. It is also called NEGATIVE LANGUAGE TRANSFER: there is also
POSITIVE NEGATIVE TRANSFER. There is also POSITIVE NEGATIVE TRANSFER. It
occurs when there are some similarities between mother tongue and FL. It can be used for better
FL acquisition.
When we talk about usage of mother tongue in FL classroom, it is important to notice that there
are two types of situation:
1. when students use it
2. when teachers uses it

Students use mother tongue spontaneously or when they want to understand some unknown
words or expressions. In that case they use a word or the same meaning. In that way teachers
sees if they understand it well. Mother tongue is also used for translation, vocabulary exercises.
If student uses some words or phrases in wrong context, teacher can ask him to explain in mother
tongue.

Teacher uses mother tongue on cover levels of FL teaching with younger students, but only for
brief explanation of lesson , which they are about to learn. Mother tongue is also used for
explanation of grammar structures or abstract expressions and idiomatic structures, in order that
students understand it better. If students repeat the same mistake, it is good to explain it then in
their mother language, so that they understand it.
Mother tongue should not be used in everyday communication between teacher and students in
FL classroom. In this case it is about a few phrases that can be learnt very well, so that the usage
of tongue is not necessary.

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